Sacred places, North America : 108 destinations

"An interesting book for both the armchair and the adventurous traveler, this (book) is recommended*

— Library Journal

w

Sacred Places

north America

108 destinatio

Second Edition

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Reviews from Sacred Places North America

"An interesting book for both the armchair and the adventurous traveler, this (book) is recommended." —Library Journal

"The book is filled with fascinating archeological, geological, and historical material. These 108 sacred places in the United States, Canada, and Hawaii offer ample opportunity for questing by spiri- tual seekers. " —Spirituality Et Health

"A revealing, useful, and enthusiastically recommended guide for the vacationer seeking to fulfill their spiritual as well as their rec- reational yearnings." —Midwest Book Review

"World traveler Brad Olsen has compiled a book that documents 108 destination spots for 'feeling the energy' of our spiritual his- torical roots. Pilgrimage is one way we can find ourselves and this book will provide a guide." —Twin Cities Wellness

"The book's chapters correspond to ten regional sections of the U.S. and Canada, which are further subdivided into specific U.S. States and Canadian provinces. No less than 38 of the 50 United States are revealed to contain sacred sites — some of which are very public and easy to access, such as the House of David in Michigan, and some of which are more obscure, like Shiprock, 'the stand-alone neck of an ancient volcano core' in New Mexico. But never fear: Olsen provides lucid and detailed directions, as well as tantalizing and historically well-informed essay-portraits, for each destination. The book is also peppered with excellent maps, illus- trations, and photos. " —Fearless Books

"For travelers who prefer destinations with spirit ... juxtaposing local folklore and Native American legend with scientific theories to provide context. " —Orlando Sentinel

"It's an odd lot, the places that have a way of touching your heart: mountains and homesteads, caves and monasteries, lakes and path- ways. Author Brad Olsen has recognized that variety in this bringing together of 108 places that stir the soul. Many of the destinations mentioned come as no surprise in a collection of the hallowed: Ohio's Serpent Mound, Wyoming's Yellowstone, Colorado's Mesa Verde, for instance. But other entries serve as a delightful reminder that there is room in our hearts to expand the definition of sacred: Massachusetts' Walden Pond, Michigan's House of David, and Tennessee's (and Elvis') Graceland, for instance." —Chicago Tribune

"Olsen maps out obscure destinations brimming with intrigue and history, places where you will not have to fight thousands of tour- ists. You'll find lots of maps, drawings and photos. It's a travel guide for the individualist. " —Ashley Tribune

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Sacred Places

north America

Second Edition

108 DESTINATIONS

Written, photographed, and illustrated by

BRAD OLSEN

CONSORTIUM OF COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS

www.cccpublishing.com www.bradolsen.com www.stompers.com

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Sacred Places North America 108 Destinations

second edition

Copyright © 2008 by Brad Olsen

Published by the Consortium of Collective Consciousness ™ All rights reserved.

Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information should be addressed to CCC Publishing, 530 8 th Avenue #6, San Francisco, CA 94118 USA. FAX (415) 933-8132.

As is common in a historic and reference book such as this, much of the information included on these pages has been collected from diverse sources. When possible, the information has been checked and double-checked. Even with special effort to be accu- rate and thorough, the author and publisher cannot vouch for each and every reference. Because this is a book about traveling, many specifics can change overnight and with- out prior warning. The reader will find ample information collected from experienced adventurers, writers, and travel industry experts. The author and publisher assume no responsibility or liability for any outcome, loss, arrest, or injury that occurs as a result of information or advice contained in this book. As with the purchase of goods or services, caveat emptor is the prevailing responsibility of the purchaser, and the same is true for the traveler.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Olsen, Bradford C.

Sacred Places North America: 108 Destinations / Brad Olsen p. cm.

Includes index

ISBN 10: 1-888729-13-9 (Pbk.) ISBN 13: 978-1-888729-13-9

1. Spirituality — Guidebooks. 2. Travel — Guidebooks. I. Title

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2005904373 Printed in the United States of America. 10 98765432

Front Cover Photos: © 2008, Brad Olsen: Waubansee Stone, IL; Old Oraibi, AZ; Aztalan, Wl. National Park Service: Devils Tower, WY.

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ALSO BY BRAD OLSEN

Sacred Places Europe: 108 Destinations

2007

Sacred Places Around the World: 108 Destinations

2004

World Stompers: A Global Travel Manifesto

2001

In Search of Adventure: A Wild Travel Anthology

1999

Extreme Adventures Northern California

1997

Extreme Adventures Hawaii

1997

The Dating System used in this text is based upon the modern method of using Before Current Era bce instead of Before Christ B.C. , and Current Era ce rather than "in the year of the Lord" anno Domini A D. . Those unfamiliar with this dating system should take note that i B.C. is the same as i bce and everything then counts backward just the same. Similarly, i a d. is i ce with all the years counting forward to the present, or Current Era. To assist in universal understanding, all measurements of length, distance, area, weight, and volume are listed both in the old British standard and the metric system.

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1 08 SACRED PLACES IN NORTH AMERICA

Author's Karma Statement 10

Foreword by David Hatcher Childress 13

Introduction to North American Sacred Places 15

THE SOUTHWEST

ARIZONA: Arcosanti 28

Canyon de Chelly 29

Monument Valley 33

Old Oraibi 36

San Francisco Peaks 39

Sedona Vortices 41

Southern Sinagua Pueblos 44

Wupatki 48

NEVADA: Area 51 51

Black Rock City 54

Lake Lahontan sites 57

NEW MEXICO: Chaco Canyon 65

Chacoan Outlier Great Houses 67

Chimayo 71

Roswell and the White Sands Region 74

Shiprock 76

UTAH Canyonlands 79

Hovenweep 81

Salt Lake Temple 83

Zion National Park 86

WEST COAST STATES

CALIFORNIA: Bay Area to Point Conception 92

Blythe Intaglios 97

Death Valley 99

Joshua Tree 10 1

Lake Shrine 103

Lava Beds 107

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Mission Trail 112

Mount Shasta 114

OREGON: Crater Lake 118

WASHINGTON: Cascade Volcanoes 122

Columbia River Gorge 125

ALASKA AND HAWAII

ALASKA: Denali Mount McKinley 131

Sitka 133

HAWAII: Pu'uhonua O Honaunau City of Refuge 138

Pu'ukohola Heiau Hill of the Whale 141

Kilauea 143

Waipio Valley 146

KAUAI: Waimea Bay 149

LANAI: Garden of the Gods 152

MAUI: Haleakala 155

Iao Valley 157

MOLOKAI: Kalaupapa Peninsula 159

OAHU: Kaena Point 162

Waimea Valley 164

OUTER ISLANDS: Nihoa and Necker 167

WESTERN CANADA

ALBERTA: Ellis Medicine Wheel 173

Lac Sainte Anne 176

Majorville Medicine Wheel 178

BRITISH COIXJMBIAQueen Charlotte Islands Haida Gwaii 180

Sproat Lake 183

MANITOBA: Grottoes of Manitoba 186

SASKATCHEWAN: Moose Mountain Medicine Wheel 189

ROCKY MOUNTAINS

COLORADO: Manitou Springs 195

Mesa Verde 197

San Luis Valley 201

IDAHO: Nez Perce Homeland 205

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MONTANA: Glacier /Waterton International Peace Park 208

WYOMING: Bighorn Medicine Wheel 211

Devils Tower Mateo Tepee 213

Yellowstone 215

CENTRAL PLAINS

IOWA: Effigy Mounds Monument 222

New Melleray Abbey 224

KANSAS: Pawnee Spirit Sites 227

NEBRASKA: Blackbird Hill 230

OKLAHOMA: Heavener 233

Spiro Mounds 236

SOUTH DAKOTA: Badlands 240

Sacred Peaks of the Black Hills 243

TEXAS: Indian Hot Springs 245

GREAT LAKES REGION

ILLINOIS: Cahokia Mounds 251

Waubansee Stone 254

MICHIGAN: House of David 257

Sleeping Bear Dunes 260

MINNESOTA: Kensington Runestone 262

Pipestone 266

OHIO: Newark Earthworks 269

Serpent Mound 273

Spruce Hill 277

WISCONSIN: Aztalan 283

Devils Lake 287

Madeline Island Moningwunakauning 289

EASTERN CANADA

ATLANTIC PROVINCES:LAnse aux Meadows 296

ONTARIO: Eastern Canadian Great Lakes 299

Lake Superior Sites 301

Peterborough Petroglyphs 304

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QUEBEC: Hochelaga 308

Saint Joseph's Oratory 311

Sainte Anne De Beaupre 313

NEW ENGLAND

Prehistoric Stone Buildings of New England 319

MAINE: Mount Katahdin 322

Sabbathday Lake 324

MASSACHUSETTS: Walden Pond 329

NEW HAMPSHIRE: America's Stonehenge 333

NEW YORK: Auriesville and Fonda shrines 337

Chautauqua and Lily Dale 339

RHODE ISLAND: Newport Tower 344

THE SOUTH

Temple Mounds of the South 351

ALABAMA: Selma 356

FLORIDA: Bimini and Atlantis 358

Coral Castle 361

GEORGIA: Martin Luther King, Jr. Birthplace 364

KENTUCKY: Gethsemani 366

Mammoth Cave 368

MISSISSIPPI: Natchez 370

NORTH CAROLINA: Pilot Mountain 374

TENNESSEE: Graceland 377

VIRGINIA: Assateague Island 380

WEST VIRGINIA: Grave Creek 383

Conclusion 387

Acknowledgments 392

Bibliography 393

Appendix 397

Index 399

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AUTHOR'S KARMA STATEMENT

"Society today has corrupted humans. All seem to be caught up in the search for money, fame and power. But a smaller few of us have kept the values of the old world and try to live this way. We

come to the mountains and commune with nature. We visit the relics of humankind's glorious past to remember our own. We have not lost sight of God and moral reasoning. Therefore, with our quests, I can safely say we are bettering societal values; we are

helping future generations. "

-Anonymous journal entry, Mount Shasta Base Camp

It has been over a decade since I climbed Mount Shasta and copied this quote. That climbing trip in 1997, much like my full moon ascent of Egypt's Great Pyramid in 1994, inexorably changed my life by overwhelming me with the power of sacred places. It occurred to me then, and I still believe it today, that the best aspect of a civilization is almost always expressed in the holy locations that were honored. No matter who the people were or where they lived, some kind of priority was given to divine interpretation. They are the settings where the population worshipped, performed ceremonies, and erected buildings to define their collective vision of the divine. They remain an interpretation to eternal questions. Others traveled long distances, sometimes under adverse conditions, to worship at a holy place. From the most primitive of shrines to the tallest cathe dral, from legendary mountains to prehistoric medicine wheels, the discovery of sacred places takes on many forms. Therefore, we must be helping society and

ourselves with our journeys to visit the relics of humankind's glorious past. There is a collective wisdom that resides at these worldwide locations, something that reso nates with those reverent few who decide to pay a visit. This book is, after all, a travel guide.

My readers routinely tell me of their own profound experiences regarding trips they've taken to a sacred place. There are people who experience past life recalls, others a deeper understanding of the folk lore or history of a location. Some have reported being witness to supernatural phenomena during their visit, such as a UFO flyby or a ghost sighting. Others report a feeling of deep serenity. Some

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A Author's self-portrait atop Dreamer's Rock in Canada.

Author's karma Statement

come away with great vacation memories and photographs to share. There is no invalid experience. Developing a personal relationship with a sacred place is akin to our own fingerprints that which is entirely unique to each person. In a simi lar way this is how I view all religions. Each contains wisdom and beauty, but the true meaning lies within the believer, the one who has a personal revelation.

Every so often I hear from readers how they would love to undertake a trip, but life's obligations keep them occupied in their hometown. What is special about this book is that most of us live within one day driving distance to a dozen of these sites. I highly recommend roadtrips! Besides driving to the locations near their homes, I tell these people to locate their own private sacred place. A personal location for reflection in a beautiful natural setting always works best. Unusual rock formations attracted the Native Americans, as they can for you! I have several of my own in San Francisco, California. One is social and full of people similar to many of the locations in this book , and the other is remote where I rarely see another person.

I am delighted to revise and update Sacred Places North America into a second edition. When I embarked on several cross country trips from 2001 until 2003 researching the first edition, I was amazed at the diversity and mystery embedded into the fabric of North American history. Habitation of this continent is much older, and encompasses more diverse cultures, than was previously understood. The idea that pre Columbian visitors from far away lands came to the New World is known as "cultural diffusion theory." It is recognized by diffusion historians that North American prehistory features a variety of people arriving, settling, trading and exploring in anomalous locations. Evidence in the last few decades has confirmed the Scandinavian Norse as the first recorded discoverers of North America, predating Christopher Columbus by nearly 500 years. What about before the Vikings? Tantalizing clues suggest that other visitors arrived much earlier, sometimes by at least a thousand years. It would therefore be reasonable to assume that each group would have brought with them unusual cultural traits that influenced, and eventually assimilated, with the numeri cally dominant Native American populations. The newcom ers would have built shrines in North America devoted to their imported religions. The evidence pointing to multiple "diffusions" is overwhelming, but opposition to the idea remains strong within academic circles.

To compile a transcendental book such as this I found myself seeking guidance from many

▲ My now deceased car at Mount Saviour Monastery, New York, in 2002.

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varied sources. I sought out experts on the subject of sacred sites, whether they were fellow world travelers, Native Americans, park rangers, tour guides, travel writers, or anyone else with an intuitive sense into the power of a place. In writing this volume, it was necessary for me to engage in some supposition unconfirmed by conventional archaeology. If I have surpassed the usages academic historians consider acceptable, I have done so in an effort not to mislead anyone. It is my belief that archaeological evidence should speak for itself; no matter how much it changes the historical status quo. Just as American academics stubbornly held onto the unique discovery of North America by Columbus viewpoint for centuries, so are the anomalous findings of other people who arrived centuries before Columbus being routinely dismissed to this day. Sometimes radical revi sion is a hard pill to swallow. A footnote from Edward Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire explains how the master historian grappled with the revisionist dilemma. Gibbon writes: "I owe it to myself and to historic truth to declare that some circumstances in what follows are founded only on conjecture and analogy." The perspective of cultural diffusion is new and open to different interpretations. Mine is the voice of a lifelong world traveler with an insatiable curiosity for uncovering the truth.

— Brad Olsen CCC Publishing San Francisco, CA Spring Equinox, 2008

"The fundamental purpose of all leaders, messiahs or visionaries is to find some means by which the two sides of the earth can live together in peace and harmony. Time is very short-it is necessary to achieve this harmony as soon as possible to avoid complete disaster. Philosophies, religions and other such movements have all failed to accomplish this aim, and the only possible way to accomplish it is through the individual development of humans. As an individual develops their own, unknown potentialities, they will become strong and will, in turn, influence many more people. If enough individu- als can develop themselves-even partially-into genuine, natural human beings, able to use the real potentialities that are proper to humankind, each such individual will then be able to convince and win over as many as a hundred other people, who will, each in their turn, upon achieving devel- opment, be able to influence another hundred, and so on. ... The separate, distinct growth of each individual in the world is the only possible solution."

-George Gurdjieff

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FOREWORD

by David Hatcher. Childress

I first met Brad when he contacted me about doing a story for his co written book In Search of Adventure. Of course, I was happy to do a story for his anthol ogy and was flattered that I would be included. Brad's next book, Sacred Places Around the World reminded me of my own Lost Cities series of books, and I was amused by his maps and drawings that accompanied the text.

The world is a fascinating place with many wonderful sites and "sacred places." I began traveling the world back in 1976 when I was 19 years old. As I journeyed across Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Europe, South America and Pacific islands, I became extremely interested in the many pyramids, megalithic walls, earthen mounds, and unusual rock formations that literally cover the globe. These sacred places were oftentimes said to be linked together in some way. Some were said to be connected by invisible energy lines that went from one sacred site to another. In Britain, these ancient energy paths were called "Ley Lines" and usually named after their "discov erer."The Chinese had a name for energy lines that connected certain spots with oth ers; they called them Dragon Lines. The native aboriginals of Australia have a similar tradition of energy lines called "Song Lines" or sometimes referred to as "Dreaming Tracks." This concept of an interconnectedness between these ancient sites is often called the World Grid concept. That many ancient sites including the Great Pyramid of Giza, Stonehenge, Mont St. Michel, Mount Olympus, Mount Shasta and even the vortices of Sedona are connected by energy lines and become "power points" where certain of these energy lines cross. Hence, a world grid of power places and energy lines seems to unfold across the globe, reaching even remote islands. Did ancient man discern these energy lines and their crossing paths and then turn many of them into sacred sites? Was there a mathematical formula or map of these power points that could be plotted on a piece of parchment or in book of collected pages? Many have attempted to do this difficult task to varying success.

Sacred Places North America is a valiant attempt to take on such a task for North America. Brad has literally criss crossed the continent many times in search of little known, as well as well known, sites that dot the land from sea to shining sea. One point to be made with the notion of sacred sites is that they were not only connected to each other, but that ancient humans apparently sought these sites out and used them for sacred ceremonies or pilgrimages. While most history and archaeology professors are teaching the theory of isolationism that ancient cultures were essentially isolated from each other the connection between sacred sites is more in line with the theory of diffusionism. The theory of cultural diffu sion is a theory that gains more and more academic ground every year as archae ologists gather increasing evidence that ancient man loved to travel and explore.

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Diffusionism says that oceans, lakes and rivers are not barriers but highways. There is ample evidence that ancient traders not only followed ancient Roman roads to Scotland and the Silk Road to China and India, but also by boat across the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. As they reached various trading cities located at river deltas or mountain valleys, they would be told of other cities and sacred sites that might be visited. To travel and know the world, and visit these sacred sites is to gain knowledge and wisdom. Often it was the journey itself that really mattered; the destination was but a point of reference; a place to be obtained before setting off to another point. These sacred journeys to sacred sites form a larger part of our life than we even know. While many persons specifically set out on a specific pilgrimage to a specific site whether it be the trip to a religious shrine or the family of four on the way to the Grand Canyon our lives in general take us from one sacred site to another on a never ending pilgrimage. Everyone's life is a journey from one sacred site to another and these sacred sites are all around us. There is an infinite amount of them, as many as we care to perceive. This pilgrimage is on such a grand scale that we can hardly perceive it.

What is a sacred site then? It can be the pyramid shaped mound that one sees from a distance, or the sanctuary of the grandparent's back country farm. Sacred sites are everywhere for us to find, but we must open our eyes to see them. Sacred Places North America takes us to 108 of these sites with some friendly commentary and advice. From here the reader can move forward and find some sacred sites of his own, per haps just out their backdoor! Whether it is the wandering Zen monk or someone on a vision quest, the journey from sacred site to sacred site begins with one step ...

-David Hatcher Childress

author of Lost Cities of North & Central America, The Anti Gravity Handbook, Technology of the Gods, and 19 other books.

▲ David Hatcher Childress (middle, left), Brad Olsen (right) and friends visit Ground Zero in New York City a few months after 9/11.

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INTRODUCTION TO NORTH AMERICAN

SACRED PLACES

Every continent has its own spirit of place. Every people is polarized in some particular locality, which is home, the homeland. Different places on the face of the earth have different vital effluence, different vibration, different chemical exhalations, different polarity with different stars: call it what you like, but the spirit of place is a great reality. -D.H. Lawrence

In the depths of the human spirit resides an inclination to trace the paths long venerated by our ancestors. Such journeys are food for the soul. These travels on ancestral trails touch upon that which is vital to our humanity They open our minds to the world around us, to our collective history and to the cosmos above. When we arrive at a physical destination, we can find ourselves in a spiritual one as well closer to our own individual reality, and the larger universe. But the other reality is that this education into ourselves comes almost by definition with a crush of other people. To see beyond the souvenir stands we need to know what we are looking for. Sacred places represent the essential spirit of humankind.

Seeking out a sacred place is no new concept. Since the beginning of time, humans have doubtless journeyed to distant locations to discover a spiritual rela tionship with themselves, our planet and the cosmos. Pilgrims pursue a proph esized destination; shamans prepare for vision quest; priests lead their flock; visionaries dream of a temple where there once was none; and modern travelers load up their packs and set forth.

Some discernible qualities exist at every sacred place. Perhaps it's the design, the physical proximity of the site, the building materials used, the story left behind, the shape of the monument, or how the sacred site inspired, or continues to inspire, religious movements. The most important quality of a sacred site is the feelings these places evoke in us. People venture to sacred sites, consciously or unconsciously, to satisfy the human spirit's desire for communion with them selves, our collective humanity and the cosmos above.

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Visiting Natural and Human Wonders

In most world religions, specific areas hold great spiritual significance. The grand monuments of antiquity retain their age old mysterious wisdom in this accelerated modern age. While most sacred places are bustling tourist and pil grimage destinations, one can still find quiet moments at off hours. The location, orientation, structure, and function of a sacred site are usually based on universal principles of balance and harmony, which no tourist group can obstruct.

It is important to note that anyone visiting a sacred place should go with sincere intentions and no expectations. Having expectations usually sets the traveler up for disappointment. You can view a sacred site as an interesting pile of rocks or a place long venerated by our ancestors. You can see these locations as tourist traps or places where others may commune with a higher force no matter how many tourists are wandering around. Go to them! Go with respect, reverence and a clear conscience. Some are very difficult to locate, some very easy. Some will inspire, others may disappoint. But without a doubt, no matter where you go, you will return a much more understanding and perhaps enlightened person. A simple travel mantra: "Open your mind; enrich the soul. Make time to travel your ultimate goal." Indeed, "seek and ye shall find!"

In the last few hundred years, the indigenous people of North America have gone through tremendous change. Before modern European contact, the Native American population lived off the plentiful abundance of the land, and com muned peacefully with the Great Spirit. It is estimated that at least 57.3 million people lived in the Americas prior to 1492 when Columbus first dropped anchor in the Caribbean. Within the first month of contact the native population began to decrease due to genocide, disease and forced enslavement. In North America, the open territory of the Indians gave way to European colonists who settled on the land and created productive agricultural communities. In turn, agriculture gave way to the Industrial Revolution as the growth measure of America. Today, almost all indigenous people in North America continue to reside on reservations. Some of the sacred sites listed in this book are situated on their reservations or had once been located on their traditional homelands. If venturing to a Native American site, or any sacred place listed in this book, please go there with respect for the location.

The Earliest Sacred Sites: Caves and Mountains

Before early humans started building freestanding structures, they resided in caves. In the dark caverns of Europe and Asia, the first signs of religion began to take form. Similarly, caves in North America provided shelter from the elements and wild animals. Survival of the clan depended on hunting and fertility, and most prehistory artifacts represented this concern. Later, as religion evolved, certain caves and grottoes took on spiritual connotations when they were adorned with religious icons or acted as safe houses for sacred texts.

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INTRODUCTION

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"From time immemorial the mountains have been the dwelling place of the great sages: Wise men and sages have all made the mountains their own chambers, their own body and mind." So spoke D gen, a 13 th century founder of the Sot Zen tradition, which is famous for its tenant of communing with nature. Pilgrimages to sacred mountains have been made for thousands of years. Hundreds of moun tain ranges cover the planet, but spiritual seekers revere only a few. These pristine peaks are the ones worshipped through indigenous folklore and ancient religious texts; many have long been considered the home to immortal gods. The Hopi regard the San Francisco Peaks as the legendary residence of the kachinas. The kachinas are Hopi gods who are said to live underground in the mountains, much like the Lemurians inside Mount Shasta. Several other sacred mountains are the keystone to indigenous religions, including Pilot Mountain in North Carolina, Devils Tower in Wyoming, and the many impressive peaks in the Cascade Range and the Rocky Mountains.

Temples, Shrines, and Churches

Back in the time when North America was free of human influence, there were obvious places that people perceived as special. Here, the first shrines were built. Then large settlements rose, and in the hallowed parts of early cities enormous temple mounds and platforms were erected. Oftentimes the original temple would denote the origin of the principality. These sacred precincts were home to the priestly caste and the molders of civilization. In almost every case, the original

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center of an ancient city contained a tern pie or shrine devoted to a pantheon of pagan gods. Sometimes the temples of antiquity would also be a loca tion of sacrifice. This could be strictly devo tional, but oftentimes it adopted the more grizzly practice of ani mal or human sacri fice.

Modern temples, shrines and churches all share one common feature: They were built to help people come closer to God. These structures are sources of spiritual power that help seekers recover some peace of mind in a seemingly crazy world. They bring people together in acts of faith and love. The temples, shrines and churches of the world are devotional sanctuaries for those seeking divine inspira tion, regardless of religion, denomination, or sect.

Pyramid Mounds and Astronomical Arrangements

Among the most intellectually advanced civilizations of early history the Egyptian, Sumerian, Chinese, Mexican and Tibetan all were pyramid build ers. When humans began to construct artificial structures they used numbers and measurements derived from the natural world. The idea was to reflect the order of heaven on earth. Particularly in the context of a flat plain, pyramids represented an effort to measure an elevated aspiration uniting humans with the cosmos. Aesthetic awareness in relation to universal principles could alter states of consciousness, and enhance psychological and spiritual development. As a towering geometrical shape, the many types of pyramids functioned as astronomy platforms, ritual centers and sometimes deep within, as tombs. In eastern North America, the lost Mississippian Culture erected enormous earthen pyramids fronting central plazas, similar in design to their Mayan and Aztec neighbors in Central America.

Most of North America's prehistoric earthen pyramids feature alignments or were situated near wooden circular henges that served as astronomical calendars. Archaeoastronomy became a part of North American archaeology following Warren Wittry's 1964 discovery of a series of woodhenges at Cahokia Mounds in Illinois. Wittry demonstrated that these wooden features were solar observa tories. Sadly, most of the earthen pyramids and geometric earthworks that once

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INTRODUCTION

dotted the eastern landscape are now lost. Sometimes new investigations can only be conducted by the reports of earlier researchers. Many archaeologists consider the 19 th century work of E. G. Squier and E. H. Davis to be the first archaeologi cal investigation in the United States. Although Squier and Davis did not record alignments in the mound sites they charted, their maps are invaluable in aiding archaeoastronomers in their re evaluation of the mound builders and their incred ible architecture.

Prehistoric people living in close harmony with the cycles of nature were highly sensitive to the planet's subtle influences. Freestanding stone and wood post arrangements represent a profound understanding of the cosmos, especially the earth's relationship with the sun and moon. Stone, wood, and earthen circles were used as calendars to predict seasons, as planetariums to study the movement of stars, and as meeting places where native people could gather and exchange information. Although many have been lost, thousands of alignments remain on the con tinent with the most famous being the medicine wheels on the western plains of Canada and certain megalithic arrange ments in New England.

New World Colonization Revisionist Theories

The most widely accepted theory concerning the peopling of the New World is that the first human inhabitants were the Clovis people, who are thought to have arrived approx imately 13,000 years ago. This is the Bering Straits migration theory proposed in the 1930s, which still remains a popular belief today. After all, artifacts of the Clovis culture are found throughout most of the United States and as far south as Panama. This standard theory

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Sacred Places North America

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has been challenged in recent decades by a growing number of archaeologists, with newly identified Preclovis sites including Cactus Hill, Virginia and Monte Verde, Chile. Other experts claim no conclusive evidence of Preclovis inhabita tion has yet been definitely established. The Topper site in South Carolina may change everything we think about the peopling of North America. Radiocarbon tests of carbonized plant remains from the Pleistocene era were found with stone artifacts dated to be at least 50,000 years old, below the level where Clovis and Preclovis tools were found. This 2004 finding along the Savannah River in Allendale County by University of South Carolina archaeologist Dr. Albert Goodyear indicates that humans inhabited North America long before the last Ice Age, more than 20,000 years ago. Until the recent challenges to the Clovis theory, it was unusual for archaeologists to dig any deeper than the sediment lay ers of the Clovis culture, based on the belief that no human artifacts would be found older than Clovis.

The new findings in South Carolina are potentially explosive revelations in archaeology. Not only does this disclosure cause North American archaeology to question its own basic premises, but the whole conception of human migrations around the world is now in question. We are told the dawn of modern Homo sapi ens occurred in Africa between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago. Evidence of modern human's migration out of the African continent has been documented in Australia and Central Asia at 50,000 years, and roaming into Europe around 40,000 years ago. The fact that humans could have been in North America at or near the same time has sparked many debates among archaeologists worldwide, raising new questions on the origin and migration of the human species. "Topper is the oldest radiocarbon dated site in North America," says Dr. Goodyear. "However, other early sites in Brazil and Chile, as well as a site in Oklahoma also suggest that humans were in the Western Hemisphere as early as 30,000 years ago, to perhaps 60,000." One possible solution to this riddle, but routinely ignored by archaeolo gists, is that an earlier Atlantis civilization existed in this distant timeframe and may have been partially responsible for the peopling of the Americas.

New Evidence of Very Early Arrivals

Unlike Asia, Europe and Africa, the New World of the Americas contains not a single human fossil deposit other than Homo sapiens. This fact implies that humans arrived independently in North America via the "land bridge" known as Beringia, or ocean bound from the east and west by boat. The Mongolian stock of Indians were known to have traveled across the Bering Strait land bridge and down an ice free corridor east of the Rockies as the last glaciers began to melt about 13,000 years ago. An ongoing genetic investigation suggests wider cultural diffusion, building support for the theory that ancient Asian seafarers began populating western North America thousands of years before the migration of

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big game hunters from Siberia. Attracted by the food rich kelp beds ringing the Pacific coasts of present day Russia, Alaska and British Columbia, the earlier maritime migrants are believed to have plied the coastal waters in sealskin boats, moving in small

groups over many generations L 1 — 1 — — — -xakja

from their traditional homelands A Athanasius Kircher's map of Atlantis, in the Japanese islands or else here depicted to be in the center of the

board. Other genetic matches of

ancient North Americans are linked to Pacific Islanders and Japan's indigenous Ainu people. Interest in the theory has been stoked by recent DNA studies show ing characteristic links between a 10,000 year old skeleton found in an Alaskan cave and genetic traits also identified in modern Japanese and Tibetan popula tions. These Asian groupings are also linked to aboriginal populations along the west coasts of North and South America. The rise of the "coastal migration" theory has been advanced by a sprinkling of other ancient archeological finds throughout the Americas several of them being too old to fit the traditional theory of an exclusive overland migration. Proponents of coastal migration argue that Ice Age migrants in boats might have island hopped southward along North America's west coast as early as 16,000 years ago, or traveled in oceangoing vessels across the South Pacific even earlier. The travelers would have taken advantage of tropical islands or small refuges of land that had escaped envelopment by glaciers. The difficulty proving this theory is that nearly all of the land that might contain traces of human settlement or activity is now under water. The mounting evi dence to support this contentious new theory about the peopling of the Americas is gradually gaining support in scholarly circles.

On the Atlantic side of the continent, diffusionist historians maintain that earlier European seafarers arrived long before Christopher Columbus' Caribbean visit in the late 13 th century. Evidence is now being established that Egyptian and Phoenician traders from the Mediterranean, Celtic sailors of Spain, Basque explorers, Irish monks and the Scandinavia Norse were also North American colonizers, primarily in the regions of eastern Canada and New England. A much older migration may have occurred when survivors from the legendary conti nent of Atlantis arrived about 50,000 years ago. All of these early arrivals would have blended genetically with the indigenous people over time. When modern European explorers reached the North American continent in the early 14 th century, the Historic or Modern Period in the Americas began. In Hawaii the first contact with Europeans came in the late 16 th century. The new European

where along Asia's eastern sea

North Atlantic Ocean.

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explorers, who later became permanent settlers, brought with them new technol ogy, diseases, and political, social, and religious systems completely foreign to the native inhabitants. The introduction of guns, germs and steel were utterly new concepts to the native populations, and the changes brought to their age old lifestyles were profound and, almost without exception, disastrous.

The highly controversial theory that Caucasians traveled to America before, after, or contemporaneously with the Bering Straits migration is not without detractors. For one, it would diminish the special position held by the aboriginal people of North America that they are the only true "Native Americans." For reasons of political correctness, and the racial implications that would result, the facts surrounding this theory have been suppressed. The persistent view of most "old school" historians that North America was not contacted anytime before Columbus, fails to take into account even the most basic evidence. Beyond the hard proof, there have been many justifications to keep these theories under reported and out of the history books. The first was a dilemma for biblical scholars who literally interpreted the Scriptures of the Old Testament, which describes the settlement of only three continents after Noah's flood. Either the Scriptures were wrong, or the aboriginal people of North America did not exist. Another justification was legal ownership. Certainly the Native Americans were here first, but by regarding them as "uncivilized savages," the new settlers were able to feel warranted in taking over the land they occupied. But what if there were prior European settlements in North America before the pilgrims of the Mayflower? This presents a much greater dilemma. If historians acknowledged such a presence, European powers from Scandinavia to Ireland to Spain could all have claimed legal ownership of the New World that was actively being estab lished in North America by the British and French. Not only that, but earlier con quests would belittle the feats of modern explorers, especially the "discoverers" of North America who loaned their name to the many places of their conquest and influence. Such motivations would have been ample reason for 19 th and 20 th century historians, as well as modern Native American special interest groups, to suppress and deny any evidence of previous European settlements or exploratory incursions into the continent.

What Happened to the First Caucasians in North America?

New evidence indicates that the first Caucasians in North America were either killed in open warfare with the Indians, or more likely were absorbed into what became the numerically dominant Native American groupings. The discovery of the Kennewick Man and Spirit Cave Man and their related gene string supports the genetic tracking between non Mongoloid body traits of ancient skeletal remains in North America and recent genetic studies with ancient Caucasian

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peoples see: Columbia River Gorge; Lake Lahontan sites . The successive waves of Caucasians in America therefore disappeared, presumably with their culture, through a long process of racial integration and warfare, leaving behind only tan talizing clues such as skeletons, tools, weapons, petroglyphs, earthworks, language fragments, stone structures, runic writings, and genealogical anomalies as evidence of their existence. The sacred places they utilized must be fully explained and inte grated into this survey.

As would happen with anyone who endeavors to present an all inclusive survey of prehistoric as well as historic and modern sacred sites in North America, these anomalies can sometimes be central to establishing a location long out of use. Sometimes the "spirit of the place" lingers on and deserves mention, no matter how inconvenient it may be to others. I have endeavored to do so with a straightfor ward approach by presenting each leading theory objectively. I fully expect those who conduct surveys similar to mine to be objective as well. If this is done, useful insights will be gained, which might be applied to the betterment of all.

Why the Number 108?

Numbers, it can be argued, carry as much significance as letters. Numbers convey

a different method of communication altogether, forming the basis for commerce

and all the sciences. Numbers are deeply rooted in many cultural traditions, often

times contemporary with a civilization's original literary works. Such is the case

with the number 108 in most East Asian religious cultures. 108 is the number of

beads on sacred mala necklaces worn by millions of reverent Buddhists and Hindus.

To them, the number 108 is associated with the precessionary cycles of Earth and

the cosmos above. If a Buddhist

or Hindu pilgrim can endure a

trip to the most sacred mountain

in Asia, the inhospitable Mount

Kailash on the Tibetan Plateau,

that seeker is on a true path

to nirvana. If that same pilgrim

can manage 108 circuits around

the base of Kailash in a single

▲ Signs of 108 span the continent.

lifetime, their entry into heaven is assured.

Mapping the Sacred

The artistic technique of illustrating maps or charts is called cartography. The information contained on maps was a highly protected secret in ancient times. Not until the 19 th century did the physical properties of the planet at last become

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common knowledge. In antiquity the best cartographers were usually travelers themselves, studying shorelines, weather patterns and mountain ranges; trying to accurately convey their knowledge in maps for other explorers and sea captains by way of contrast. Amerigo Vespucci, the man who loaned his first name to identify ing the continents of the New World, was an 'Age of Discovery" cartographer who put his prominent signature over the landmass of North America.

Following the age old tradition of cartography being passed on from mapmaker to mapmaker, my maps are hand drawn based on other source maps. I could have completely created the maps digitally, but I feel the hand drawn look better enhances my text and adds a personal touch. I designed them to look like they are out of a field notebook, and in some cases they were! Usually I worked on the text, maps, and illustrations simultaneously during production, going from one to the other when new information was collected. I included many additional minor sacred sites that I was not able to include with the 108 described sites in the text. I eliminated some modern cities and highways unless they were necessary to add for point of reference. I desire to include an eclectic assemblage of maps reflect ing the long heritage of diverse cultures in North America.

DISCLAIMER

In assembling the contents of this book, and all the books I write for that matter, my sole objective is to present every viewpoint with equal balance and respect. Some of the theories I present may be offensive to some groups, or may be ridiculed as outrageous nonsense. Atlantis survivors or ancient Mediterranean seafarers coming to North America thousands of years before Columbus may seem farfetched, but there is evidence suggesting that these early migrants may be a part of North American prehistory. When paranormal experiences such as ghosts, UFOs and Bigfoot sightings are associated with a sacred place, they too are mentioned. Lest we forget it is the message that is important, not the messenger. I see myself as that messenger; the scribe who collects a wide range of relevant data and distills it into a comprehensive volume. I realize there are vested interests in keeping some of the information presented out of a book like this, but like a defendant who is presumed innocent before being proven guilty, new theories also need their day in court. I respectfully ask the reader to be the judge and jury in this case by carefully considering all sides to the various theories presented in this volume, and to formulate his or her own conclusions.

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There are some secrets which do not permit themselves to be

told. -Edgar Allan Poe, The Man of the Crowd

by long empty canyons. The rugged terrain is ideal for small land reptiles, clumps of cactus, and dry scrub forests of juniper and pinon trees. Much of the region is semi arid and seemingly devoid of life, but this makes it a land of stark contrasts and impressive scenery. Bisecting the entire region, the flowing waters of the Colorado River carved the Grand Canyon more than a mile 1.7 km deep in some locations on its long journey to the Gulf of California. Like a long series of cascading steps from north to south, starting at an elevation over 5,000 feet 1,600 m , expansive flat topped tablelands break off into steep edges known as mesas and feature the spectacular stand alone rock formations called buttes that can resemble the shape of a cathedral or ghost ship. This fantastical landscape was carved by the elements of wind, rain, volcanic activity and flow ing water erosion over many millennia. The climate occasionally changed during the long march of time, with some periods being wetter and allowing a wider proliferation of life.

he American Southwest is a land of dry and sometimes very hot desert conditions, separated by treacherous mountain ranges and intermittent streams cut

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No area of North America and few countries of the world can boast a collec tion of archaeological ruins equal to that of the American Southwest, a cultural region that extends from the Great Basin of what is today Nevada and Utah, the Colorado Plateau, and the whole of Arizona and New Mexico. Only from the point of view of norteamericanos, the Spanish word for people north of Mexico, is the southwestern region of the United States known as the "Southwest." To the ancestral Pueblo Indians and Spanish conquistadors, the land of the Southwest was

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the Gran Chichimeca, meaning the "Great Land of Nomads." These prehistoric wanderers for a time became the settled Hohokam, Fremont, Anasazi, Mogollon and Sinagua cultures, but were considered barbarians from the viewpoint of the more refined Valley of Mexico inhabitants. Prehistoric Mexican influence can be found in the architectural style of Southwestern cliff dwellings, pottery, ball courts, kivas, trade items, irrigation channels for the cultivation of corn, and the large central plazas in more urbanized communities. The long cultural evolution lasted over a thousand years until a prolonged drought in the late 13 th century CE devastated the entire Southwest region. Anasazi villages were abandoned due to starvation, internecine strife, and migrations. Life abruptly changed for the survivors, who centuries later became the ancestral Puebloan people. Today, sur viving indigenous Southwest communities have retained their cultural heritage perhaps better than any other North American Indian segment. At a time when many ancient rituals have been forgotten elsewhere, the native people of the Southwest proudly display their age old traditions on the largest reservations in North America.

ARIZONA

Spanish conquistadors first entered what is today Arizona in 1540 on an unsuc cessful expedition to locate the legendary Seven Cities of Gold. Instead they found a land of ghost cities left by the Hohokam, Arizona's earliest known people, and the cliff dwelling ancestral Puebloans, also called the Anasazi. Franciscan priests started building a network of missions in their effort to save souls. Thwarted in 1680 by the Pueblo Revolt, the Spanish returned in the 1700s to crush Indian resistance. Over 300 years of Spanish domination ended with the 1848 treaty ending the Mexican War, but much of Arizona territory reverted to the victorious United States government. Apache and other Native American resistance continued until the end of the 19 th century, even as railroads and min ing booms brought thousands into the territory. Arizona achieved statehood in 1912, the last of the Lower 48 to join the Union.

The state of Arizona supports the largest Native American population in the United States. Its name comes from the Indian word arizonac, meaning "small spring." One of the fastest growing states in the country, Arizona is home to such famous natural wonders as the Painted Desert, the Petrified Forest, Meteor Crater and the Grand Canyon. The Navajo and Hopi reservations corner the northeastern part of the state in a vast land marked by towering red rock forma tions, spectacular canyons and green, forested mountains. Navajo territory, the larger of the two, completely surrounds the Hopi land, and overlaps into western New Mexico and southern Utah. In this part of Arizona primitive Navajo hogans, Hopi mesa adobe homes, traditional attire and lively ceremonies color the atmo sphere. The Navajo and Hopi reservations are a place of limitless horizons, stark mesas, and reflective inspiration.

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Arcosanti

In the high desert of central Arizona is a prototype city called Arcosanti, built as an example on how urban congestion and social isolation can be eliminated. The city is designed according to the concept of "arcology" the blending of architecture and ecology as one integral process to address the wastefulness of modern urban sprawl. Arcology advocates a new city design, one that maximizes the interface of urban inhabitants, and to minimize the use of energy, pollu tion, raw materials and land, all the while allowing human interaction with the surrounding natural environment. "In a successful arcology arrangement," says Italian born architect and philosopher Paolo Soleri, "the built and the living interact as organs would in a highly evolved being." Thus, Soleri specifically designed Arcosanti to be "the City in the Image of Man." As such, many systems at Arcosanti work together with efficient circulation of people and resources, multi use buildings, and a proficient application of solar orientation for lighting, heating and cooling. In this complex, creative environment all aspects of the city are accessible, while personal privacy in a resourceful use of space is paramount to the overall design. As such, Solari proclaims, "A central tenet of arcology is that the city is the necessary instrument for the evolution of humankind."

Arcosanti is a three dimensional, pedestrian only urban environment devel oped entirely by Paolo Soleri, who studied under the eminent architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Under construction since 1970, Arcosanti is only about 10 com pleted and already houses nearly a hundred construction and artesian workers. When completed, Arcosanti will house 7,000 people, demonstrating ways to improve urban conditions and lessen our destructive impact on the earth. Its large yet compact structures and solar greenhouses will occupy only 25 acres 10 ha of a 4,060 acre 1,624 ha land preserve, keeping the natural countryside in close proximity to urban dwellers. Visitors report a "surge of inspiration" from being immersed in the advanced esthetic of geometric forms and Utopian con cepts applied at Arcosanti.

The urban experiment called Arcosanti is located near an old Indian village. Both Arcosanti and the prehistoric pueblo are built under the concept of arcology, that is, architecture coherent with ecology.

Arcosanti is constructed on the top of a low mesa. On a cliff wall behind Arcosanti are two prehistoric petroglyphs of a human and mountain goat depicted in harmony with their natural environment. The petroglyphs are located near the entrance to a large cave. Native Americans presumably occupied the cave, and sustained a living in the fertile valley. Not far from the cave, atop the next mesa to the north of Arcosanti, is an unexcavated Indian settlement. The ruins incorporate the walled remains of several pit houses joined next to

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▲ The City of Arcosanti was only one tenth completed in 2008.

each other in a townhouse fashion, built into the natural contours of the mesa. It may be a coincidence that an Indian pueblo community, so similar in concept to an arcology city, exists within a stone's throw from Arcosanti. Or maybe Paolo Soleri planned it that way.

Getting to Arcosanti

Arcosanti is conveniently located just off Interstate 17, only 70 miles 113 km north of metropolitan Phoenix. The exit for Arcosanti is at Cordes Junction, where signs lead motorists a few miles to the Visitor's Center. 50,000 tourists drop in every year for a free tour of the city. For those wishing to actively partici pate, there is a five week workshop program at Arcosanti to teach Soleri's build ing techniques and arcological philosophy, while working to continue the city's construction. The current city was built almost entirely by the more than 4,000 past workshop participants.

Canyon de Chelly

Within the four sacred mountains are a series of deep red rock canyons intrinsic to the identity of the Navajo Nation. The sheer sandstone canyons and rock for mations collectively known as Canyon de Chelly feature hundreds of Indian sites, including prehistoric pueblo dwellings and rock art murals spanning several thou sand years. The two primary canyons, Canyon del Muerto and Canyon de Chelly, shelter an almost tropical oasis of trees and flowers through the high desert ter rain. The two gorges and multiple tributaries create one of the Southwest's most impressive landscapes. The Navajo traditionally called the canyon tsegj, meaning variously "in the rock" or "canyon." The Spanish spelled it chegui, a Hispanicized version of the Navajo word. As they often did, American settlers later anglicized the name to "de Chelly," pronounced de shaye. Although the canyons are spiritu ally significant to the Navajo, the Navajo were not the first to settle in the canyon. The Navajo arrived in the late 1600s following three centuries of an intermittent Hopi presence, preceded by much older inhabitations.

Canyon de Chelly is home to several periods of prehistoric Indian civilizations dating from 2500 BCE until the Great Drought in 1300 CE. The earliest arriv als, a vague cultural classification called the Archaic, were a people who built

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no permanent homes but left images on the canyon walls to tell their stories. Next on the scene were the pithouse dwell ing Basketmaker people, who were attracted to the canyon by the presence of water to irri gate their primitive farms. They remained for several hundred years before the Anasazi moved into the canyon and built upon the older Basketmaker home sites. Between 1050 and 1300 CE, human habitation reached a peak in the canyon with the building of dramatic cliff dwell ings, including the White House, Antelope House, Sliding Rock, and the Mummy Cave settle ment. Eventually the Anasazi would vacate the canyon as mys teriously as the Basketmakers did, leaving behind abandoned pueblos, rock art murals and assorted artifacts. To the Hopi people, whose modern reservation is only 50 miles 80 km away, some sites in the canyon are considered highly sacred, like the kachina paintings in a cave near Antelope House. The Hopi farmed in Canyon de Chelly during the summer months and erected only temporary housing. Although most of the pictographs and petroglyphs in Canyon de Chelly were created by the Anasazi, some exam pies can be traced to the Archaic people, the Basketmakers, the Hopi as well as modern Navajos. Each culture brought with them their own colorful and distinct style of rock art.

The White House ruins in Canyon de Chelly. Lithograph circa 1890.

The Navajo people retain a mystical bond to Canyon de Chelly, considering it the physi- cal, historical, and spiritual center of their

nation.

For many years the canyon served as a refuge and fortress to the Navajo people. The Athapaskan speaking Navajos, originally a branch of the Apaches and still recognizably Apachean, moved into the Southwest from the Great Plains in the 15 th and 16 th centuries. The mysterious serpentine ravines allowed protection

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The Southwest

from their enemies, as well as fertile farming and grazing lands. So important was the canyon to the Navajo that it was specifically outlined in the original 1868 treaty with the United States: " the reservation boundary embraces the outlet of the Canon de Chilly sic , which canyon is to be all included in this reserva tion, shall be, and the same is hereby, set apart for the use and occupation of the Navajo tribe of Indians, and for such other friendly tribes or individual Indians." When the first boundary lines for the Navajo Reservation were drawn, Canyon de Chelly was intentionally placed dead center. Navajo tribal members remain in the canyon leading a simple lifestyle herding sheep and growing crops. Many Navajos living outside the canyon and other Colorado Plateau tribes return to Canyon de Chelly on pilgrimage to make prayer offerings or perform age old rituals as their ancestors have done for many generations.

Getting to Canyon de Chelly National Monument

Canyon de Chelly National Monument is located 3 miles 4.8 km from Route 191 near the town Chinle in northeastern Arizona. The 26 mile 42 km canyon's sheer cliffs range from 30 to more than 1,000 feet 9 to 300 m in height, provid ing a spectacular backdrop for hundreds of prehistoric ruins, as well as modern Navajo farms and houses. The Visitor's Center offers exhibits and cultural dis plays. A drive around the canyon offers excellent rim viewpoints. A Navajo guide is required for all canyon access, except for the 2.5 mile 4 km round trip White House Trail.

The Navajos

In the 15 th century, the Dine the original Navajo name meaning "The People" migrated south from the far northern tundra regions of North America into the Central Plains. A hundred years later part of the tribe migrated once again, this time to what is today northeastern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico. Here they encountered the Pueblo Indians already established on the land for many centuries. Similar to the Romans adapting to the traditions of older Greek mythology, the Navajo emulated the legends of their older Hopi counterparts. Navajo legend describes the Dine as having to pass through three different worlds before arriving on this earthly plane, called the fourth world, or the Glittering World. On this plane the Dine believe there are two classes of beings: the Earth People, and the Holy People. The Earth People are the Navajo themselves, while the Holy People are the equivalent of Navajo gods. The Holy People are said to have the power to aid or harm Earth People, and centuries ago the Holy People taught the Dine how to live correctly in their everyday life. They were taught how to harmoniously exist with Mother Earth, Father Sky, animals, plants, and insects. The Holy People assisted the First Man and the First Woman out of the third world into the Glittering World, where the first man and woman found

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▲ A mural in the Navajo Nation inspires pride in their traditional ways.

pueblos already existing. The Holy People put four sacred mountains in four different directions: Mount Blanca near Alamosa, Colorado to the east; Mount Taylor near Grants, New Mexico to the south; the San Francisco Peaks near Flagstaff, Arizona to the west; and Mount Hesperus near Durango, Colorado to the north. Collectively these mountains established the ancestral Navajoland of the fourth world. The Dine named the "Navajo" by Spanish explorers in 1540 mark their emergence into the fourth world from a hole in the La Plata Mountains of southwestern Colorado. The story of Dine creation is recounted in the tribe's most important ceremony, called the Blessing Way Rite. This ritual had been given to the tribe shortly after the emergence of the Holy People who created the natural world and humans. Navajo religious doctrine holds that the first Blessing Way ceremony was performed during the emergence of First Man and First Woman. The Navajo people and the Blessing Way came into being simultaneously and symbiotic ally, thus establishing the ceremony's importance for all time. The two day ceremony begins by recounting in song First Man's creation of humankind. The next day more songs are sung about other stages of the world's creation, and a bathing ritual in yucca cactus suds is performed to symbolize renewal. Crushed flower blossoms, corn meal, and pollen are sprinkled upon the ground to bless and bring good fortune to the Navajo people. The cer emony concludes with a 12 stanza song designed to satisfy the Holy People and reinforce the Navajo ideal of harmony between humans and nature. Blessing Way is performed at least once every six months for each Navajo family, in addition to special occasions such as weddings, impending births and the consecration of a new home. The Navajo regard this ceremony as fundamentally life giving because the Dine founders bestowed it, defining the tribe and its world purpose. Indeed, the Navajo believe that when the Blessing Way ceremony ceases to be performed, the world will come to an end.

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The Southwest

Monument Valley

In a high desert climate where fresh water and wild game are scarce, the pre historic Anasazi Indians thrived in the area for over 700 years. The Anasazi first came to Monument Valley at least 1,500 years ago, constructing cliff dwellings and carving mysterious petroglyphs before suddenly disappearing. Some Navajos claim there are a few Anasazi ruins in Monument Valley that no white man has ever seen. The Athapaskan speaking Navajo arrived hundreds of years after the Anasazi disappeared, adapting well to the arid environment. In Monument Valley, where the past seems eternal and history is all around, the Navajo have main tained harmony with "Mother Earth and Father Sky," blending what is modern with what is traditional in this fourth, or Glittering World. The valley features spires, buttes, and mesas towering over the mile high terrain by a thousand feet 300+ m or more. The landscape speaks eloquently of nature's own creation technique by using wind, erosion, rain and time.

Much of Navajo culture remains unchanged and preserved in Monument Valley. Their art has been passed down from generation to generation and many artistic techniques continue as they have since ancient times. Potters still use the coil method, adding liquid colored clay to create exquisite designs. Hand woven carpets and other textiles continue to be dyed and spun at Monument Valley. Traditional homes called hogans dot the landscape. The domed, hexagon shaped hogan is regarded as a sanctuary to the families who take up permanent resi dence. Native Americans usually assigned religious significance to their dwellings, which would oftentimes double as ceremonial centers. For example, the hogan entrance always faces east toward the rising sun. Some of the 300 Navajos still living in Monument Valley reside in the traditional earthen homes, although most now include modern stoves for heat and cooking.

Monument Valley is among the most photo- graphed landscape in the world. The Navajo Nation considers it a healing place with deep

spiritual meaning.

Several important Navajo ceremonies started within Monument Valley, includ ing the origination of the Squaw Dance and the Yei Bi Chei Dance. Both dances were first held in Monument Valley and continue to be performed at different locations on the reservation where needed. Yei Bi Chei was a holy figure to the Navajo. Distinguished Navajo men dress as the Yei Bi Chei and dance for heal ing purposes in a very sacred nine day ritual called the Night Way Ceremony. A prominent rock formation in Monument Valley resembles a line formation of several different Yei dancers. The Squaw Dance involves winter stories about animals when they are hibernating. In addition to group ceremonies, individual Navajo families have their own favored "prayer places" in different locations around Monument Valley.

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▲ The bizarre, eroded landscape of Monument Valley. Each of the mesa formations has a Navajo legend associated with its unique shape.

Modern visitors are equally inspired when traveling among the mammoth monoliths and immense rock spires stretching skyward from the desert floor. Transpersonal healing experiences are often reported. Monument Valley is espe dally enchanting at sunrise and sunset when the sandstone rock formations transform into various hues between orange to crimson red as the light changes. Monument Valley is an ever changing landscape holding many secrets. The Navajo name of the valley is Tse Bit Ndzisgaii meaning "white streaks inside rock." Many mineral and silver deposits are known in the valley, but mining is strictly prohibited. The Navajo killed two soldiers serving under Kit Carson after they attempted to mine silver in the sacred valley. The Mitchell Butte and Merrick Butte were named after the slain silver poachers. The Navajo retain many ere ation tales and stories about everyday life in association with the various buttes and mesas.

Getting to Monument Valley

The vast landscape of Monument Valley is completely enclosed on the Navajo Reservation, located on the border of northern Arizona and southern Utah. Monument Valley Navajo Tribal Park is located 4 miles 6.5 km east of U.S. 163 on the Arizona side. The nearest town is Kayenta, Arizona at the intersection of U.S. 160 and U.S. 163. An unpaved scenic drive winds among red sandstone buttes and spires rising above the desert floor. The Navajo Reservation is the largest reservation in the United States, encompassing 25,000 square miles 65,000 sq km across northwestern Arizona, southern Utah and northeastern New Mexico. Climbing any of the buttes or mesas in Monument Valley is prohibited without a Navajo guide.

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The Mysterious Anasazi

There is no accurate account of what these people called themselves; the term Anasazi is a Navajo word meaning variously the 'Ancient Ones," or 'Ancient Enemies." These early pueblo dwellers are known to Arizona's Hopi people as Hisatsinom, meaning the "People of Long Ago." For the Zuni, these people were the Ashiwi. Modern Puebloan people Hopi, Zuni, Tiwa, Acoma and others do not advocate the cultural division and scientific names often applied to their ancient ancestors, such as the anglicized 'Anasazi" and "Sinagua." Ironically, even "Pueblo" is a Spanish term for clustered homes in a village, given by the con quistador Coronado during an expedition to the Southwest. Yet for purposes of greater clarity and understanding, the term 'Anasazi" and other common usage names will be featured throughout this book.

The early Anasazi 100 BCE were nomadic hunter gatherers ranging over great expanses of territory throughout much of the Southwest. By 700 CE they had begun to live in settled communities of which New Mexico's Chaco Canyon was the largest and best preserved pueblo village. The extensive ruins are the greatest architectural achievement of prehistoric Native Americans. Intensive construction occurred throughout Chaco Canyon between 900 to 1120 CE, resulting in the development of several sophisticated dwelling complexes. The Chaco Canyon complex was the main social and ceremonial center of the Anasazi culture.

The Anasazi people had no written language, yet were bound by a complex reli gion based on weather patterns. Since rain was vital to their very existence, the coming of storms, especially thunder and lightning, must have evoked a super natural feeling for the pueblo's inhabitants. A wide variety of items have been excavated and determined to be ceremonial offerings. These offerings include traditional tools, beads, and pots, but also include sacrificed animals such as black bear, dog and puma.

Just as the Anasazi religion is a mystery, so is their demise. Sometime after the 12 th century CE the population of Chaco and its outlier Great Houses went into steep decline, until most of the communities were completely abandoned. An invading tribal force is unlikely because the pueblos were well fortified and do not show signs of being attacked. A more likely reason is overused land, lack of trees, lack of water A Navajo hogans may have been and failing crops. All this suggests a tragic based on earlier Anasazi homes.

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human drama of famine, death and cultural decline. It is likely that the remaining Anasazi assimilated with other tribes, migrated south to establish new communi ties or became the Hopi nation. Still today the Hopi regard the Hisatsinom as their forefathers.

Old Oraibi

High atop the Third Mesa with sweeping views of the San Francisco Mountains, live the fourth world descendents of the Hopi Nation. The rich Hopi tradition, adopted by the Navajo, teaches that three worlds existed prior to the one in which we now live. Legend says that a very long time ago, in the first world, their ancestors witnessed destruction of civilization with fire. The second world was destroyed by ice, and the third inundated by water. Sometime in the early 12 th century of the fourth world, the Hopi left their traditional homeland and arrived on the Three Mesas in northeastern Arizona. Their first settlement, known today as Old Oraibi, has the longest unbroken cultural roots on the continent by a single people. A series of severe droughts in the late 13 th century forced the Hopi to abandon several smaller villages in the region and consolidate within Oraibi and a few other settlements. Once the most populous and influential Hopi pueblo community, Old Oraibi fell into decline in 1907 when economic disturbances and internal dissension split the village. Many residents went to live in other pueblos or form new communities, such as Hotevilla and Bakavi, but the heart and soul of pueblo living remained at Oraibi. And while never completely abandoned, Old Oraibi today looks like a living archaeological site with original adobe walls still intact and scattered potsherds littering the ground. Many of the last inhabited Hopi pueblo homes at Old Oraibi date back hundreds of years.

Old Oraibi, established around 1100 ce, is the longest continuously inhabited settlement in

North America.

The Hopi Nation is made up of 34 clans, each with its own distinct role. The people of the Badger Clan, for instance, are the keepers of healing plants. Those of the Eagle Clan are the spiritual leaders. Other clans are the Bear, Butterfly, Cloud, Corn, Crow, Snake and dozens more. Each clan has its own history that is passed down through its members. Each clan is responsible for certain cer emonies and for honoring certain sacred objects. Clan membership determines which ceremonial offices a person may hold. With such a division of knowledge, it is said that no single Hopi person could know absolutely everything about the Hopi Nation. Hopi society is matrilineal, meaning the clan of the mother deter mines the clan membership of the children. Property is passed on from mother to daughter. Parents have the role of only showing love to their children, while

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the families' uncle has the role of disciplining the children if necessary. In times of death, clan members are usually buried near other clan members. The clan members of Old Oraibi are still buried in the traditional manner of bundling the body with yucca ropes and placed into hidden caves in the western cliff walls of the Third Mesa near Oraibi.

Hopi spirituality is intertwined with everyday life. Most Hopi still pray to the kachina supernatural beings as their outward expression of spirituality. The roots of the Hopi people can be traced back 100 generations or more. Today approximately 40 of Hopi are Christian, while the rest adhere to the indig enous religion of their ancestors. When the Hopi pray, they pray first for family, then for clan and then for the rest of the world. To stay close to the land, each clan and each person has a personal plot for growing food or sacrament items. The three mesas making up the Hopi homeland are considered the "Center of the Universe." Old Oraibi is on the outer tip of the Third Mesa, with abundant petroglyphs of kachinas featured on the eastern and southern bluff walls. Each of the three contiguous mesas features three distinct dialects of the Hopi language. The kachina gods are different on each mesa too, unique to each pueblo com munity in appearance and meaning.

In the pueblos of the various cliff dwelling tribes are semi subterranean cer emonial rooms, referred to as kivas, where the traditional entrance is through the roof using a ladder. Here appointed priests set out sacred objects in preparation for multi day ceremonies, the most complex of which centers around the kachina

A A Spanish church in ruins on the Third Mesa of the Hopi Reservation.

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Sacred Places North America

A House of Chief Talti, Old Oraibi. Lithograph circa 1875.

cult. On a specific date, usually twice per month in the season they are per formed, masked and plumed members dance through the pueblo to bestow hap piness onto the tribe and reaffirm the promise of ample, life giving rain. In Old Oraibi there are three kivas left out of an original 23, and the settlement has been hosting kachina dances for many centuries. Only on the Third Mesa are held the dances open to the public. The First and Second Mesas hold kachina dances, but they are closed to non indigenous people due to fear of exploitation. When Old Oraibi lost most of its population in 1907, it also lost its position as the center of Hopi spirituality and culture. Although the 1939 Hopi tribal constitution pro vides each village with a seat on the tribal council, Oraibi has declined to elect a representative and maintains relative independence from the tribal council. Old Oraibi has since retained a more traditional way of life and has resisted the adop tion of modern culture that is visible in other Hopi villages.

Getting to Old Oraibi

Old Orabi is located on Hopi land in northeastern Arizona, surrounded com pletely by the Navajo Nation. Arizona Route 264 crosses east west directly through the Hopi Indian Reservation and accesses all communities on the three mesas. Old Oraibi is on the Third Mesa, just east of the village Hotevilla. No photographs are allowed in Old Oraibi, unless permission is granted from a Hopi member in the community. Kachina dances are held on weekends, usu ally twice per month, starting on winter solstice, and finishing on summer sol stice. Admission is free, but photography or the drawing of dancers is strictly prohibited. Many other villages sit atop the Hopi Nation's three mesas: Walpi, Shungopavi, Polacca, Sipaulovi, Bakavi, and Kykotsmovi, sometimes called New Oraibi and the seat of the Hopi tribal government. Most of the Hopi elders and mystics live in the town Hotevilla. Old Oraibi is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1964.

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San Francisco Peaks

Northern Arizona's San Francisco lava field is an area of young volcanoes sprin kled along the southern margin of the Colorado Plateau. The vast volcanic field spreads over 1,935 square miles 3,100 sq km and includes more than 600 vents and cinder cones. Most of the vents are erupted basalt lava flows, interspersed with scattered scoria cones. The individual peaks and vents are the eroded rem nants of a larger compound stratovolcano, which is a moderately steep volcano formed by multiple eruptions. The stratovolcano features lava domes, character ized by bulbous masses built by internal inflation. San Francisco Mountain is the only stratovolcano in the San Francisco volcanic field and was built by several eruptions occurring between about 1 and 0.4 million years ago. Since then, much of the mountain has been displaced to create the "Inner Basin." The missing material may have been removed quickly and explosively by an eruption similar to the 1980 eruption of Mount Saint Helens in Washington, or it may have been removed slowly and incrementally by a combination of water erosion, glacial scouring, internal cone collapses or large landslides. Although inactive for a thou sand years, the San Francisco volcanic field is believed to be situated on top of a geothermal "hot spot," so another eruption in the future is very likely.

Most of the Southwestern tribes believe the San Francisco Peaks are the sacred abode of spiritual beings named kachinas by the Hopi.

A kachina is considered an ancestral spirit to the Hopi and several surrounding Puebloan people including the Zuni and Acoma. Kachinas are not gods. They are spiritual helpers who have been with the Hopi since their emergence from the base of the mountain. The kachinas live atop the San Francisco Peaks within sight of the Hopi and Navajo reservations. Every winter the kachinas come down from the mountains and visit the Hopi and other Native Americans who request their help. In Hopi life there are three versions of kachinas. First, there are the mystical deities themselves who reside high atop the San Francisco Peaks and govern elements like rain and wind. Second, there are masked dancers and impersonators who are actually men of the tribe portraying their favorite gods in Hopi ceremonies. The third version is kachina dolls or carvings. The age old Hopi tradition of carving various kachina figurines from cottonwood roots car ries on to this day. The dolls were first created as a remembrance and teaching aid to be handed over to children during a ceremony by a kachina dancer. Now the carvings are popular tourist gifts and collector items.

The Hopi recognize over 300 different kachina deities, varying from desert animals to vegetables, each one playing an integral role in their living mythol ogy Each deity has a job to do or a lesson to teach. The kachinas arrive at the Hopi mesas in the winter disguised as Hopi men dressed in traditional attire to represent the various gods. The Hopi believe that when an impersonator wears

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▲ The San Francisco Peaks soar above ancient ruins. (Photo courtesy U.S. Geological Survey)

a kachina mask, he becomes empowered with the characteristics of the spirit being represented and should therefore be regarded as sacred. Each kachina has an important role in the daily lives of the Hopi people. Ogres teach discipline, chief kachinas teach wisdom and have powers comparable to that of a religious elder. The cricket, with his wheat shock antennae, is a symbol of fertility. There are also female kachinas who, with the exception of only one kachina called Pachavuin Mana, are portrayed strictly by the men of the villages. The "women" instruct on the importance of values, such as a mother would teach their children. There are cloud spirits called shalakos who bring rain. There are also light hearted clown kachinas, such as the formidable mudheads, whose primary function is one of amusement during pauses in kachina dancing, or to dampen the seriousness of a major ceremony. "Borrowed" kachinas are deities that have traveled from one pueblo to another at an earlier date and have since been "adopted" by that pueblo. A relatively newThird Mesa kachina is called the Priest Killer, seen tout ing a bloody knife and a spindly cross, who harkens back to the Pueblo Revolt against the Spanish clergy. In 1680, many pueblo tribes, including the Hopi, rose up and killed the Spanish priests who had often cruelly forced their ways onto the native people.

Some of the most elaborate kachina rituals are devoted to rain god worship. Similar to other southwestern Native American rituals, the rain deities are associ ated with ancestral spirits who return each year in the form of rain clouds from their western homelands. The winter rains of the American Southwest typically come from the west. According to Hopi mythology the kachinas inhabit the San

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Francisco Peaks for only part of each year, until the rain comes and then they fly as clouds to provide precious rain to the mesa country. They stay until midsum mer when they return to the coolness of high elevation forests. Hopi spirits also carry the prayers of their people. The arrival of the kachinas in December for the Powamu, or the Bean Dance, starts the cycle of kachina appearances. They appear regularly until just before harvest time around the summer solstice, end ing with the Niman Dance, or the Home Dance, at which time all kachinas return to the underworld through the sipapu in the San Francisco Peaks, the entrance where the first humans emerged. The area directly surrounding the towering San Francisco Peaks is protected as the Kachina Peaks Wilderness, so named because of its spiritual significance to the Hopi people.

Climbing the San Francisco Peaks

San Francisco Mountain, Arizona's tallest peak at 12,633 f eet 3>79° m » serves as a scenic backdrop to Flagstaff and much of the northwestern part of the state. The greater San Francisco region offers the hiker plenty of solitude and high altitude exploration possibilities. A good selection of trails abound, including the Sunset Trail, the Kachina Trail, and the Inner Basin Trail offering access to the various peaks and features many spectacular views that reward the sometimes strenuous hiking effort. The arduous "Humphreys Trail" is 4.5 miles 7.3 km to the top of San Francisco Mountain. This is the only trail that leads to the highest point in Arizona. The trail ascends through alpine scenery of huge rockslides, avalanche chutes and a bristlecone forest as it climbs from 9,300 to 12,633 f eet 1,890 3,790 m . The last part of the summit trail is rocky, steep and unshielded from the elements. The view from the top is a full 360 degree panorama of the Grand Canyon, the three mesas of the Hopi, the Painted Desert, and Oak Creek Canyon. From Flagstaff, drive 7 miles 11.3 km on Highway 180 to the north bound Snowbowl Road Forest Road 516 . The trailhead begins at the north end in the first parking lot of the Snowbowl Ski area. Note that off trail hiking and camping are prohibited above the treeline.

Sedona Vortices

The Sedona landscape is commonly described as magical, with its impressive red rock canyon walls towering majestically against the clear, blue sky of central Arizona. The mesas in the region are stark and tall, and dominate the panorama. Sedona is a popular New Age center, attracting millions of tourists from around the world every year. Nearby, the canyon opens up into a gorgeous, rock rimmed amphitheater, and south of Sedona stands the famous Chapel of the Holy Cross. Yet most people come to Sedona to experience the unique earth energies resid ing just outside of town, called the vortices. A recent study by Northern Arizona University concluded that two thirds of the near four million annual visitors to Sedona came seeking some sort of spiritual experience.

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▲ On the trail to the Boynton Canyon Vortex.

The surrounding red rock country of Sedona is believed by many to be a vortex meditation site. Vortices are defined as specific global power spots that enhance prayer, contemplation, and reflection for people of all faiths. A vortex is a potent energy pattern emitting from the earth where the planet is at its healthiest and most alive. Vortices appear when there is a combination of rock cracks, fissures, fault lines, ley lines, underground rivers, high amounts of magnesium or iron in the soil content, and a negative ion count. Of course, Sedona is not the only vor tex site there are dozens or perhaps hundreds worldwide and they are usually associated with a known sacred place. The energy of a vortex acts as an amplifier, working to enhance or magnify any physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual lev els of the visitor. This amplifier effect of the vortices supposedly helps augment thoughts and intuitions, heighten emotions, or may allow unexpected insights at an interpersonal or spiritual level. The terms "electric" or "magnetic" does not apply to the kind of energy found at a vortex, but to its effect. One scientific explanation of vortices has suggested that the mineral composition found within the Sedona red rocks creates a magnetism that may have a discernible effect on people. As a result of their popularity, vortex sites are among the most visited and impacted locations within the Coconino National Forest.

Sedona, Arizona has been termed the New Age capital of the United States, mainly because of at least four major energy vortices detected near the town. The Sedona Vortices are supposedly the strongest and most read- ily apparent in the world.

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▲ The strangely eroded red rock formation called Bell Rock is said to contain powerful vortex energy.

Most of the natural features in the Sedona area were held sacred by prehistoric people who recognized the potent energies of the land. Native Americans speak of the uni versal Grandmother Spirit who still resides in Sedona, continuously welcoming her spiritual family home. Several medicine wheels of stacked rocks have been constructed in the area, both by Native Americans and by New Age visitors. The reverence of

Sedona as a sacred place by people of more than one cultural tradition is readily apparent. Nearly all Christian denominations have a church around town. Several Hollywood celebrities own property in Sedona. Native American legends color virtually every aspect of the region. Ever since Sedona became a New Age mecca it has attracted artists, writers, musicians and spiritual seekers from all walks of life. The strong natural energy vibrations seem to be quite conducive in magne tizing others of a like mind.

Getting to the Sedona Vortices

There are four frequently visited energy vortices in the Sedona area. Boynton Canyon "Vortex is located 3.2 miles 5.2 km west of Sedona on Highway 89A past the Highway 179 junction. Follow the signs for Boynton Canyon. From the parking area, visitors follow the well marked trails to a 30 foot 10 m rock knoll where the energy is strongest, a place called "Kachina Woman." The Bell Rock Vortex emanates near the base of an almost perfectly symmetrical butte. Bell Rock has a distinctive shape, and is easy to spot just north of the village Oak Creek on Highway 179. Airport "Vortex is the closest vortex to the town Sedona itself. Going 1.1 miles 1.8 km west on 89A, turn south on Airport Road and park a half mile up at the distinct curve before the road continues to the top of the mesa. The vortex is a small hill with twisted junipers and a clear view of Sedona on both sides. Finally, there is the Cathedral Rock. Vortex. This vortex is located 4.3 miles 7 km west on 89A past the junction of 89A and Highway 179. Turn west on Back O' Beyond Road to the car turnoff and the trailhead to Cathedral Rock. It is now required for all motorists to obtain a "Red Rock Pass" before parking at any of the vortex turn off areas. The cost is based on a daily or per week basis, and is available in numerous park service offices and the Chamber of Commerce in downtown Sedona.

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Southern Sinagua Pueblos

Water is the desert's most elusive natural resource and has always been the key to survival for humans, plants and animals alike. Prehistoric inhabitants enjoyed either a high standard of living when water was in abundance, or suffered and disappeared without it. The Spanish word for "without water" is sinagua, a name the Spaniards bestowed on the long lost people who abandoned their pueblos in the Verde Valley, presumably because of a lack of water. Despite their given name, the Sinagua people did have water. Early in their development they discovered an unusual and effective method of farming based on water conservation. Later, they adopted the art of irrigation farming.

In and around the Verde Valley region of Sedona are several advanced prehistoric settlements of the Southern Sinagua people, whose culture is often referred to as the "People in Between." The Sinagua were strongly influenced from all direc tions by their surrounding Anasazi, Mogollon, and Hohokam neighbors. They eagerly adopted Hohokam buff colored pottery, Anasazi above ground pueblo building techniques, as well as Mogollon style ball courts and canal irrigation sys terns. The Southern Sinagua became a unique synergistic culture among several

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already clearly defined. Similar to their Northern Sinagua kin folk at Wupatki, the Verde Valley became a human melting pot of successive cultural influences coming together in cooperation and peace. About 1150 CE, the Southern Sinagua began build ing their large pueblo communi ties, the three most notable in the Verde Valley are the neigh boring Tuzigoot, Palatki and Montezuma's Castle settlements. These cliff dwellings came to prominence in the 1300s dur ing the drought years, and were occupied for another century. Yet sometime in the early 1400s, the Sinagua abandoned the entire

valley No one knows why, but ^ Montezuma's Castle occupies a cave in a suggestions include continuing nearly sheer cliff face,

drought conditions, too much

pressure on the land, or conflicts with the encroaching Yavapai tribe who were living in the Verde Valley when the Spanish arrived in 1583. Whatever the rea sons for leaving, the survivors were absorbed into northern pueblo communities and are generally regarded as the ancestors of the modern Hopi people. A Hopi legend tells of a southern people merging with them around this time because they did not have priests or ceremonies of their own, and were thus spiritually deficient.

The Verde Valley around Sedona supported

a rich cultural melting pot of prehistoric people, the most prolific being the Southern Sinagua. Their culture is best defined by the large pueblo hill town called Tuzigoot, and the Palatki Ruins located alongside the highest concentration of pictographs in the

region.

Tuzigoot Apache for "crooked water" is the remains of a Sinaguan pueblo community built between 1125 and 1400 CE. The ruins crown the summit of a 120 foot 36 m limestone ridge overlooking the meandering Verde River. The original pueblo was two stories high in places and consisted of 77 ground floor rooms. Like most pueblo dwellings, there were few exterior doors, because entry

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by way of ladders through an opening in the roof was the preferred way to access the rooms. The Sinagua were prolific traders, and Tuzigoot appears to be a primary outpost for foreign trade. Found on site were Anasazi black on white pottery shards, parrot feath ers from Mexico likely used for ceremonial purposes , fine jewelry featuring turquoise, and seashells from the Gulf of California. In exchange, the Sinagua traded salt from nearby lake deposits, a soft ornamental stone called argil lite, and copper ore extracted from the Jerome area. Along with physical items for trade, news of neighboring tribes fol lowed along with the goods, as well as adaptations in customs A Roof top view from Tuzigoot looking and ideas. Religious practices down on the hillside settlement. from Mexico, such as stargaz

ing from the rooftop of the highest pueblo, also likely influenced the people of Tuzigoot. A main feature of Tuzigoot is the central plaza that was a community gathering place. Here resi dents displayed their wares for barter, gossiped about the latest news, and gath ered for religious dance ceremonies or games of skill with neighboring villages.

About eight miles 14 km away as a bird flies from Tuzigoot is another promi nent Sinagua pueblo site called Palatki, a Hopi name meaning "Red House." Palatki consists of two large dwellings built at the base of a sheer cliff in a box canyon. Like Montezuma's Castle, the pueblo ruins are interesting and fairly well preserved. But what makes Palatki more impressive is the adjoining rock art area called Red Cliffs. Several different native cultures contributed their own pictographs and petroglyphs to the various rock art panels suggesting this was an area of special spiritual importance. The definition of a pictograph is an illustration painted or applied to a surface, while a petroglyph is one scratched or scraped onto a surface. Collectively, the four Palatki Red Cliff alcoves represent the finest example of rock art and the largest single panel in the Verde Valley. The first alcove is called the Grotto Site where a concentration of pictographs, mostly

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snakes and water figures, surround a pool of water that has always been pres ent. To many Indians, snakes are associated with water, lightning, and the underworld. Just around the corner, the Bear Alcove is named after a grouping of bears found near the top of the roof. Large mammals such as deer, mountain sheep, and antelope are also depicted. This may have been an area where hunting rituals were performed to improve a hunters' chance of killing one of these animals. The third alcove depicts the faint remnants of two sun or shield like designs of the Sinagua, thought to be clan symbols of the former residents. These shields were traced over with charcoal by the Yavapai or the Apache, likely as an attempt to rejuvenate the supernatural powers of the prehistoric pictograph, obtain it for themselves, or negate the power. The fourth alcove is called the Roasting Pit where the agave plant was roasted and the red rock ceiling is charred black from countless fires. Archaic, Sinagua, Yavapai, Apache, and Hopi people have drawn on the walls of this shelter, suggesting it was an important ceremonial center to all these people for thousands of years. A great variety of designs can be found at Palatki, includ ing large sun shields, rattlesnakes, and mysterious ghost like figures in several places. Perhaps the most identifiable pictograph at the Roasting Pit is the Hopi image of Kokopelli, the hump backed flute player, jokester, womanizer, and fer tility figure often associated with water. He is also a sort of Pied Piper who can attract game animals by playing his flute. Below Kokopelli are mountain sheep and raindrops, testifying to his magical powers. A pictograph depicting two spiraling "caduceus," resembling a pair of DNA strands, are a favorite mystery to New Age visitors. They call it the "Blue Door" because of a slit between the rocks, allegedly a supernatural entranceway to the Pleiades star system.

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Getting to the Southern Sinagua Pueblos

Tuzigoot National Monument is located just off Route 279, the road connect ing the towns of Cottonwood and Clarkdale. Route 279 connects at both ends to Highway 89A, the road that runs northeast into Sedona. The well marked Montezuma Castle National Monument is located a few miles east of Interstate 17, just north of Camp Verde. The Palatki Red Cliffs Heritage Site is a 30 minute drive west of Sedona, located on a grated dirt road called FR 795. One way to go is on Dry Creek Road to Boynton Canyon and follow the signs to Palatki, the other is to take Highway 89A west for 7 miles 12 km and turn north on Red Canyon Road, alternatively called FR 525. This grated dirt road will continue due north for 6 miles 9 km until it comes to the intersection for the Honanki Ruins and Palatki Ruins. Follow the road to the right for 2 miles 3.5 km further north on FR 795. Normal cars can make the trip to Palatki, but should proceed at a cautious and slow pace. The road to the Honanki ruins is very rutted and should only be attempted in a sturdy 4WD vehicle. Guided jeep tours from Sedona take visitors to the Palatki and Honanki sites.

Wupatki

Tree ring data analysis in northern Arizona has determined that in the winter

of 1064 1065 CE a great volcano exploded and set in motion a two centuries long

volcanic tantrum, forming what is now called Sunset Crater. Volcanic cinders,

ash and sand spread out over 800 square miles 1,280 sq km surrounding the vol

cano. Instead of devastating the land, the cinders formed a kind of mulch, which

conserved moisture and allowed better conditions for growing crops. During

the sustained eruption of Sunset Crater, the fertile soil in a dry area encouraged

prehistoric farmers to move into the area. The region around the volcano became

a melting pot of different Southwest cul

tures, including the Anasazi from the east

and north, the Hohokam from the south,

and the Mogollon from the southeast. All

of these groups and more set up farming

communities next to the less sophisti

cated Northern Sinagua people, who had

been living near Sunset Crater before the

eruption. These very different prehistoric

cultures, collectively called the Hisatsinom

by their Hopi descendents, lived together

and learned from each other for about

150 years. Perhaps by then the land was

exhausted. For whatever reason, the last

L Sunset Crater is a near inhabitants left about 1225 CE, shortly

perfect cone.

(Photo courtesy U.S.G.S.) before Sunset Crater emitted its last burst

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of activity in 1250 and became an extinct volcano. The Hopi and other local tribes consider the region as a highly energized "spot of power," one of several particularly sacred places on the planet. According to Hopi traditions, Sunset Crater in northern Arizona is a sacred mountain where angry gods once threat ened to destroy evil people with its volcanic fire.

The people who constructed the Wupatki pueblos were a collection of several dif- ferent prehistoric cultures. The result is an amalgamation of people interacting peacefully with each other in a harsh environment.

The name Wupatki derives from a Hopi word meaning "tall house," referring to the multistory dwellings, which during the n 00s, contained more than 100 rooms and housed perhaps 150 people. Although there are about 800 ruins in the Wupatki National Monument, the Wupatki Pueblo near the Visitor Center was the most developed of the four primary settlements in the vicinity of Sunset Crater. Other accessible pueblos include Wukoki, Nalakihu, the Citadel, Lomaki, and the Box Canyon Dwellings. In one area there are nearly 100 individual ruins scattered within a single square mile. Wupatki was by far the largest pueblo and likely served as the administrative and cultural center to the other farming settle ments in the outlying areas. Wupatki has been partially excavated and includes two pueblo complexes, an old spring, a large circular community "amphitheater," a ballcourt, and a blowhole, which may offer a clue as to why the Sinagua decided on this location. The blowhole, or "breathing cave," sends negative ionized air rushing through it and was held extremely sacred by prehistoric Indians. The blowholes are openings in the earth where water cooled air rushes out when the air pressure below ground is greater than that above. Several other breath ing caves in the Four Corners region can be heard for miles around when the conditions are just right, and some have be measured to emit air at 30 M.P.H. 50 km P.H. under cer tain circumstances.

The fact that one of A The ballcourt at Wupatki.

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these curious geological anomalies is located at the Wupatki Pueblo further attests to its importance as a spiritual site. Hopi Indians refer to the blowhole as the breath of Taapontsa, the wind spirit.

Another significant feature of Wupatki is an ancient ballcourt, one of only several discovered in northern Arizona. The Wupatki ballcourt measures 78 feet 23.4 m wide, 102 feet 30.6 m long, with a 6 foot 1.8 m high wall. While ball courts are far more common in southern Arizona over 200 have been uncov ered throughout the state it is commonly believed the Hohokam people built them all between the years 750 1200 CE. The game balls, also found at Arizona archaeological sites, were made of carefully shaped rocks and covered in pine pitch or other materials. Similar to ancient Mesoamerican ball games, the objec tive seems to have been to move the ball toward a goal by using a curved stick or kicking it with feet and legs only. This game was introduced to the Hohokam from Mexico where, in the 16 th century, Spanish observers indicated that it was strenuous and had a religious or ritualistic overtone. Its significance and method of playing in Southwestern culture, however, are not clearly known. With such a profound similarity to Mesoamerican cultures, the Hohokam are sometimes referred to as the Northern Toltecs by researchers. A common feature of Arizona ballcourts is that they are located along major natural drainages and known travel routes. As such, ballcourts may have provided social exchanges between villages because most were clustered within a one day walk of other neighboring villages. The Wupatki ballcourt is the only one in the Sunset Crater region and was likely an important feature to their way of life. It is one of the last to be constructed and the only known masonry built court in the Southwest.

Getting to Wupatki National Monument

From Flagstaff, drive 32 miles 52 km north on U.S. 89 to the second Wupatki Sunset Crater Loop Road entrance, then continue 14 miles 23 km east to the Visitor Center. Before reaching the Wupatki Pueblo Visitor Center, the Nalakihu and Citadel Ruins are located on the Loop Road, while the Lomaki and Box Canyon Dwellings are down a short side road. The Wukoki Pueblo is located on another side road just past the Visitor Center. 18 miles 29 km from the Visitor Center, by the 36 mile 58 km loop road, is Sunset Crater National Monument. The tossed particles of iron and oxidized sulphur on the rim of the volcano gave Sunset Crater its red orange color and name. The dead mouth of the volcano is visible within the crater, the same one that spewed out prodigious amounts of cinders that covered the surrounding area. Climbing Sunset Crater is prohibited, but there is the scenic Lava Flow Trail at the volcano's base. A single entrance fee covers both parks.

NEVADA

During the last Ice Age much of northwestern Nevada was a vast inland sea called Lake Lahontan. The same planetary warming period that gradually

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melted the Sierra glaciers also dried up Lake Lahontan, but many shallow lakes and marshes remained until historic times. Lake Lahontan was intact during the arrival of early man in Nevada. At 9,500 years ago the lake was still high, and it is known that humans lived in theTruckee Basin 11,000 years ago and probably earlier. Nevada was a much different place back then, a lush lake district with plenty of animals, including huge ground sloths, mastodons, and rhinos. Today Nevada is a land of desert extremes, noted for its range of high and low annual temperatures. Precipitation averages about nine inches 23 cm per year across the entire state.

Nevada was likely visited by Spanish explorers in 1776, but half a century passed before the arrival of new foreigners. Eminent explorer John C. Fremont conducted the first systematic survey of Nevada in 1844, the same year when he chanced upon Pyramid Lake. His mapping helped guide the gold crazed hordes heading for the California foothills after 1848, the same year when the United States won the region from Mexico. The first permanent town named Genoa was founded by Mormons. It was from here Snowshoe Thompson set off for Sacramento carrying the mail, first passing by Lake Tahoe and then across the Sierras. The famous Pony Express would follow the same route. The call of "Eureka!" was heard all across Nevada in 1859 when prospectors discovered gold and one of the biggest silver deposits in U.S. history the Comstock Lode of Virginia City Nevada quickly grew fabulously wealthy allowing its entry into statehood by 1864, but after the boom went bust in the 1880s, the state's fortunes and population soon dwindled. A new kind of boom came to Nevada in the mid 20 th century with the advent of legalized gambling.

Area 51

In one of the most rural parts of the continental United States is a top secret military installment called Area 51 that officially does not exist. Its 200 plus buildings are undisclosed, what goes on there remains classified, and anybody who gets too close to the facility is promptly arrested. Signs posted outside the

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base ominously warn, "Use of deadly force authorized." Although downplayed by military brass, clandestine photographs of Area 51 have been taken and widely dis tributed showing an extensive base clustered next to the world's longest runway. The Air Force and Department of Defense facility in southern Nevada at Groom Lake has become the best kept secret everybody knows about. Popularized by the 1996 movie Independence Day, featuring fictionalized scenes of Area 51, the base has entered the mind of our collective psyche. Yet admission of any covert operations or testing of secret aircraft at Area 51 is resolutely denied by Air Force officials. Furthermore, the base does not appear on any public U.S. government maps. According to Federal Aviation Administration pilots' charts and U S. Geological Survey topographic maps, this air base simply does not exist.

The first wave of Area 51 notoriety came in 1989 when a man named Bob Lazar appeared in a broadcast on Las Vegas television station KLAS, claiming to be a physicist working on backward engineered propulsion systems of various saucer shaped aircraft, supposedly based on recovered alien technology. The craft he reportedly worked on were kept in a secret complex called S 4 at Papoose Lake, a dry lakebed only a few miles south of Groom Lake. Subsequent interviews with Lazar on KLAS transformed Area 51 into a top destination for UFO watchers. The second wave of notoriety came when two mountain peaks, Freedom Ridge and White Sides Mountain, located less than 13 miles 21 km away from Area 51, became prime viewing platforms for nighttime aerial activity The nearby mountains became so popular that the Air Force acquired the land from the federal Bureau of Land Management BLM and closed access in April, 1995 "for the public's safety." More Area 51 infamy involved the known testing of the Star Wars Defense Program, the Stealth Cruise Missile, hypersonic spy airplanes that can reach speeds up to Mach 7, and the training of top secret pilots from around the world. Finally, eyewitness reports of disc shaped craft hovering over nearby mountains, rumors of at least 15 underground levels, and the remains of alien bodies and extraterrestrial aircraft only enhance the urban legend of Area 51. Such notoriety draws dozens, sometimes hundreds, of tourists to this remote region every day.

Area 51 is a mecca for UFO enthusiasts, para- normal researchers, and the just plain curi- ous. Thousands of annual visitors make the journey to Nevada Highway 375, alternatively named the "Extraterrestrial Highway," to get a peak of this ultra top-secret Air Force base.

Area 51 is as much of an enigma today as it ever was. The military still keeps the area cloaked in tight secrecy, and seeks to acquire more BLM land to keep the curious "watchers" even farther away. Although Area 51 is in Nellis Air Space, the base itself is controlled by Edwards Air Force Base in California. The

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Nellis Bombing and Gunnery Range is the largest restricted airspace in the world and the largest restricted ground area in the United States. The entire base is 4,687 square miles 7,546 sq km , approximately the same size as the state of Connecticut. Although enormous in size, the Nellis Air Space is the greater whole surrounding Area 51. Even the name Area 51, a title given by the Atomic Energy Commission, remains ambiguous. The designation 'Area 51" can be found on old government maps, but the base has other nicknames too. Pioneers named the dry lakebed "Groom Lake" and blazed the first roads into the region long before the land was acquired by the Air Force. Another popular nickname is "Dreamland," referring to the name of the restricted air space over Area 51. Military contractors call Area 51 "The Ranch," or "Paradise Ranch." The CIA Director of 1955 was from Watertown, New

York, and CIA staffers reportedly refer to Area 51 as the "Watertown Strip." Other nicknames include the "Pig Farm," and "The Box." Rumors continue to circulate as to whether the Air Force has moved its most sensitive operations out of Area 51, or if the top secret testing continues to this day.

Archive satellite image of Area 51.

Getting to Area 5 1

Area 51 is strictly off limits to civilians. Along the unmarked perimeter of Area 51, including the now closed Freedom Ridge and White Sides Mountain, are inconspicuous trespasser detection devices. There are trip sensors, buried motion sensors, geo phones to pick up vibrations, ammonia sensors to pick up human scents, radar stations, car sensors and hundreds of video cameras. Just stepping

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past the warning signs is enough reason for military police subcontractors to come out and detain any trespassers. Suspects will be held at gunpoint until a Lincoln County Sheriff's Deputy arrives to impound any vehicles and make an arrest for "Government Trespassing on the Nellis Bombing and Gunnery Range." Suspects can expect a night in jail, a 600 fine, and all associated vehicle towing fees. The only legal way to view Area 51 is to stop at the famous "Black Mailbox," now painted white just off Nevada State Route 375 the Extraterrestrial Highway . The mailbox is located exactly halfway between mile marker 29 and mile marker 30, and is by far the most popular viewing location. Another legal option for viewing Area 51 is to climb Tikaboo Peak, located on BLM land approximately 30 miles 48 km away from the base. Visitors may access Tikaboo Peak via Highway 93, just south of Pregnant Valley Lakes and the town of Alamo. A 4WD vehicle is necessary for the rutted dirt road, and sturdy climbing shoes are recommended to climb the summit. Tour guides to Tikaboo Peak can be arranged in the tiny town of Rachel at the Area 51 Research Center, or maps can be obtained at the Little ALe'Inn Bar and Restaurant, also in Rachel. Since Rachel is the nearest settle ment to the base, it enjoys minor celebrity status as being "the official home of Area 51." Located three hours north of Las Vegas by car, Rachel receives a mod est number of visitors all year round, and several small businesses offer food and lodging, as well as aerospace and "alien themed" merchandising.

Black Rock City

Like a mirage in the desert, the Burning Man Arts Festival appears and disap pears in less than a fortnight. Every late summer during the final week of August leading into the Labor Day weekend thousands of digerati geeks, pyrotechnic enthusiasts, aging hippies and too hip yuppies descend on a prehistoric dry lakebed in the Nevada desert known to insiders as Black Rock City. It's not per haps the ideal place to go camping or consume a heady cocktail of drugs and alco hoi temperatures can exceed 100 degrees Fahrenheit 24° c by day. The area is also prone to white out storms fueled by fierce dust winds. It is an environment that is either very harsh or very gentle. Over exposure to the harsh elements can be life threatening. But the 50,000 odd anarchists, experimental scientists and bizarre performance artists who make a pilgrimage here from all over the world try their best to prove this wrong every year. Burning Man is a solemn gathering too it is the largest display of mythological ritual in modern America one that is not dogmatic.

Burning Man chronicles its birth to 1986, the year when a San Francisco artist named Larry Harvey inadvertently lit the first match in what would become a legacy. He torched a life sized wooden stick figure in memory of an ex girlfriend amidst the ceremonial cheers of a handful of friends. For the next four years, on the summer solstice, he continued with this ritual at Baker Beach in San Francisco until the police interceded. Harvey and about one hundred friends then started

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to transport the now 40 foot 12 m "Man" across state lines to Nevada's Black Rock Desert. At 3,910 feet 1,173 m above sea level and 120 miles 192 km north east of Reno, just beyond the tiny town of Gerlach, it was about as far away from the rules and regulations of the city as one could get. In the early years, as the event began attracting more and more outsiders, the new motto of playa Burners became "No Spectators." The event morphed into a totally different way of gath ering, one based on sacred geometry and the principles of community building. Today's Black Rock City is a Utopian art community that allows optimum inter connectivity with all participants. According to founder Larry Harvey, "Burning Man as an event acts like a sacred place, because the design is based on a Stone Age model. The central location of the Man conditions perceptions, lending all the classic qualities of a sacred place."

Burning Man founder Larry Harvey describes Black Rock City as "Noeticsphere," a location best comprehended by the intellect and cre- ativity of its citizen population.

The wide 400 square mile 640 sq km spread is an alkaline salt stretch called the playa, supposedly so expansive that the curvature of the earth is visible. The barren, cracked mud landscape is the perfect surreal tableau to the even more surreal adult bacchanal that is Burning Man. A population size rivaling the largest cities in Nevada arrives each year to inhabit the cozy five square mile 8 sq km encampment. The whole thing culminates with the Man being torched to the ground on the second to last night of the festival an event that can be anticlimactic after the laser filled skies, electroluminescent wired bodysuits, fire breathing mechanical dragons, oversized, fuel oozing metal faces and techno tribal dance parties that illuminate each and every evening. But the event is much more than the burning of an effigy constructed from wood and neon and stuffed with fireworks. Basically, Black Rock City is the most artistic,

▲ The shape of Black Rock City, as viewed from the air at left, is remarkably similar to the ancient city discovered at Poverty Point, Louisiana, at right.

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survivalist, futuristic and utterly surreal spectacle on earth. Despite its whimsi cal, anything goes appearance, Burning Man is extremely well organized. Not only is there plenty of breathing space for everyone, but there is also relative assurance that participants will be safe, have a decent place to pee, and good vibes will abound.

Art and interactivity are at the very core of the Burning Man ethos. The larg est work of art on the playa might be the city itself. Theme camp groups must be entirely self reliant, provide their own power source, and be able to protect its mechanisms and props against the elements, while ensuring safety Villages and theme camps are located along the innermost streets of Black Rock City and they usually provide entertainment or a service to the temporary residents. Theme camps are usually a collective of people representing themselves under a single identity. Villages encompass an assembly of smaller theme camps. The city grid is laid out in a large semicircle "horseshoe" with the Man in the middle. The center of the circle is empty and nearly a mile wide. Art installations are allowed in this space but people are not permitted to camp outside the residential rings. The streets are arranged in a radial design according to the hours on a clock face, ranging from 2:00 to 10:00. Center Camp is always at 6:00. The concentric streets are bisected by streets with names inspired by the annual theme. The inside of the horseshoe is where much of the action takes place, such as art instal lations, temporary performance stages, motorized wet bar parties, or the somber atmosphere surrounding the temple. In addition to the burning of the Man, the burning of a temple has become an anticipated final night activity. Black Rock City attracts a consistently intelligent, accomplished and eclectic group of peo pie. Larry Harvey's social experiment in radical self reliance requires participants

to bring in all food, shelter, water, and be prepared for volatile I and spontaneous des ert elements high winds, rain, dust storms, scorching I sun and cold nights are all apt to make an appearance. The advance planning required for attending Burning Man, and the potential for extreme weather conditions, automatically weeds out the weaklings from the diehards.

▲ Black Rock City is host to dozens of weddings per year. Most take place at the "Temple" or at other art installations on the playa. The ceremony itself usually becomes a performance for the enjoyment of other

"Burners."

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Getting to Black Rock City

Motorists coming from all directions need to navigate towards the small town of Gerlach, 12 miles 19 km south of Black Rock City. From Gerlach, go north west on Highway 447 for a mile. At the fork go right on Highway 34 from here the Burning Man entrance will soon come into view. More detailed directions starting from further away can be obtained from the Burning Man official web site: www.burningman.com. The official site has ticket info, directions, great photos and a helpful "First Timers' Guide." Bring all necessary gear and food or stop at one of the many shopping plazas near Reno. The grocery store in the town of Empire, 3 miles 5 km from Gerlach, is the last supply outlet before Burning Man. Once inside, bicycles are the festival vehicle of choice, since driving is pro hibited on the playa, except for specially approved art cars. Black Rock City also has a FAA approved airport for private airplanes to land and park.

Lake Lahontan sites

Ancient Lake Lahontan was a large inland sea that existed during the last Ice Age, expanding over much of northwestern Nevada, with fingers extending into northeastern California and southern Oregon. Lake Lahontan was at its high est level 14,000 to 12,600 years ago, corresponding with the final retreat of the glaciers in the Sierra Nevada mountain range. At its highest level the lake had a surface area of 8,665 square miles 13,950 sq km , with its widest section cen tered at the current location called the Carson Sink. The depth of the lake was approximately 900 feet 290 m at present day Pyramid Lake, and 500 feet 150 m at the Black Rock Desert. During the Ice Age, Lake Lahontan would have been one of the largest lakes in North America. Climate change around the end of the Pleistocene epoch led to a gradual evaporation of ancient Lake Lahontan as the planet became increasingly warmer. The lake had largely disappeared in its extended form by approximately 9,000 years ago. As the surface elevation dropped, the lake broke up into a series of smaller lakes, most of which rapidly drained, leaving only a dry alkaline playa. These playas include the Black Rock Desert, the Carson Sink and the Humboldt Sink. The only modern day remnants existing as true lakes are Pyramid and Walker Lakes. The surface area of Pyramid Lake today is 828 square miles 1,333 sc l km , a mere fraction in size to the origi nal Lake Lahontan. Winnemucca Lake has been dry since the 1930s, and Honey Lake in California periodically desiccates. The ancient Lahontan shoreline is evidenced by tufa formations throughout the area.

The existence of ancient Lake Lahontan coincided roughly with the first appearance of humans in the Great Basin. Abundant and unusual archaeological evidence of early human habitation has been uncovered around the prehistoric lakeshore. In 1911, two workmen started removing bat guano for commercial use from a cave near Lovelock, Nevada. Debris and guano had piled up to a few feet in depth to almost 15 feet 4.5 m thick in some places. After removing several

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^SIERRA ^NEVADA AATS.

ANCIENT LAKE LAHONTAN

at maximum height it covered more than 8,000 square miles

(+13,000 sq km) 14,000 to 12,000 years ago

cartloads of guano from the small cave, the men uncovered human remains, animal bones, and a wide variety of artifacts. Acknowledging the find, the two prospectors notified authorities and the next year an archaeologist from the University of California was called to the scene. Professor Llewellyn Loud began collecting thousands of specimens, and what he found buried under the multiple layers of bat excrement astonished everyone. The artifacts themselves were much different than what the Paiute Indians had used in pre contact times, and the curious human remains belonged to a very tall race of people with reddish hair. In all, 6o bodies were recovered and many of them showed signs of being mummified. Over 4,500 artifacts were uncovered in Lovelock Cave, including a

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large assortment of objects considered among the oldest discovered in the New World. Some of the artifacts include rock, bone and wood sculptures of animals, realistic duck decoys, exquisite coiled basketry, many varieties of woven textiles, and a "keep" for husbanding fire. Also found were a large assortment of bone, stone, horn and leather objects that had various uses. There were fishhooks, fish nets, bird skins, feathers bundled together, stuffed birds' heads, blankets of fur and feathers, articles of clothing, and exceptionally large sandals and moccasins. Many of the artifacts were found in storage pits or caches, as if left by the for mer inhabitants for safekeeping. Groupings of the tall bodies were ritualistically buried in select areas of the cave. Some of the bodies were represented by frag ments of bones, some by complete skeletons, and others by remarkably preserved mummies. Grouped together, the artifacts and skeletons are so very unique in the Great Basin that they have been classified as belonging to the distinct Lovelock Culture. The stone, bone and wood sculptures make the Lovelock artists unsur passed in their field with a high degree of realism not found in subsequent cul tures.The artwork reflects the individual interacting in a social setting, and their role in a hunting, gathering and foraging society, based on the resources available. Descendents of the Lovelock Culture harvested wild grass seeds for winter stor age, crafted a wide variety of projectile points for hunting, and carved an exten sive assortment of animal figurines for religious purposes. The animal carvings probably functioned in native shamanistic rituals concerned with healing, curing, propagation, fertility and death.

For many centuries, red haired enemies with boats featured prominently in local Indian legends, or what were thought to be legends until the discovery of the Lovelock mummies. According to these legends, the red haired people were a tall band of troublemakers whom the Paiutes called the "Si Te Cah." Significantly, the name Si Te Cah means "tule eaters," tule being the fibrous reed which is the base material of the mats found in Lovelock Cave. Tule no longer grows in the region and was probably imported along with the people who used it. According to the Paiutes, the red haired giants were hostile enemies, and a number of the regional Indian tribes joined together in a protracted war against them. After many moons a coalition of Indian tribes trapped the remaining Si Te Cah in what is now the Lovelock Cave. When they refused to come out, the Indians piled brush before the cave mouth and set it aflame. The remaining Si Te Cah were completely exterminated. The strange legends of red haired giants in ancient Lake Lahontan were recounted by Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins, daughter of Paiute Chief Winnemucca. In the first ever book written by a Native American woman called Life Among the Paiutes she relates many stories about the Si Te Cah, including this account on page 75: "My people say that the tribe we exterminated had reddish hair. I have some of their hair, which has been handed down from father to son. I have a dress which has been in our family a great many years, trimmed with the reddish hair. I am going to wear it some time when I lec ture. It is called a mourning dress, and no one has such a dress but my family."

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Astonishingly, this book was published in 1882, a full 30 years before the discovery of the red haired mummies at Lovelock Cave.

Such findings of tall, Caucasian mummies in Nevada did not bode well with mainstream archaeologists or Paiute historians. After the fanfare surrounding the Lovelock Cave discoveries simmered down, much of the skeletal remains were stolen, destroyed or lost. And since the remains did not fit the local Indian profile with regard to stature and hair color, most modern Native American historians hoped those red haired giants would just go away. Yet discoveries of extremely tall Caucasian skeletons kept popping up all around the ancient Lake Lahontan region. In 1931, further skeletons were discovered in the Humboldt Lake bed region. Eight years later, a mystery skeleton was unearthed on a nearby ranch. Collaborating the Si Te Cah theory was the 1940 discovery of Spirit Cave Man found 13 miles 20 km east of Fallon, Nevada. Spirit Cave Man was buried on tule mats and preserved in the same manner as the Lovelock mummies. Local Paiutes continue to object to the scientific investigation of the Spirit Cave Man, even after it was radiocarbon dated at 9,400 years old, making it the oldest known human mummy in North America. In each case, the skeletons were excep tionally tall, dwarfing in size any of the surrounding Native American peoples. Skeletal remains of a tall male termed the "Wizards Beach Man" were recently uncovered near Pyramid Lake. This skeleton has been radiocarbon dated at 9,225 years old. The skull shape is distinctly "long" and remarkably Caucasian. The skull bears little resemblance to the Mongoloid shape of earlier Native American races. The Wizards Beach Man's non Indian features, similar to the mummified remains found at Lovelock and Spirit Cave, continue to puzzle archaeologists. The archaeological and anthropological findings around ancient Lake Lahontan establish a very strong case for cultural diffusion over many thousands of years. Some of the bones, including a giant skull and some femurs, can be seen at the museums in Lovelock and Winnemucca, Nevada.

Pyramid Lake is the largest remnant of ancient Lake Lahontan. It is a "sacred heal- ing lake" to the Northern Paiute tribe who still possess a reservation encompassing the entire lake and all surrounding mountains.

For over 1 0,000 years, various Native American groups maintained a near change less existence along the shores of Pyramid Lake. Nomadic peoples hunted and gathered in the surrounding area, but primarily lived in a culture based on fishing. The latter migrating Northern Paiute Indians came to the lake over a thousand years ago and settled where theTruckee River drains into Pyramid Lake. At 27 miles 43.5 km long and 8 miles 13 km wide, the lake level today is much lower than in the time when the first Paiutes arrived. They called themselves "Kuyuidokado," meaning Pyramid Lake Paiutes and eaters of cui ui fish. The native cui ui is a

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rare, sucker type fish found only in Pyramid Lake. Suddenly every thing changed for the Northern Paiutes in 1844 when the American explorer John C. Fremont arrived. It must have seemed incredible to stumble upon this desert lake out in the middle of nowhere. Fremont and other settlers set in motion ▲ The entrance to Lovelock Cave,

water diversions for

farming along the Truckee, and encouraged the Paiutes to move from a fishing based culture to an agriculture based society. The cui ui and Lahontan cutthroat trout are two endangered fish that can no longer spawn all the way up the Truckee River due to major water diversions. A millennium old lifestyle suddenly came to an abrupt halt.

The Northern Paiutes used the physical landmarks around Pyramid Lake to interpret their existence. The lake provided their food supply and also the basis for a rich mythology. Along the lakeshore are many geological curiosities, includ ing hot springs, strange rock formations and the Needle Rock towers. Bizarre tufa outcroppings, similar to Mono Lake in California, appear like above water coral reef formations. The most impressive setting on the lake is the Fremont Pyramid named after the pyramid shaped tufa island located on the eastern shore. Accompanying the pyramid in the same bay is the famous Stone Mother rock formation that is central to the Paiute creation myth. The story begins with the father of all Indians who lived on a mountain near Pyramid Lake and married a good woman that bore him many children. The oldest boy was very mean and was sent to the west with another daughter, while the nice children remained with their mother and became known as the "Paiutes." The father returned to the mountains and then to the sky, but the mother grieved for her two lost chil dren and began crying bitterly every day. She sat on a mountain facing west and her tears began to form a great lake beneath her. This became Pyramid Lake and since she sat for so long she eventually turned to stone. There she remains to this day, sitting on the eastern shore facing west, with a basket by her side. In pre contact times, the Northern Paiute would paddle out to the bay and leave prayer offerings at the base of the pyramid and next to the Stone Mother.

The most famous Northern Paiute was a prophet named Wovoka, who had a vision that would influence many Native Americans in the latter part of the 19 th

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▲ The Stone Mother formation in Pyramid Lake.

century. His vision came on New Year's Day, 1889 when he reported hav ing had a vivid dream in which, he said, God told him he must not lie or steal and that he must put away all prac tices that encouraged war. To achieve this goal his people would have to perform a particu lar dance the Ghost Dance and their reward would be a para dise on earth. Wovoka

lived in the Mason Valley near Yerington and Walker Lake, but made many trips to nearby Pyramid Lake. He was called the son of the Great Spirit and performed many miracles for those who came to see him but always emphasized the impor tance of performing the Ghost Dance. Wovoka soon became revered as a sort of messiah, a prophet who foretold of another world coming where the buffalo roamed free again and all the dead Indians were alive. Tribal leaders and repre sentatives from all across the west came to see him and learn the Ghost Dance. The Ghost Dance swept the traditions of the Plateau people and significantly influenced the Plains Indians as well. At first the theme was peaceful, but it pro gressively changed to satisfy the differing needs of the last lawless tribes. As the dance spread, more and more homesteaders and the U.S. Calvary became uneasy with the practice of native people performing the Ghost Dance. The last Plains Indians outside of a reservation who performed the Ghost Dance in 1890 sup posedly precipitated the death of their esteemed leader Sitting Bull. The Ghost Dance and other circumstances also gave the U.S. Calvary a justification for their genocidal massacre at Wounded Knee, South Dakota.

Getting to Lake Lahontan sites

The Lovelock Cave is located 18.7 miles 30 km southwest of the Nevada city Lovelock, just off Interstate 80. From Lovelock city center travel east to Amhurst Street, turn south and continue under the Interstate where Amhurst turns into South Meridian Road Nevada 397 . Follow S. Meridian to the very end, then turn left east . The road becomes a grated dirt track at the end of S. Meridian and continues for 11 miles 18 km to the cave. After crossing the Humboldt River, take only right turns heading roughly southwest and parallel with the river and mountains. The Lovelock Indian Cave is just up the hill from an old windmill at the end of the dirt road. Normal cars can make the trip as long as the road

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is dry. There is a small display on the Si Te Cah in the Lovelock Museum today, but it ignores the evidence which indicates that the Si Te Cah were not Native Americans. The Nevada State Historical Society in Carson City also has some artifacts from the cave.

Pyramid Lake is considered an open lake for visitors fully surrounded by Paiute tribal land. The Pyramid Lake Paiute Indian Reservation, encompassing 475,000 acres 190,000 ha , is located 35 miles 56 km northeast of Reno, Nevada. From Interstate 80, take the Wadsworth exit to Route 447 north. The 8 mile 13 km dirt road turnoff to the Fremont Pyramid and Stone Mother is at mile marker 23. All visitors to the lake must purchase a camping / day use permit available at the Nixon General Store, Sutcliffe Marina, or the Pyramid Lake Museum / Cultural Center in Nixon. The Needles area of the lake is closed due to vandalism.

rrowheads removed from large mammal skeletons near the towns of Clovis

JLj^and Folsom affirm the continued presence of humans in New Mexico for 10,000 years or longer. The first nomadic Indians lived primitively in caves or underneath cliff overhangs. The advent of farming techniques imported from Mesoamerica corresponded with the progression of architectural sophistication. Simple pit houses became well constructed cliff dwellings and multi storied pueblos. The scattered houses, apartments, and whole villages remain as a tes tament to the high living standards achieved by these prehistoric people. The ancestral Puebloan legacy lives on in pictures too, especially at the Petroglyph National Monument near Albuquerque which features some 15,000 images across a 17 mile 27 km escarpment. Contemporary Tiwa Native Americans can trace the founding of their farming town, Isleta Pueblo, back to the 1200s. Equal antiquity has been determined for the "Sky City" of the Acoma, and the Zuni Pueblo south of Gallup. The Tiwa consider Taos Peak rising above the Taos Pueblo as ultra sacred, especially Blue Lake near the summit. Blue Lake is off limits to non Indians because it is the Tiwa Sipapu, or their entrance portal into the spiritual underworld.

Among the contrasting energy spots of New Mexico are continuously occupied ancient pueblos, sacred mountains, breathtaking landscapes, atomic energy cen ters, top secret military bases, and allegations of a crashed UFO near Roswell. Although the silver, gold, and copper booms were short lived, they brought thousands of immigrants into this desert territory. New Mexico became a state in 1912 just before Arizona, indicative of its reputation as a backwater region. Its isolation was a key reason why New Mexico was chosen as a center for top secret government nuclear and military research. The Atomic Age appetite for uranium brought a brief period of mid century prosperity to a state that remains largely rural and sparsely populated.

NEW MEXICO

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The Southwest

Chaco Canyon

Called the 'American Cradle of Civilization," Chaco Canyon represents the most important concentration of archaeological remains in the United States. The 12 mile 19 km long and one mile 1.6 km wide canyon was a thriving urban center 900 years ago, and home to approximately 4,000 6,000 people. The stone built towns in Chaco Canyon were individual complexes known as "Great Houses." The largest of 11 Great Houses in Chaco Canyon is called Pueblo Bonito, a complex that contained both dwellings and ceremonial centers. There are also 400 smaller ruins, among the 2,000 total sites recorded in the canyon. The ancient people that inhabited Chaco Canyon are commonly known as the Anasazi a refined people who designed intricate irrigation systems, outstand ing earthenware pots and a city laid out in the manner of modern apartment blocks.

The canyon was first inhabited around 100 CE when a nomadic people settled here and began planting maize and other crops. A thousand years saw this inge nious people go from hunters and gatherers to sophisticated urban dwellers. Chaco's most active building period began around 1020 CE and continued at a rapid pace for several decades. By mo, this power was manifested at several of the outlying communities where a Chacoan Great House would preside over smaller farming domains. For hundreds of years Chaco influence dominated northwestern New Mexico, and beyond. The Anasazi most certainly had trade and spiritual contacts with their Toltec/Maya cousins to the south. Chaco inhab itants were known to keep macaw parrots imported from Central America.

Evidence of archaeoastronomy at Chaco has been discovered with the "Sun Dagger" image. This spiral petroglyph near the top of Fajada Butte in Chaco Canyon is carved behind three upright slabs of rock, which cast a different interplay of light to denote calendar markings for the equinoxes and solstices. The petroglyph on Fajada Butte, as well as the orientation of certain architec tural features, was likely produced to serve as a seasonal calendar. Large seasonal ceremonies would have attracted hundreds of "pilgrims" to the canyon along a ritually used road system that con nected Chaco to distant communities, and to the sacred landscape. Oral tradi tions relate stories of clans migrating from Chaco to the surrounding Four Corners area. Ten Hopi clans trace their ancestry to Chaco. As a result, modern Pueblo people share a strong physical and spiritual connection to Chaco and revere the canyon and all its ruins as extremely sacred. Modern Southwest Indians believe that the spirits of their

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ceremonial center of the Anasazi people and nation. Scattered across Chaco Canyon

In its heyday, Chaco Canyon was the administrative, political, spiritual and

ancestors still inhabit Chaco Canyon, and thus it is a location to be deeply honored and respected.

▲ Casa Rinconada kiva at Chaco Canyon.

and especially in the Great Houses were several round kivas, a Hopi term for ceremonial chambers. The scale of the Chaco kiva ceremonies was immense; 400 people could attend each of the 15 great kivas, while 100 smaller kivas could accommodate 50 100 others. The largest kiva in the Southwest, the Casa Rinconada, incorporated a special window for viewing the summer solstice on June 21 st and included a series of antechambers, two stairways, wall crypts, and a sub floor passageway. Kivas were an architectural holdover from Basketmaker pit houses and were usually entered by a hole in the roof that served also as an escape for hearth smoke. Climbing down the smoke hole ladder was part of the purifica tion ritual for participants in a kiva ceremony. Almost all kivas featured a small hole in the floor behind the hearth, called a sipapu, which acted as a symbolic entrance to the underworld from which the Anasazi believed they once emerged. Other common kiva features are wall niches used for keeping ceremonial objects, foot drums, and wall benches. The tradition of holding ceremonies in a large round room passed on to the Pueblo Indians, most notably the Hopi, Ute and Zuni tribes. Many clans still trace a direct relationship with Chaco, including the Athapaskan speaking Navajo who are not even Pueblo Indians.

The largest Chaco Canyon Great House is a "D shaped" complex called Pueblo Bonito. The name Pueblo Bonito means "pretty village" in Spanish, but like all the ruins in the valley, the original Anasazi names are unknown. From Pueblo Bonito, trails and stairways crisscross Chaco Canyon to a dozen other major ruins in the canyon. Designed for communal domestic life, its other functions probably included religion and ceremony, storage, hospitality, trading, signaling, celestial observation, and burying of the dead. The complex had more than 600 rooms,

Chaco Canyon was home to the first central- ized civilization in North America, and for the Anasazi inhabitants, Pueblo Bonito was the center of their universe.

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numerous two and three story buildings, several kiva complexes, and supported a year round population between 100 and 400 persons. Some of the alignments that can be made from the structure of Pueblo Bonito itself are impressive. For exam pie, there are two intersecting walls dividing the pueblo, exactly aligned to north, south, east, and west. The east west wall divides the seasons at the fall and spring equinoxes. Elaborate lunar and solar alignments are featured in the construction of other Chaco Canyon pueblos, including many that integrate high noon solar alignments. But what happened to this advanced culture? From tree ring dating, it is known that a period of severe drought came upon the Four Corners region in 1250 CE, causing the abandonment of Chaco Canyon. Rediscovered in 1849 by U.S. Army soldiers on military reconnaissance, the site was severely vandalized for 70 years until it was made a national monument in 1907.

Getting to Chaco Canyon

Chaco Canyon is located in northwestern New Mexico, about 100 miles 160 km northwest of Albuquerque and approximately the same distance from Santa Fe. Pueblo Bonito and the 12 other main archaeological sites are collectively known as Chaco Culture National Historic Park. From Albuquerque, take Highway 44/550 north and west to the turn off at County Road 7900. This exit is at mile marker 112. 5 and 3 miles 5 km south of the town Nageezi. County Road 7900 will lead to another turn off on a maintained dirt road. The route has many signs and is not difficult to navigate. Rain and snow can make the roads impas sible, so it is best to call ahead for park information: 505 786 7014.

Chacoan Outlier Great Houses

Outside of Chaco Canyon are several dozen other clusters of Great Houses, the most accessible being Aztec, Casamero, Escalante, Salmon, Lowry Ruins, and Village of the Great Kivas. The expertly designed buildings characterizing the larger Chacoan complexes did not emerge until around 1030 CE when Chaco Canyon was already a thriving metropolis. The outlier villages were built in the 11 th and 12 th centuries when a period of ample rainfall allowed Chacoan culture to expand. The outlier Great Houses combined pre planned architectural designs, astronomical alignments, sacred geometry, landscaping, and engineering to create an ancient urban center of unique public architecture. Researchers have con eluded that most of the Great House complexes may have had a relatively small residential population, with larger groups assembling only temporarily for annual events and ceremonies, linked by a highly sophisticated network of roads.

Radiating out from Chaco Canyon like spokes on a wheel is a mysterious arrangement of straight lines and wide roads that extend for many miles into the desert. Most of the roads, some as wide as 30 feet 10 m , connect with most of the 75 other Chacoan outlier Great Houses, all within a day's walk, while a few seem to go astray. The longest northbound roadway extends for 42 miles 68 km ,

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leading to the prehistoric communities of Salmon and Aztec. The Great North Road is arrow straight and wide enough for eight men to walk shoulder to shoul der. In fact, most of the outlier roads are arrow straight regardless of terrain. Stairs are carved directly over mesas table top mountains , up and down vertical cliff faces, and along courses that oftentimes make them impractical for travel. Aerial photographs reveal more than 400 miles 644 km of roadways, visible almost exclusively from the air in the early morning or late afternoon when the sun casts deep shadows. Inspecting the roads at ground level it is evident that they were expertly engineered, planned, and involved a significant amount of labor in their construction and maintenance. The extensive link of roads demon strates that the Anasazi people had a well developed network for the distribution of goods. Some researchers suggest another purpose, such as a charting of the region's ley lines. The direction north is a known point of origin to most Pueblo people, and the Great North Road is almost perfectly straight and astronomically aligned. Others argue that the markings represent an out of the body experience familiar to ancient native shamans. Archaeological research does confirm that a few of the roads lead to small shrine like structures where evidence of religious and shamanistic activity took place. It seems reasonable to suppose that these roads, prior to recent erosion, could have been followed across great expanses of land, thereby delineating an enormous grid or map of shamanistic geography. These mysterious lines, often apparently between no particular places, are found in many parts of the Anasazi realm. The roads certainly provided open communi cation between communities and reveal an advanced social structure.

Two of the finest Chacoan outlier Great Houses remaining in the Southwest are preserved at the Salmon and Aztec ruins in northwestern New Mexico. The large dwellings of the Anasazi termed pueblos by the Spanish consisted of ter raced apartment houses, each self contained, and having populations from a few families to several hundred residents. Frequently set into cliffs, some of these remarkable habitations towered five stories in height. Both the Salmon and Aztec ruins were freestanding Great Houses in the distinct architectural style of the Chacoan Anasazi. The Salmon pueblo consisted of 300 rooms, situated on the alluvial terrace above the floodplain of the San Juan River. The Aztec pueblo had an estimated 405 rooms on three levels, and 28 ceremonial kivas. Aztec is situated on the banks of the Animas River, located a mere 12 miles 18 km from the Salmon ruins. Striking similarities between these two sites and the Chaco Canyon ruins suggest a long lasting interaction in such matters as architecture, ceramics and ceremonial life.

The Salmon and Aztec Ruins were originally Chacoan outlier communities, abandoned once, then reoccupied by the Mesa Verde

Anasazi.

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Salmon and Aztec stood midway between two distinct centers of Anasazi culture, Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde. Both cul tural centers introduced unique building techniques and new artistic styles during two separate inhabitations. Under Chacoan influence the Salmon and Aztec northern communities prospered for several decades as administrative, trade, and ceremonial cen ters. But by 1150 CE activity diminished as the Chacoan social and economic system waned. An extended drought in about 1130 may have contributed to the decline and abandonment of both sites. About 1200 CE the area saw renewed activity. Aztec and Salmon were both re inhabited with Anasazi people, but this time they came down from A Doorways connecting the Mesa Verde, 40 miles 64 km to the north.

Aztec Ruins. During the Mesa Verde period, in the year

1263 CE, a major fire broke out in the Salmon pueblo, spreading out of control. 35 children and two adults fled to the kiva roof top for safety, but the roof collapsed. All perished in an inferno reaching 1,500 degrees Fahrenheit 8oo° C so hot that it fused sand into glass. Shortly after this blaze Salmon was abandoned forever, and about 35 years later Aztec was also deserted for reasons still unknown.

In their heyday, the centrally located Aztec and Salmon communities were ideal crossroads for trade. In one room at Aztec alone, archaeologists uncovered tens of thousands of shell beads, hundreds of quartzite arrowheads, mosaic pendants of abalone shell, a 75 foot 22.5 m necklace made up of 40,000 beads, 200 bush els of charred corn, and quantities of pottery vessels and effigies. Extensive trade with Chaco Canyon is evident, as well as much farther away regions including the Mesoamerican high cultures of southern Mexico. Tropical bird feathers were especially prized among the Anasazi. Some of the most telling artifacts uncovered at Salmon and Aztec turquoise jewelry, tropical shells, macaw feathers and cop per bells illustrate a robust trade with Mexico and far reaching North American tribes. Simple and elaborate burials, along with animal skulls, have been uncov ered at both sites. The most famous burial was a 6.2 foot 1.85 m man found in an Aztec tomb adorned with jewelry, a large decorated basketry shield, wooden swords, numerous bowls and jars, and wrapped in a turkey feather blanket.

The Anasazi originated from Utah's Great Basin and reached their cultural pinnacle a thousand years later during the Chacoan era. The Mesa Verde Anasazi were successors for a century before the entire culture dispersed, died off, or

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relocated along the Rio Grande River. DNA extracted from Anasazi burials at Chacoan outlier pueblos genetically matches that of contemporary Pueblo Indians. The first Navajo Indians came down from Canada in 1385 CE as a sepa rate linguistic group to settle where the 'Ancient Ones" once lived. The Navajo have strong cultural ties with the Anasazi whose ruins scatter across their res ervation. The Anasazi certainly influenced the religious practices of the Pueblo Indians, as well as their Hopi cousins who were descendants of Kayenta Anasazi. To the Navajo and Puebloans, spiritual life is an integral part of day to day liv ing, a belief that incorporates a symbiotic relationship with humans and all living things. There is no word in the Pueblo language equivalent to "religion." But in their worldview all things are interconnected and form a part of the whole shar ing in the essence of life through endless cycles of birth and death. They believe where the sky and the earth touch, such as across the majestic Colorado Plateau, the boundaries are set for all things to live. The Chacoan outlier Great Houses are considered extremely sacred ancient sites by the Puebloan people of New Mexico, the Hopi in Arizona, and the Navajo of the region.

Getting to Chacoan Outlier Great Houses

The Casamero Ruins can be found about 4 miles 6.5 km north of Prewitt, New Mexico. Escalante is located in southwestern Colorado between Cortez and Dolores. The Lowry Ruins are in southwestern Colorado near the town of Pleasant View just off U.S. 666. Village of the Great Kivas is located on the Zuni Reservation in west central New Mexico. Permission and guides can be arranged at the Zuni Pueblo located along New Mexico route 53, about 17 miles 27 km north of the ruins. The Salmon ruins and museum are located on U.S. 64 between the towns of Bloomfield and Farmington, in northwestern New Mexico. Aztec Ruins National Monument is on Ruins Road, about a half mile 0.8 km north of U.S. 550 on the north side of the town of Aztec, 14 miles 20 km north of Farmington. There are self guided pathways through both the Aztec and Salmon archaeological sites. Aztec has the largest fully reconstructed kiva on the North American continent.

Chi mayo

The heavily Spanish influenced town of Chimayo in northern New Mexico surrounds the distinctive Plaza del Cerro, one of the few 18 th century fortified squares remaining in the American Southwest. But even more renowned is an adobe chapel in a small sanctuary deemed the "Lourdes of America" because of the many spontaneous faith healings that have occurred at the site, similar to its legendary counterpart in southwestern France. During the Holy Week, espe cially on Good Friday, as many as 73,000 pilgrims congregate at El Santuario de Chimayo. The Plaza and chapel attract up to 300,000 visitors per year. Yet the Tewa Indians considered the land sacred long before the Spaniards constructed the first church.

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The name Chimayo comes from the Tewa Pueblo Indian term tsi mayoh, mean ing "obsidian rock." The Chimayo Valley was a chosen site to prehistoric Indians who were attracted to the region by small rivers, trees, natural springs and the rich alluvial soil for planting maze and other crops. The Tewa recognized the potency of the soil and its' healing properties. The basis for the sacred soil is a long revered mud pool which dried up when a nearby volcano erupted and spewed obsidian and ash across the land. The Tewa left Chimayo Valley around 1400 CE, and Spanish settlers arrived in 1692. The Spaniards built several chapels in the valley, including one on the site of the healing soil. As is common worldwide, the earliest settlers recognized the power of place and built their chapel right on top of the indigenous people's sacred site. As time went by another chapel was constructed in 181 6 to replace an older one, which is the El Santuario de Chimayo as it stands today. The official brochure of the sanctuary affirms the older Indian heritage as a "tradition passed from one generation to another." A letter written in 1813 by friar Sebastian Alvarez to the Episcopal See of Durango about the time work started on the present sanctuary confirms visitors were already "coming from afar to seek cures for their ailments, and the spreading of the fame of their cures induced many more faithful to come in pilgrimage." Close to Chimayo is la Capilla de Santo Nino de Atocha, built in the 1850s. Other private chapels in northern New Mexico are also built on sites associated with healing earth, such as la Capilla de Talpa. Interestingly, most of these chapels overlay religious icons revered by indigenous peoples of Mexico and Central America found at the heal ing sites, which became sacred to the converted native population of northern New Mexico.

El Santuario de Chimayo has been described

as the "Lourdes of America" by the many faithful who have been relieved of their ail- ments. For centuries, miraculous cures have been attributed to the soil where the chapel

stands.

The pilgrimage focal point of Chimayo is a small room adjoining the chapel called ElPosito, meaning the "Little Well Room," but it is alternately known as the "Room of Miracles." Inside the room is a round hole in the floor through which people can reach in and scoop out handfuls of soil. Some anoint the sandy clay onto their bodies or apply the medicinal soil to photographs of family members too ill to travel. Many people supplicate themselves on the floor and pray others kiss the earth or collect samples to take home. Some pilgrims even eat a little of the sacred soil. Approximately 25 30 tons 22,500 27,000 kg of dirt are brought into the chapel every year and taken away by thankful visitors. A separate room next to El Posito is adorned with used crutches, braces, votive offerings, letters, and photographs' affirming the faithful's healing experience.

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▲ The Chimayo adobe chapel and sanctuary.

The nearly two century old El Santuario de Chimayo is filled with many legends and miracles. The origination story takes place on Good Friday in the early 1800s, when a man named Don Bernardo Abeyta saw a "burst of light" emanating from a hill near the Santa Cruz River. Going to the spot, Senor Bernardo started dig ging with his hands and claimed to have found a dark green cross with a darkened Christ figure. The artifact was the Crucifix of Nuestro Senor de Esqufpulas, a religious icon associated with the indigenous people of Guatemala. He suppos edly left the wooden santo on the spot, went to the village where he told his neigh bors, and they organized a ceremonial procession to carry the crucifix to a church in nearby Santa Cruz where it was enshrined upon the main altar. But the next morning the crucifix was no longer in the church. Miraculously, it was found to have returned to the same Chimayo hillside where it was again unearthed. After a second and third unsuccessful procession to bring it back to the larger church in Santa Cruz, it was decided to leave the crucifix in Chimayo and build the present chapel where it would remain. El Santuario was built over the exact spot where the crucifix was found, also a site of "holy earth," termed tierra bendita in Spanish. The practice of bringing forth miraculous cures of ill health through the applica tion of holy earth is called geophagy. Such miracles have inspired many faithful to make a journey with tall crosses of their own or to willingly trek hundreds of miles across the desert to Chimayo.

Getting to Chimayo

The small town of Chimayo is located 24 miles 38.4 km northeast of Santa Fe, near Espanola and Santa Cruz villages along Highway 76. Approaching Chimayo on Highway 76, turn south on Juan Medina Road County 98 and follow the signs to the famous chapel. The adobe complex was designated a "National Historic Landmark" in 1970 by the U.S. Department of the Interior. El Santuario de Chimayo is open for visitors from 9:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. October through April, and 9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. June through September. Catholic mass is held at noon every Sunday. Weekday masses are held at 11:00 a.m. from June through September, and at 7:00 a.m. from October through May.

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Roswell and the White Sands Region

On July 8 th - 1947 the headlines of the Roswell Daily Record announced "RAAF Captures Flying Saucer On Ranch in Roswell Region," and so began the legend of a crashed UFO near this sleepy southeastern New Mexico town. However, the investigation and debris recovery was handled by the local Roswell Army Air Field. The day after the Daily Record headline, military brass changed the story and dismissed the entire affair as a downed Russian weather balloon. The official story of exactly what crashed and the items recovered has changed sev eral times over the years. But the U.S. military and the U.S. government has to date resolutely denied anything extraterrestrial had been recovered at Roswell or anywhere else in the nation for that matter, especially anything like alien bodies, which the government explained away as human test dummies. Since the crash in 1947, however, hundreds of townspeople and military personnel involved in the recovery of the craft have come forward to declare the UFO crash to be a very real event. The small city of Roswell has become famous for having its name attached to what is now called the "1947 Roswell UFO incident," even though the actual crash site was about 75 miles 120 km northwest of Roswell, near the town of Corona.

The Roswell and White Sands area hosted the first atomic blast, a widely publicized UFO crash, and spectacular gypsum sand dunes. It is also one of the least populated regions in

the United States.

Located in south central New Mexico are the world's largest dune fields of gyp sum sand. The spectacular white sand dunes cover an area of nearly 230 square miles 596 sq km , with many dunes dramatically rising over 60 feet 18 m in a seemingly stormy ocean of cresting sand peaks. The gypsum sand dunes had been a fabled site of Native American vision quests for various tribes from throughout the American Southwest and northern Mexico. Most of the dunes extend into the White Sands Missile Range, which is administered by the U.S. military and closed to the public. In the northern part of the expansive base is the Trinity Site where the world's first atomic explosion took place on July 16 th , 1945. UFO researchers attribute the early nuclear testing at White Sands, and the subsequent crash near Roswell, to the original mass sightings of UFO's in North America. Some would believe that the atomic blasts sent a warning signal throughout the universe to all advanced extraterrestrials signaling that the earthlings had finally entered the Atomic Age. While National Park and government officials will resolutely deny their existence, hundreds of UFO's have been sighted over White Sands during the past 60 years.

The discovery on how to release the enormous energies latent in the nuclei of atoms was developed at the ultra secret Trinity Test Site at White Sands.

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A sign near Roswell.

Some of the greatest scientific minds came together during World War II to master the military technology of nuclear fission before Nazi Germany could. As it turns out, Germany had hardly begun a bomb research program, and once the Soviet Union mastered the technology after 1949, the new weapons became essentially obsolete. Perhaps the proper genre for the Manhattan Project story is one of irony, not tragedy. Either way, the deadliest weapons on earth, along with nuclear power, emerged from the desolate New Mexico desert in the mid 1940s. After nuclear bombs completely obliter ated two cities in Japan to end World War II, the brilliant minds behind the technology began to see themselves as responsible. In order to comprehend the blinding terrors of the Atomic Age, many of the scientists working on the Manhattan Project turned to philosophy and classical literature to justify the consequences

of their actions. By creating weapons so powerful that no sane person would ever use them, the scientists ensured themselves that atomic bombs would almost always be "fictions," that is, symbols of a horrific reality rather than reality itself. Several of the scientists suspected that history had already repeated, citing that in order to understand the future, one must first know the past. Many of the investigators related that someone had already expressed their half formulated discoveries centuries before, not with scientific formulas but with metaphors. The lead scientist responsible for overseeing construction of the first atomic blast at Trinity, the brilliant Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer, grappled with the mor alistic consequences of this new device of mass destruction. Just seconds after the first nuclear explosion in the New Mexican desert, Oppenheimer quoted the many armed Hindu deity Vishnu from the 2000 year old Bhagavad Gita: "Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds." Oppenheimer rationalized his conflicted beliefs by stating "I think it is for us to accept it as a very grave crisis, to realize that these atomic weapons which we have started to make are very terrible." With all the consequences of its potential danger the Atomic Age was born, ushering in the most controversial advance of modern science.

Getting to Roswell and White Sands National Monument

White Sands National Monument is 15 miles 22 km west of Alamogordo, and about 100 miles 160 km away from Roswell. The White Sands Missile Range nearly surrounds the park and is strictly off limits, but the Trinity Site is open for tours. The best time to visit White Sands National Monument is on a warm

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winter day when there are fewer tourists compared to the large numbers during the summer months, and the winter light can be absolutely beautiful on the shim mering sands. The character of the dunes has been known to fill visitors with an expansive sense of calmness and serenity. After the closure of Walker Air Force Base in 1967, Roswell capitalized on the curiosity of the alleged UFO incident, and in more recent years the business community has deliberately sought out tourists interested in UFOs. Roswell has two museums devoted to the UFO phe nomenon, and hosts the UFO Encounter Festival every summer.

Shiprock

The pinnacle called Shiprock is the stand alone neck of an ancient volcano core located on the Navajo reservation. Its dramatic appearance resembles a clipper ship floating across the flat desert floor near the Four Corners region. Shiprock has long inspired the Navajo people who have several legends and various inter pretations of its meaning. Geologists tell us the rock was formed 12 million years ago during the Pliocene epoch. The peak reaches an elevation of 7,178 feet 2,153 m and soars nearly 1,800 feet 550 m above the high desert plain. The jagged peak is at the center of three volcanic pressure ridges that pushed the rock skywards many millennia ago. Two of the pressure ridges extend away from the central peak in a prominent fashion. Navajo legend identifies the two ridges with the wings of a giant bird, while the Shiprock itself is the tail plume of the bird after it crashed into the earth and became preserved in stone.

The peak and surrounding land are of great religious and historical significance to the Navajo people. There are many stories about Shiprock relating to the Navajo people, who uniformly regard the pinnacle as a giant bird who harmed, but also assisted the Navajo. Foremost is the peak's role as the agent that brought the Navajo to the Southwest. This ancient Navajo folk myth tells how the rock was once a great bird that transported the ancestral Navajo to their lands in what is now northwestern New Mexico. The Navajo ancestors had crossed a nar row sea far to the northwest, perhaps the Bering Strait, and were fleeing from a warlike tribe. Tribal shamans prayed to the Great Spirit for help. Suddenly the ground rose from beneath their feet to become an enormous bird. For an entire day and night the bird flew south, finally settling at sunset where Shiprock now stands. This version of the Shiprock legend seems more like a metaphor, hinting at the site's inspirational power to lift the human soul above the problems of daily existence into a higher awareness with the Great Spirit. According to the legend, after being transported, the Navajos lived on the monolith, "coming down only to plant their fields and get water." One day, the peak was struck by lightning, obliterating the trail and leaving only a sheer cliff, and stranding the women and children on top to starve. This legend supports one reason why the Navajos do not approve of anyone climbing the peak, "for fear they might stir up the chi'idii ghosts , or rob their corpses."

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Shiprock, as Anglo settlers named this mighty sand-colored column, is known to the Navajo as "Tse Bit'a'i," meaning the Winged

Rock.

Other variations of the Shiprock legend place a real thunderbird living at the summit, or see the mountain as the manifestation of this giant bird turned to stone. The story of a Bird Monster, or Tse Nindjdleeh, nesting atop Shiprock and feeding on the hapless Navajo is the most gruesome. Long ago, a pterodactyl like bird hunted the people of the area. To appease the monster, children were fed to the bird, but it stole away with grown people too. The Navajo became concerned with their dwindling population and decided that the bird must be killed. Two brave Warrior Twins set about the task of risking their own lives to save their people. One of the twin brothers allowed himself to be swallowed by the giant bird, and when he passed down the throat he pulled out a hidden knife and began cutting up the birds' innards. Seeing the second twin, the giant bird swooped down but was soon overcome with pain caused by the first twin cutting his innards and crashed into the earth. The rock formation of the two ridges repre sents the bird's wings, while the tall eroded volcanic plume is the back end of the beast's tail feathers. Some time later, a mythical giant spider took many feathers of the giant bird for his bag. One day going home to his web, the spider left the bag open and the feathers flew away into the wind. Each feather transformed into a different bird species, which the spider named for the Navajo people.

With all the lore surrounding it, the Navajo consider Shiprock to be in a cat egory far above most other mountains in the region. From ancient times until today, Tse Bit'a't was a pilgrimage location of major importance, the destination of young men engaged in the rigors of solitary vision quests. The peak is mentioned in stories from the Enemy Side Ceremony and the Navajo Mountain Chant. It is associated with the Bead Chant and the Naayee'ee Ceremony. Shiprock is governed by the Navajo Nation. Although discour aged, the first recorded climb was in 1939. Since 1970, Shiprock has been off limits to climbers, accorded once again the respect due

to a special Navajo sacred A The solitary formation of Shiprock

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region.

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Getting to Shiprock

The monument rises prominently off the desert floor and is visible from four states up to 100 miles 160 km distant. The mountain is located about 12 miles 19 km southwest of the northern New Mexico town of Shiprock, which is named for the peak. There is a good turnoff on State 64 into a Navajo subdivision of homes indicated by a Shiprock sign and the Navajo name TseBit'a't. Turn south and drive on a grated dirt road for 4 miles 7 km to the subdivision and look for a turnoff with good views of Shiprock. Another approach from the south allows closer access, but on a rougher dirt road. From the town of Shiprock travel south on Route 666, then take the westward turnoff at Road 13. There are no facilities, but there is a rest area with picnic tables near the volcanic pressure ridge that extends south of the peak.

omadic bands of Paleo Indians searched for big game across what is today

JL A Utah as early as 14,000 years ago. For thousands of years these Ice Age hunter gatherers lived in caves overlooking a vast freshwater sea, an aquatic ancestor to the Great Salt Lake. About the time of Christ, Utah's northern two thirds was the domain of the enigmatic Fremont Culture. Throughout Utah there are over 3,800 rock art depictions, mostly drawn by the Fremont, a people long vanished when the first white explorers arrived. Utah is an angli cized word deriving from the Ute Indian name for their tribe, "Noonche." Some of the native Utah Paiutes claim the Fremont as their ancestors. The Anasazi were another prehistoric culture of Utah, living around the vicinity now called the Four Corners. The Four Corners region, high atop the Colorado Plateau, is the meeting point of Utah, Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona. The Colorado Plateau encompasses most of Utah. This high desert upland is roughly circular and approximately 350 miles 565 km wide. It sits within a ring of volcanic moun tains, which are known to experience a high concentration of lightning activity every year. In fact, the Colorado Plateau receives more lightning strikes per year than any other place in the United States. Along with thunderstorms, the Four Corners is known for high solar activity, mysterious "halos" around high peaks, extraordinary static electrical fields, underground water and radioactive minerals. Such natural wonders would have amazed the Anasazi, who farmed around south ern Utah's canyon country. When the Anasazi abandoned their villages around 1300 CE, other tribes then arose: the Paiute, Goshute, Shoshone and Ute. Last to arrive were the Mormons who embraced the arid and desolate region as a haven from persecution. Their faith and determination to prosper created a modern culture of astonishing resourcefulness.

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Canyon lands

Around the confluence of the Colorado and Green Rivers is a spectacular wil derness of strangely eroded, multicolored stone. Three distinct districts divide Canyonlands National Park, which include The Maze, The Needles, and an iso lated 6,000 foot 1,800 m mesa separating the two rivers called Island in the Sky. Each district is named after its distinctive landscape. The Maze district contains no paved roads, and requires backcountry use permits. The Needles is the most accessible district, named for its profusion of red rock spires and narrow fan ridges. The many strange landforms in the three districts also contain fossilized sand dunes, soaring pinnacles and precipitous box canyons. After the two rivers con verge, the Colorado empties into a nar row chasm called Cataract Canyon. The canyon has 28 sets of rapids, some of which have a Class 5 raft rating. Cataract Canyon has the steepest incline of cliff walls anywhere along the course of the Colorado River. As a further enhance ment, Cataract Canyon has a high concentration of uranium in the soil. This radioactive ele ment is a powerful generator of negative ions known to induce human ecstasy states, yet long term expo sure to uranium can be deadly. As the Colorado River flows outside the park it becomes the Glen Canyon National Recreation Area and

Lake Powell. Qmyon

jgg^ Green River, UT

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The confluence of the Colorado and Green River in Canyonlands offer stunning scenery and some of the most unusual prehistoric rock art galleries in the Southwest.

At least 2,000 years ago, Canyonlands and several outlaying ravines were uti lized as sacred ceremonial centers for successive prehistoric cultures. Hunter gatherers continued to use the area well after the appearance of agriculture about 500 CE. At that time, archaeologists believe the soil in the region was deeper and the area had a higher rainfall and more moderate temperatures than it does today. The fertile valleys, especially along the Colorado River, were reserved for semi permanent settlements. Indian Creek Canyon is a 16 mile 26 km side can yon connecting to the Colorado just above the confluence with the Green River. It was utilized by prehistoric farmers as a growing corridor between the basin and the two rivers. Indian Creek Canyon is just outside the park boundaries, but contains hundreds of artifacts, ruins, petroglyphs, pictographs, and Anasazi granaries. Traces of Anasazi can be found in almost every canyon in The Needles. The "Formative" Anasazi and Fremont people, two of the earliest recognized settled cultures inhabiting the Southwest, passed down many legends in the form of rock art. The most peculiar are the large anthropomorphic manlike forms characterized by hallowed eyes or missing eyes, the frequent absence of arms and legs, and the incidence of vertical body markings. What's most unusual with the anthropomorphs is the presence of antennae, elongated ears, snakes in hand, and larger than life bodies apparently covered by long robes. They are usually painted high on hanging rock faces as if presiding over ceremonial areas. Most of these tall, "ghost like" figures are believed to date from the late Archaic period, painted by the Fremont sometime between 1,500 and 2,500 years ago. These strange images likely represent shamanistic art associated with ritual activities. Barrier Canyon has some of the finest anthropomorphic paintings, but the Great Gallery in Horseshoe Canyon and the Bird Site in The Maze district are equally fasci nating. Most require a strenuous hike to reach. These haunting life sized forms

are a fitting reminder of the otherworldly spirit of the back canyons, an arid place where

humans came for ceremony, but rarely stayed for too long.

The aptly named Newspaper Rock on the way into

Canyonlands contains perhaps the highest concentration of petroglyphs at any single site. It features hundreds of fig ures and designs from several Native American cultures the

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Archaic, Basketmaker, Fremont, Anasazi, Ute, and Navajo along with Spaniard and Anglo contributions. Newspaper Rock is among the finest examples of successive era petroglyphs dating from around 2,000 years ago until the first European explorers passed through the region. The glyphs were carved by scraping away the darker "desert varnish" to reveal the lighter colored stone underneath. The dark sandstone slab with the petroglyphs is protected from the elements by a rock overhang. The etched designs depict various wild animals, footprints, wheels, undulating lines, and human hunters on horseback. One giant being with strange antennae on its head is thought to be a stylized representation of a sky god or a shaman wearing an elaborate hat. The meaning of the many fig ures, faces, handprints and other images of Canyonlands largely remain a mystery and open to interpretation.

Getting to Canyonlands National Park

Canyonlands is Utah's largest national park, established in 1964. It encompasses some of the least explored regions of North America in a wild desert atmosphere. Canyonlands National Park is world renowned for its challenging 4WD vehicle routes, bike trails, and whitewater rafting. Major entrances to the park are acces sible from US 191, 22 miles 35 km north of Monticello Needles , and 35 miles

56 km northwest of Moab Island in the Sky . The only other access routes are by unpaved roads and jeep trails. There are no road connections between the dis tricts within the park and traveling between them may take two to six hours by car. The Great Gallery pictographs are in the separate Horseshoe Canyon Unit, 49 miles 79 km south of the town Green River on the road into The Maze dis trict. Newspaper Rock Recreation Site is located on route 211 alongside the road leading into The Needles section of Canyonlands National Park. Newspaper Rock can be viewed from an overlook off a short side road just south of Indian Creek Canyon and the Visitor's Center. Signs direct motorists to all pertinent turnoffs. Other famous anthropomorphic rock panels can be found at Courthouse Wash just north of Moab in Arches National Park, and Sego Canyon, located 3.9 miles

6.3 km north of Thompson Springs along Interstate 70.

Hovenweep

A sophisticated stone building culture developed in the Southwest concurrently with the advent of corn cultivation introduced from Mesoamerica. The Ancestral Puebloan Indians, or Anasazi, became prudent farmers and advanced village dwellers in the dry and rugged country near what is today the Four Corners region. On the Cajon Mesa where Hovenweep is located, population density varied through time. By the mid 1200s, increasing numbers of people concen trated at the heads of small canyons where precious water was available. Along with corn, they planted beans, squash, cotton and various grains in small irrigated fields and terraces. They became experts at utilizing the limited resources of this environment, which was adequate for high desert agriculture. Up in the valleys

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they constructed pit houses, pueblos, kiva ceremonial rooms, and the exquisitely built stone towers that are Hovenweep's trademark. Water "checkdams" were also constructed, possibly to stop flashflood damage or to preserve topsoil wash out, but more likely they were created as reservoirs to ensure an adequate supply of moisture for their crops. Yet nothing lasts forever. By the late 1200s climatic changes, overuse of resources, overpopulation and perhaps pressure from other tribes forced the people to leave their villages and journey south to the Rio Grande Valley and as far west as the Hopi villages of Arizona.

The poetic-sounding Hovenweep means "deserted valley" in the Paiute/Ute languages, although the multiple clusters of pueblo ruins were abundantly populated by the Anasazi more than 800 years ago.

The Hovenweep archaeological park consists of six groupings of ruins, four in Colorado and two in Utah, all situated at the top of canyon draws. All the creek canyons drain into lower McElmo Canyon that feeds into the San Juan River. The four clusters of ruins in Colorado are named Horseshoe, Holly, Hackberry and Cutthroat Canyon. The Cajon and Square Tower Canyon clusters are in Utah, the latter being the largest grouping of ruins in the monument. The stunning Square Tower group, an intriguing collection of well preserved ruins, is clustered along the "Little Ruin Canyon" near the Visitor's Center. Next to Square Tower, a kiva ceremonial room has been excavated, and both structures are situated near the life giving spring at the head of the canyon. The towers stand like sentries on the canyon rim protecting the precious water sources. Unlike many tower kiva associations elsewhere, Square Tower and its kiva were not connected by a tun nel.The larger pueblos at Hovenweep date primarily to the 12 th and 13 th centuries and are distinctive for the high frequencies of multi story masonry towers within or near each village. All six of the Hovenweep pueblo clusters are within a day's walk of each other.

The earliest Hovenweep towers constructed were square and round buildings, but as time went by they became more elaborate multi storied, rectangular, oval, or D shaped in plan, all the work of expert masons. The Anasazi building engineers did not level the foundations for their structures, but adapted con struction designs to fit the uneven rock slab surfaces. Similar to their Chacoan cousins, the Anasazi builders at Hovenweep also tracked the solstices and equi noxes. Several structures have windows to admit sunlight on important alignment dates, which may have indicated planting and harvest times to the prehistoric farmers. The light falls in a predictable pattern on interior openings. The best solar calendar example is at Hovenweep Castle where the doorway and portals of "D Tower" ingeniously integrate the winter and summer solstices, as well as the spring and fall equinoxes. The Unit Type House in Little Ruin Canyon incorpo rates its own kiva, as well as two openings in the east room wall that mark the

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summer and winter solstices. Near the Holly Group, under a sandstone cliff, are a series of petroglyphs that illustrate the summer solstice by con necting shafts of light to the pictures. Planetary and solar cycles obviously played an important role in the religion and agricultural practices of the Anasazi. It is suggested that the Hovenweep towers served as astrological observa tories, allowing Anasazi priests to forecast weather and celes tial cycles for planting and

ceremonies. Other guesses are that the towers served strictly religious purposes, or were used as lookout towers to spot approaching enemies. Their mysterious functionality aside, the towers at Hovenweep remain among the most remarkable structures in the Anasazi world.

One of the Hovenweep round towers.

Getting to Hovenweep National Monument

Hovenweep National Monument extends across the Utah and Colorado border, 42 miles 68 km west of Cortez, Colorado. Sage covers the plains of Hovenweep to hide 20 square miles 52 sq km of farms and fields cultivated by the early inhabitants. Barely over the border in Utah is the Visitor's Center, located just above the Square Tower Group in Little Ruin Canyon. Six different Anasazi ruin groupings are located at Hovenweep, but only the Square Tower site is easily accessible. To visit the other sites requires back road travel and hiking, which may be difficult or impossible on rainy days. The modest Monument headquar ters is on the road between Pleasant View, Colorado and Hatch Trading Post, Utah. Directions to Hovenweep are well marked at intersections coming from Four Corners via Route 262, or Route 35 through Montezuma Creek. Shiprock is visible from various high points near Hovenweep.

Salt Lake Temple

Late one night, in 1823, an angel named Moroni visited an impressionable 17 year old Vermont farmer named Joseph Smith. The spirit gave him directions to a mountain near Palmyra, New York where four years later the young man would unearth several gold plates inscribed with ancient, mysterious writings. Moroni directed Joseph Smith in a vision to the location of the plates. Smith, a former diviner, used his "seer stones" to translate the buried plates. Without looking at the plates or knowing a word of the language he was able to interpret the plates

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in three years, supposedly through the power of the stones and his own visions. The plates dictate the tenants of an ancient religion, yet new in inception, and tell the story of a Jewish tribe who fled the tyranny of Jerusalem for America 2,500 years ear lier. Smith asserted that the plates were abridged by the Israelite clan's historian, a man named Mormon, and later buried by his son. Smith self published the result as the Book of Mormon, and less than a week later he founded the Mormon Church.

Mormons assert that evil forces overtook the Catholic Church in its early years, and that the true inheritor of Jehovah is the lost tribe. Smith's story tells of the Israelite tribe coming to America around 600 BCE and receiving divine instruc tion to build earth forms, including the great mound cities of the Mississippian Culture. Following the Mormon example, Smith had a vision to establish a true city of God on earth, a blend of heavenly and earthly kingdoms. He and his early followers built a community in Ohio, then Missouri, but were forced to settle in Nauvoo, Illinois. There, in 1844, Smith declared polygamy an official Mormon revelation, which angered many church members, especially the church fathers of whom Smith had relations with about 50 of their wives and daughters. A splinter group printed a letter attacking Smith as a fallen prophet because of his insis tence of having several "celestial" spouses at the same time. Smith ordered their printing press smashed, resulting in the governor of Illinois demanding Smith arrested. Joseph Smith had one final vision in jail, this time of his own death and martyrdom. The vision came true when 150 angry Masons swarmed the prison and shot him dead.

Despite Joseph Smith's premature death, Mormonism lives on with over 11 million members worldwide. The Salt Lake Temple in the "City of the Saints" is the most recognized symbol of the Mormon Church, the larg- est native Christian denomination in North

America.

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In 1847, pilgrims led by Brigham Young trekked west from their former colony in Nauvoo, Illinois to continue searching for a long sought refuge from torment. What they found was Utah's desolate Salt Lake Valley, where, from a basin over look, Young proclaimed, "This Is The Place!" Although dry and arid, the Mormons found the region's isolation a safe haven from religious persecution. Their faith and determination to prosper in such an inhospitable terrain made the Mormon people astonishingly resourceful with what little they had brought along to this desert land a land that closely resembled the Dead Sea near Jerusalem. Salt Lake City was designed on a grid pattern proposed by Young, with Temple Square in the center representing the spiritual and cultural heart of the city.

The Salt Lake City temple was announced in July 1847, when Brigham Young stuck his cane into the ground and said "here we will build a temple to our God." Ground was broken and construction begun on February 14 th , 1853. The cornerstone was laid two months later by Young himself. The Salt Lake Temple took exactly 40 years to complete and was dedicated in April, 1893. A 12 foot 3.6 m tall golden statue of the angel Moroni is depicted playing the horn atop the temple capstone. The towering temple is Salt Lake City's most recognizable landmark, also one of the oldest structures in the city and certainly the longest in the making. The temple is central to over 120 others around the world, and is designed to house Church administrators as well as worshipers. In its role as directive headquarters, the Salt Lake Temple has an entire floor dedicated to offices and meeting rooms for Church leaders including the Holy of Holies. These are not present in other temples. The inside of the temple is closed to non Mormon visitors because it is considered sacred by the Church and its members. The temple itself is surrounded by Temple Square, which is the most popular tourist attraction in the state, hosting several million visitors annually. High walls surround the complex, with wrought iron gates providing entrance on all four sides. Within the square is the grey quartz monzonite Mormon Temple, the Mormon Tabernacle and Assembly Hall, as well as various monuments, assorted statuary and two visitor centers. Temple Square and the adjacent conference cen ter, museums and administration buildings occupy several city blocks in the heart of downtown Salt Lake City. Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints Mormons consider their temple a sacred site, and those who enter must live according to certain standards. Inside, religious instruction and ceremonies such as baptism and marriage take place. Because of its role as the Latter day Saints Church headquarters and its historical significance, the temple is visited by Mormons from many parts of the world.

Getting to Salt Lake Temple

Temple Square occupies a full city block in downtown Salt Lake City, centered within North Temple, South Temple, West Temple and Main Streets. Entering the square, expect to be greeted by eager, cheerful, young Mormon missionar ies at every gate, and anticipate hearing some polite Mormon proselytizing.

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Tours of the square depart from the flagpole every 10 minutes. Temple Square is open from 9 to 9 daily. Call 800 537 9703 for more information. The temple is the only building closed to the general public. This Is The Place Heritage Park where Brigham Young chose the site of his future city is located at the mouth of Emigration Canyon, just north of Hogle Zoo, at 2601 E. Sunnyside Avenue.

Zion National Park

The seemingly gentle Virgin River flows like a placid creek most of the year, but can turn into a raging torrent during heavy rainstorms. It is the strength of this inconspicuous river that has carved the profound rock gorge of Zion Canyon. It began shaping the valley more than 13 million years ago and contin ues to this day. Feeder streams of the Virgin create zigzag paths as they follow jointed planes in the rocks. The headwaters of the Virgin River begin at about 9,000 feet 2,700 m , and the river empties into Lake Mead about 200 miles 320 km to the southeast after flowing 8,000 feet 2,400 m downward. This gives the Virgin a stream gradient that ranges from 50 to 80 feet 15 24 m per mile 0.9 1.5 one of the steepest stream gradients in North America. Beyond the Virgin River, other box canyons and surprises await visitors around every corner. The park is a geologic showpiece, featuring sandstone cliffs which are among the highest in the world. Zion features stunning scenery found nowhere else on

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earth. The resulting monoliths, soaring towers and arch shaped rock formations offer a quiet grandeur in Utah's most visited park.

The various canyons of Zion were settled extensively by the Anasazi, or Ancestral Puebloan People, beginning about 2,000 years ago. Human occupation by the Archaic and Basketmaker people predate the Anasazi by several thousand years. The original Archaic settlers may have come to Zion Canyon as early as 6000 BCE. The Parrusits and several other Southern Paiute subtribes were the last Indian settlers in the canyon, first arriving about 800 years ago and staying until the first Anglo explorers arrived in 1840. Evidence suggests the Parrusits held a profound reverence for the large monoliths and turbulent waters in Zion Canyon. They communicated with the rocks, animals, water, and plants in the valley because they believed the monoliths were responsible for the life giving streams and springs. All of the original riverside pithouses used by the Archaic and the Anasazi peoples have long been washed away. Only the ruins built by the Anasazi high above the canyon floor remain intact. A scenic Anasazi granary survives under an alcove at Weeping Rock where spring water seeps through the porous rock walls to nourish lush hanging gardens. Parunuweap Canyon contains the largest concentration of Anasazi ruins in the park, but they are currently not open to the public. Modern bands of Southern Paiute still visit certain locations within the park to perform rituals and collect plants.

Among the stunning landscape of Zion National Park are hundreds of petroglyphs spanning several Native American cultural

affiliations.

Zion National Park is renowned for its abundant petroglyphs scratched or incised images , mostly carved by the Anasazi but also created by the Archaic, Basketmaker, Fremont and Paiute Indians as well. Two canyons are especially rich in rock art Petroglyph Canyon and the Southgate Petroglyph site featuring a rich array of styles and subjects. Petroglyph Canyon includes two panels contain ing over 150 images, including a single pictograph painted image of a small red triangle. Also in the canyon are several circular spiral designs, which have been determined to interact with sunlight or shadow effects in particular ways during a solstice or equinox. These calendar markings are remarkably similar to the Fajada Butte designs and yearly alignments at Chaco Canyon, New Mexico.

The deep canyons and towering cliffs of Zion were almost beyond description to the first white explorers, but word soon trickled out. Some refused to believe such a place existed, just as others had scoffed at the first reports of Yellowstone. But the massive multi colored vertical cliffs and narrow canyons were real, and in 1909 the area was added to the National Park system. The Mormons came to ranch and farm in the 1860s and wasted no time naming many of the prominent features after themes from the Book of Mormon. The names Altar of Sacrifice,

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Kolob Canyon, Towers of the Virgins, Prodigal Son, Tabernacle Dome, Court of Patriarchs and Mount Moroni testify to the reverence the Mormons felt for Zion. The Temple of Sinawava was named after the Coyote God of the Paiutes. The Mormon names stuck and certainly contributed to the spiritual aura of Zion, whose biblical name means a place of peace or sanctuary

Getting to Zion National Park

From Kanab in the east, drive 17 miles 27 km north on U.S. 89, then 24 miles 39 km west on Utah 9 to Park Headquarters. Beyond the Visitor's Center is the spectacular Zion Canyon. Interstate 15 touches the northwest quadrant of the park, but does not access Zion Canyon. Directional signs lead motorists from Interstate 15 to the Kolob Canyons section of the park. The Great Basin, Mojave Desert, and the Colorado Plateau all converge at Zion and the Kolob Canyons. A number of Anasazi sites have been excavated, but none have been prepared for the public. Perhaps as a precaution to overexposure from Zion's nearly three million annual visitors, Petroglyph Canyon and the Southgate Petroglyph site are not listed on Zion National Park maps. Directions and permission are granted exclusively by park rangers in the Zion Canyon Visitors Center. Otherwise, a fine archaeological diorama in the Visitor Center museum depicts prehistoric settle ments in the park. From April through October, the scenic drive in Zion Canyon is closed to private vehicles. During high season visitors must ride the frequent shuttle buses to access the valley and most of the trailheads that access over 150 miles 240 km of maintained footpaths.

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Only after the last tree has been cut down Only after the last river has been poisoned Only after the last fish has been caught Only then will you find money cannot be eaten -contemporary Native American belief

nr

HOUSANDS OF MILES AWAY FROM WHERE THE NATION WAS born, the West Coast states were America's final frontier. The ^J^^ rugged terrain, coupled with the long sea journey to arrive there, delayed development until the discovery of gold attracted the worldwide attention of fortune seekers. Unlike the flat Atlantic coastline on the other side of North America, the Pacific coastal mountains tumble downward to an abrupt halt when they meet the sea. The dramatic 2,700 miles 4,350 km of coastline in California, Oregon, and Washington, teeming with wildlife, was a paradise on earth waiting to be discovered. The spectacular scenery of steep sided cliffs rimmed by giant redwood trees impressed the first European explorers. West Coast modern history began in 1542, when the Portuguese navigator Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo sailed into California's San Diego Bay and claimed the area for the Spanish crown. By 1579, the British dis patched Sir Francis Drake to investigate the West Coast, who may have been the first historic European explorer to discover the San Francisco Bay. After Drake, not much happened for the next 200 years. Spain decided to fortify its California possessions in the late 1760s, when the Russians and British were pursuing their own land claims

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on the Pacific Northwest. By constructing military installations and 21 Catholic missionaries the Spanish devoted considerable resources to shoring up their ter ritorial claims in California. New European sacred places developed alongside ancient indigenous locations. By 1846, American settlers had made new claims to San Francisco and Monterey for the United States, with little resistance from Mexico. When gold was discovered in California two years later, the greatest

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migration in human history was underway. The ensuing Gold Rush and the devel oping philosophy of Manifest Destiny brought hundreds of thousands of people into the region from all over the world. The West Coast was soon on its way to becoming a thriving economy but at the expense of destroying the age old Native American lifestyle.

Another kind of sacred site, somewhat unique to the West Coast, are the geo logical anomaly locations known as mystery spots. Animals don't seem to like them, suggesting there is something strange taking place underground. Magnetic anomalies, vortex energies, and electric pulsations are some of the explanations of mystery spots. Similar to its over commercialized sister destinations, with more than its fair share of kitsch, "The Mystery Spot" in Santa Cruz, California is certainly a sensational wonder with still no uniform scientific explanation. Otherwise, according to the scripted tour guides, it would simply be called "The Spot." Upon a steep incline at a nondescript location in a redwood forest, the forces of The Mystery Spot become apparent as some visitors report feeling tired or dizzy after walking only a few steps up the hill. A trail leads to a tilted shack, which stands at the center of the 150 foot 45 m diameter magnetic field. A long time ago, the tour guides report, the shack slipped down the hill right into the vortex center of The Mystery Spot, hit a tree and stayed put. After time, the structure became tilted under the mysterious bending forces found at the site. The trees all tilt in the direction of the apparent force field, and balls appear to roll uphill. The most recent theory of the phenomenon is from a German physi cist who believes there may be a large metal deposit underground, of a material more dense than lead. This causes gravity to bend around it, causing the visible irregularities that many thousands of visitors experience every year. The Mystery Spot is about three miles 5 km north of downtown Santa Cruz, on Mystery Spot Road off Branciforte Drive. Bright yellow signs lead the way to the popular tour ist attraction, open every day of the year. Other identified West Coast mystery spots include the Oregon Vortex near Gold Hill, Confusion Hill near Garberville in northern California, and San Dimas Canyon in southern California.

t the end of the last Ice Age, some 14,000 years ago, California was a much

Xj^different place than it is today. As vast glaciers slowly melted in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, huge quantities of water filled valleys and low depressions in the land. Enormous freshwater lakes that are now extinct covered the landscape. Eventually, due to water seepage and evaporation, the inland lakes dried up but the land remained rich in resources. Massive flocks of birds blotted out the sun when they flew overhead and large mammal herds roamed freely as the first Paleo Indians arrived to hunt. The various Native American cultures recorded by Spanish explorers were hunter gatherers in a lifestyle barely changed over the course of 10,000 years or longer. Days were spent harvesting the abundant sea

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life, trapping mountain animals, or gathering wild grains and berries. Perhaps because of the vast amount of food readily available, California Indians rarely grew their own crops like their neighbors in the American Southwest. Since there were enough resources to go around, no single California Indian tribe dominated the other. While there were indeed occasional skirmishes and hostilities, the general picture drawn by modern archaeologists is one of peace and tranquility among the various native peoples for many millennia.

Upon Spanish exploration of the California coast, the Ohlone and other tribes became the victims of their own hospitality. In December 1602, Sebastian Viscaino sailed into Monterey Bay for supplies and repairs. The Ohlone were right there to help in any way they could, and Viscaino's account of contact is as follows: "The land is well populated with Indians without number, many of whom came on different occasions to our camp. They seem to be a gentile and peaceful people; they say with signs that there are many villages inland. The sustenance which these Indians eat most of daily, besides fish and shellfish, is acorns and another fruit larger than a chestnut, that is what we could understand of them." Indian remains at Big Sur conclusively date settlement at 3,000 years, but more likely the Ohlone lived in the region for some 10,000 years without interruption. In 1770, the Spanish constructed a mission in Monterey and coerced the peace loving Ohlone to join with them in declaring Catholicism as the true faith. Eventually the Indians who entered the various California missions learned a new language, dressed in different clothes, and were not allowed to practice the ancient tradi tions they once knew. These baptized and converted Indians worked as inden tured laborers, many dying under harsh conditions and restrictive treatment by the missionaries and settlers. Others escaped the missions to unreachable villages in the California interior. Eventually all assimilated into the white man's world, without a single U.S. reservation being set aside for the Ohlone nation.

Bay Area to Point Conception

Certain locations along the central California coast, especially around the Bay Area, have been cherished by different kinds of people. Early European explor ers prized Monterey and the San Francisco Bay for their natural harbors and the riches to be exploited from the bountiful land. Various people from all around the world descended upon central California during the 19 th century Gold Rush, most were opportune fortune seekers hoping to declare "Eureka!" The 20 th cen tury saw the arrival of the beatniks, hippies, Silicon Valley technology enthusiasts and New Age adherents. Some New Agers claim that San Francisco had originally been an ancient worship site devoted to the Pleiadian star cluster built by an advanced civilization on earth, perhaps the Atlantians or Lemurians. The many Indian tribes living along the central California coastal region identified several power points on the landscape before it became blemished by development in modern times. Such a diverse population in such a beautiful region naturally leads to a fine selection of sacred sites.

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▲ Mount Tamalpais as seen from Ring Mountain.

Just north of San Francisco's Golden Gate Bridge is Mount Tamalpais, one of the most visited sacred mountains in the world. The mountain was a spiritual healing site to the coastal Miwok Indians who lived in the area for thousands of years before European contact. Spanish explorers named the peak La Sierra de Nuestro Padre de San Francisco in 1770, but it was later changed back to the Miwok name Tamalpais. To Native Americans and New Age spiritual seekers, "Mount Tarn" is noted for its powers to heal, purify, and inspire the imagination. Also called the "Sleeping Lady," from a distance Mount Tamalpais does resemble the shape of a reclining woman on her back. Over 6,300 acres 2,520 ha of redwood groves and oak woodlands surround the mountain as it rises up to its spectacular 2,571 foot 771 m summit. On a clear winter day, when viewing conditions are ideal, it is possible see the Farallon Islands 25 miles 40 km out at sea, the Marin County hills extending to Point Reyes, San Francisco and the East Bay communities, Mount Diablo, and even the Sierra Nevada's snow covered mountains. After the Gold Rush population boom of 1849, more and more people began to use Mount Tamalpais as a place for recreation. Trails were developed and a wagon road was built to the summit. Later, a railway was completed and became known as "The Crookedest Railroad in the World." The railroad was abandoned in 1930 after a wildfire damaged the line, yet several decades later those same roads became the "Birthplace of Mountain Biking." Local cycle enthusiasts Gary Fisher and Charles Crow began riding a new kind of bicycle on the fire roads of Mount Tarn in the early 1970s and a sporting institution was born. Mount Tamalpais was utilized as a Nike Missile installation to defend the Bay Area against nuclear attack during the early Cold War years. The out of commission nuclear silos still blemish the landscape near the summit.

Even better views are afforded from the 3,849 foot 1,155 m summit of Mount Diablo, rising alone at the eastern fringe of the San Francisco Bay Area. With ideal viewing conditions it is possible to see west past the Golden Gate Bridge to the Farallon Islands, Mount Hamilton and the Santa Cruz Mountains to the southeast, the Sierra Nevada Mountains due east, along with both Mount Saint Helena in Wine Country and Mount Lassen in the Cascade Range visible to the north. With binoculars on a clear day, it is possible to see Half Dome in Yosemite

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▲ The dramatic Big Sur coastline of central California is the meeting point of the Santa Lucia Range meeting the Pacific Ocean.

National Park and at least 35 of California's 58 coun ties. Because the moun tain stands alone on the edge of the Central Valley, there is virtually noth ing to block the sighting from the summit. The Mount Diablo panorama is regarded as the best 360 degree view in North America. Worldwide, the outlook from Diablo's summit is ranked second only to Tanzania's Mount Kilimanjaro. Such stun ning views and the com

manding location certainly impressed the California Indians living in its shadow for over 5,000 years. Although various Native American tribes worshipped and lived near the sacred mountain, they all regarded it as a bad medicine site to be avoided. Some Indian shaman ventured up the mountain to accumulate the bad medicine, some never returned. In the plains Miwok creation account, Mol luk Condor man lived on the north side of Mount Diablo. His wife gave birth to Wekwek Prairie Falcon man who wanted to preside over the Miwok in the Central Valley. Back in the Dawn of Time, according to the Miwok creation myth, Mount Diablo was surrounded by water. Wekwek and his grandfather Coyote man created all Indian people from the summit of Mount Diablo, and cast them off into the world when the water receded. The bad medicine of the mountain kept most Native Americans away for good, even after European con tact. The Spanish adopted the Indian translation Diablo, meaning devil, and the name stuck. Today, geomancers claim to follow old shamanistic trails up Mount Diablo, a noted power point to Native Americans and modern New Agers.

Before European contact, the coastal Miwok used to enact a fertility ritual on Ring Mountain inTiburon. Apart from being a strategic vantage point for view ing most of the San Pablo and San Francisco Bays, Ring Mountain is unique for several serpentine rock outcroppings, one of which displays art markings from an elaborate fertility rite once performed here by young Miwok couples. When an Indian woman wanted to bare a child, she and her lover would visit one par ticular rock believed to procure a safe and healthy pregnancy. The garage sized fertility stone is located slightly below the 602 foot 180 m ridge crest on the southern face of Ring Mountain. Marked on the stone are many full circles and paired semi circles carved out by the Miwok men and women. Some of these petroglyphs are said to resemble a woman's vagina. The couple would then carve

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their own groove and rub the tiny stone particles from the soft greenish rock on her body, which would supposedly ensure her maximal fertility and ease her childbirth. As a result of vandalism to the fertility stone and in an effort to save the open space surrounding it, most of Ring Mountain is now a natural sanctu ary preserved by Tiburon's Nature Conservancy.

The San Francisco peninsula north of the San Bruno Mountains was a Native American pilgrimage destination and sacred site. No settlement was allowed or desired the hill was reserved exclusively for pilgrimage. The top of Nob Hill, the present location of Grace Cathedral, was an Indian healing spot and source of a spring. Chinese feng shui masters recognized Nob Hill and identified it as the "eye of the dragon for San Francisco." Many great cathedrals worldwide are built upon tribal or pagan worship sites, and most of these have wells under neath that are still tended. Grace Cathedral on Nob Hill is the largest house of worship west of the Mississippi and is modeled after Notre Dame in Paris. New Age enthusiasts claim that long before the Indians came to the peninsula, San Francisco was a temple site called Tlamco with seven hills, including Nob Hill, to denote a map of the Pleiades star system. The Tlamco "Temple of the Sun" reportedly stood at the present location of Haight and Shrader Streets.

The sacred Mount Tamalpais and Mount Diablo are two polar opposite peaks, both

renowned by native people. South of the Bay Area, the spectacular California coastline from Big Sur to Point Conception is noted

for its powers to heal, purify and inspire the

imagination.

Contemporary authors have portrayed Big Sur as "the greatest meeting of land and sea," but the rugged California landmark went largely unexplored until the last century. The name Big Sur derives its name from the one time unmapped and unexplored wilderness that lies along the coast south of Monterey. Spanish cartographers named it El Sur Grande, meaning "The Big South." Specifically, Big Sur is the 90 mile 145 km stretch of coastline from the Monterey Peninsula southward to San Simeon. Coast Highway 1 connects north and south, flanked on one side by the majestic Santa Lucia Mountains and on the other by the rocky Pacific coastline. Among the towering redwood groves of Big Sur are several spiritual centers and retreats. The famous healing center Esalen is on the coast, which describes itself as an alternative education center famous for its blend of Eastern and Western philosophies. Buddhist monks live in the mountains above the Carmel Valley at the tranquil Tassajara Zen Center and Hot Springs. The Immaculate Heart Hermitage is home to several Christian monks of the Camaldoli Order, who live a life of retreat and prayer devoted to Jesus Christ based on the rule of Saint Benedict. Interspersed between the

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A The Transverse Range begins at Point Conception, pictured above. It is one of the few mountain ranges in North America that runs east and west.

mountains and sea are the coastal redwood trees that only grow in a very narrow strip of land from southern Oregon to the Soda Springs drainage of Big Sur. This growing region is about 500 miles 805 km long and rarely more than 20 to 30 miles 32 48 km inland from the nourishing coastal fog. Redwoods are a rapidly growing tree, and some individual trees have been measured at more than 360 feet 108 m in height, making it the tallest measured tree species on earth. The majestic trees offer a cathedral like canopy of their own, and at one remote Big Sur location very rare albino redwoods can be found.

The indigenous people of Central California were the Miwok, Ohlone, Carmel and Chumash Indians. The name Esalen, a sub tribe of the Ohlone, derives from Ex'seien which means "The Rock." It specifically refers to the land of Big Sur: Xue elo xonia euene, an Ohlone declaration meaning "I come from The Rock." While some linguistic terms are still known by contemporary Ohlone members, the last fluent speaker died in 1939 and the language is now considered dead. Many sur viving Ohlone members refer to the mountainous interior of the Carmel Valley, an area of profound spiritual and historical significance, as Cachagua, a name derived from the Ohlone word Xasiuan.

Point Conception is 100 miles 160 km south of Big Sur and was regarded as the ultra sacred Chumash Indian entrance for departing or arriving souls. It was a hallowed realm of the dead where only initiates and shaman would dare ven ture. The mythical gateway was not just for Chumash Indian souls entering or leaving the planetsphere, but for all beings, hence the name Point Conception. A Chumash village was located at what is now called Jalama Beach County Park, where the unexcavated settlement still remains. The village lasted for many centuries until the Indians were rounded up and taken to La Purisima Mission during the Spanish rule of California. The name Jalama comes from the Spanish spelling of the Indian name for the village, "Halam." Whale watching is popular on this part of the coast in the spring and fall, as well as a world class surfing and windsurfing destination.

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Getting to Bay Area to Point Conception sites

Mount Tamalpais State Park is north of San Francisco's Golden Gate Bridge. From Highway 101 take to the Stinson Beach exit to Highway i and follow the signs up the mountain.

Mount Diablo State Park is located on Diablo Road, 5 miles 8 km east of Interstate 680 in Danville. Mount Diablo can also be reached from Walnut Creek via Ygnacio Valley Road.

Ring Mountain is an open space preserve located about 5 miles 8 km south of San Quentin in Marin County. Access to the Miwok fertility stone on Ring Mountain is best approached from the north via Tiburon's famous Paradise Drive, turning off just before the Marin County Day School and parking uphill at the end of the road.

Grace Cathedral on top of Nob Hill is surrounded by the oldest neighborhoods in San Francisco and is easily located on any city map.

Big Sur is located along the picturesque Coastal Highway 1, approximately 150 miles 242 km south of San Francisco, and 250 miles 403 km north of Los Angeles. Highway 1 was declared California's first Scenic Highway shortly after it was completed in 1937. The famous route provides a driving experience unsur passed in natural beauty and scenic variety. Esalen Institute is located 17 miles 27 km south of the town Big Sur.

Point Conception is a 5 mile 8 km walk down the beach from Jalama Beach County Park, which is 14 miles 23 km off Highway 1 just south of Lompoc and Vandenberg Air Force Base. Point Conception is on private land as part of the Cojo Ranch and is not accessible by public road. It is only accessible via walking a treacherous beach route at low tide, or by watercraft.

Blythe Intaglios

The Blythe Intaglios are located alongside one of the most famous waterways in North America just before it enters Mexico and empties into the Sea of Cortez. Along both sides of the Colorado River are numerous enigmatic geoglyphs, or "earth carvings." These intaglios feature images of gigantic humans, animals and geometric figures, created by scraping away darker surface debris to expose the lighter colored soil underneath. Prehistoric geoglyphs are found only in the American Southwest, South America and New Caledonia. There are over 300 recorded intaglios in the Southwest and adjacent Mexico. The Blythe Intaglios are the most popularly known and most easily accessible set of giant desert fig ures along the lower Colorado River. The Blythe grouping includes different spe cies of animals, several "giant" human or anthropomorphic beings, and random geometric shapes all etched onto the desert floor. The largest human figure at Blythe is 171 feet 52 m in length, and the smallest is 95 feet 29 m long. These

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figures may have represented powerful individuals in an Indian clan, or depict humans interacting with their natural environs. Most of the human figures are etched next to or near animal figures.

Not far from Blythe, at an associated site in Parker, Arizona is a different set of intaglios, similar in their abstract nature. A serpent glyph near Parker, complete with eyes and rattles, sprawls for almost 150 feet 45 m across the desert floor. Some of these giant figures are associated with nearby dwelling sites about 2,000 years old. Both the Blythe and Parker figures are very similar to those figures carved on the Nazca Plains in Peru. Like the Nazca figures, both cover a vast area, include animal figures, and were made by scraping off the top layer of sun baked rocks.

Similar to the Nazca Lines in Peru, the massive Blythe Intaglios are best viewed

from the air.

The figures are estimated to be anywhere between 450 and 10,000 years old. According to the Mohave and Quechan Indians, the two tribes who inhabited the lower Colorado River area, the human figures rep resent Mastamho, the ere ator of all life. The animal figures represent Hatakulya, one of two mountain lion/ humans who assisted in the creation. Sacred ceremo nial dances were held in the area in ancient times to honor the creation leg end. The most famous geo glyphs drawn on the desert floor at Blythe are three abstract human shapes, a coiled serpent, various geo metric lines, a dance ring 140 feet 43 m in diameter and two animals resembling a horse. The long legged animals, if they are horses,

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are both about 36 feet 11 m in length. These animals present a major dating problem because the geoglyphs must have been carved either a long time ago before horses went extinct, or more recently after the Spaniards arrived. Native American horses died off 10,000 years ago and its successor did not reach California until 1540. Another theory holds that some modern horses did exist in North America before the Spaniards, but were regarded as food sources rather than beasts of burden. Either way, the age of the geoglyphs cannot be dated accurately, only theorized.

Getting to the Blythe Intaglios

The small town of Blythe is located in southeastern California near the Arizona border, about 200 miles 320 km east of Los Angeles. The ground drawings are situated on two low mesas or terraces east of the Big Maria Mountains. The "Blythe Intaglios" are located just off Highway 95, about 18 miles 29 km north of the town Blythe. A closer exit on Interstate 10 intersects Highway 95, and is 15.5 miles 25 km from the site. There is a historical marker on the east side of Highway 95 and a dirt road with a BLM sign accessing the intaglios on the west side. The first dirt road turnoff is .4 miles .64 km , and the second turnoff is .8 miles 1.3 km off Highway 95. There are six figures in three locations. 4 WD vehicles are recommended. From each turnoff it is a relatively short hike to each set of intaglios just look for the low chain link fence surrounding each figure.

Death Valley

The bleak Death Valley in southern California is one of the least populated and hottest areas in the Western Hemisphere. Superstition and mirages, perhaps fueled by heat hallucinations, have filled the minds of many people who have ventured into this inhospitable terrain. To early settlers, Death Valley was the very manifestation of a medieval hell, a River Styx inferno whose temperatures could rise up to 130 degrees Fahrenheit 54° C . The valley received its name in 1849 during the California Gold Rush from emigrants who sought to cross the valley on their way to the gold fields. Pioneers making their way from Utah to California sometimes ventured across this scorching desert instead of risking the snowy Sierras and the infamous mountain pass where the Donner Party was lost. During the 1850s, gold, silver and borax were discovered in the valley.

During the late Pleistocene, the valley was inundated by prehistoric Lake Manly. Nestled between the Panamint Range and the Amargosa Range, the dried lake bed that is Death Valley is 130 miles 210 km long and between 6 to 14 miles 10 23 km wide. Death Valley National Park today encompasses more than three million acres 1.2 mil hectares . The bottom elevation of 282 feet 86 m below sea level marks the location called Badwater the lowest point in North America. Despite the scorching temperatures more than 1,000 species of plants, dozens of mammals and reptiles, and a unique species of fish called the pupfish thrive in Death Valley.

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The Shoshone Indians lived in Death Valley for over a thou sand years before the arrival of the white man. They were of the Shoshone Comanche stock, dark and thick set, and very supersti tious. All Death Valley Indians felt that a house should be built with its entranceway facing the rising sun. They also believed that every home must have a side door. In the event of a sudden death, the body could be removed quickly through the hidden door before the spirit could rush back. Petroglyphs are found in a number of Death Valley caves and canyons. Most depict animals such as deer, sheep, lizards, and turtles, some feature humans, and others are undecipherable. The modern Shoshone do not understand the pictures, nor do they know who created them. Death Valley remains home to theTimbisha tribe, who have inhabited the valley continuously for at least 1,000 years. Some families still live in the valley at Furnace Creek. The name of the valley, tumpisa, means "rock paint" and refers to the valley as a source of red ochre paint.

Death Valley is the lowest point below sea level in the Western Hemisphere. It is also the rumored home to such paranormal activ- ities as teleporting rocks, UFOs, and under- ground cities.

Paiute Indian legend relates the story of a city they called Shin Au av that exists deep below the desert floor in Death Valley National Park. The people who live in the city dress in leather and speak an unknown language. Several first person accounts from individuals who claim to have ventured into this city describe it as a fabulously wealthy wonderland. Such stories inspired Charles Manson, the convicted ringleader of the Manson Family who was prosecuted for the brutal Tate LaBianca murders in the early 1970s. Charles Manson believed that Devil's Hole in Death Valley was an entrance to another level of existence. Manson planned to lead his family through the portal when the war he foretold between the whites and blacks began. On several mesas at the edge of the Panamint Mountains bordering Death Valley are carefully placed lines of rocks stretching

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▲ Charcoal kilns in Death Valley. (Photo courtesy National Park Service)

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for hundreds of feet. These were probably the "ceremonial mesas" of an unknown people, perhaps dating back thousands of years when the valley was a freshwater lake. Several arranged megalithic rock formations located atop high these remote mesas add further mystery to this surreal desert landscape.

Getting to Death Valley

Death Valley National Park is best accessed from the south, via Interstate 15 connecting Los Angeles and Las Vegas. Route 127 leads to Death Valley Junction and the Badwater Basin. Motorists should be prepared for extremely harsh weather conditions. A ceremonial mesa with circular cairns on its summit is accessible at the southern end of Death Valley, south of Shoshone and near State Highway 178 in Inyo County.

Joshua Tree

The immense southern California desert, seemingly devoid of life, is in real ity an intricate living system dependent on each fragile segment to support the whole system for survival. In this harsh environment where life seems so frail, the creamy white blossom of the Joshua tree in the springtime unleashes a beautiful desert spectacle. The blooming season is from February to late April. Joshua trees do not branch until after they bloom, nor do they bloom every year. Once they bloom, the trees are pollinated by the female yucca moth, which spreads pollen while laying eggs inside the flower. The moth larvae feed on the seeds, but enough seeds remain to produce more trees. Joshua Tree National Park encompasses two large distinct ecosystems primarily determined by elevation: the Colorado and the Mojave Deserts. The Colorado Desert is below the 3,000 foot 900 m eleva tion mark and features natural gardens of spidery ocotillo and jumping cholla cactus, located in the eastern division of the park. The Mojave section is slightly higher, cooler and wetter, and is the special habitat of the Joshua tree, or Jucca brevifoli a. Joshua trees are found only in North America in the states of California, Arizona, Utah, and Nevada, confined mostly to the Mojave Desert between 2,000 and 6,000 feet 600 1,800 m elevation. A third minor ecosystem consists of the scattered fan palm oases dotting the park, providing dramatic contrast to the arid surroundings. In these few areas where water occurs naturally, flora and fauna abound.

The undisciplined looking Joshua tree, which gave the park its name, was named by Mormon visitors when they crossed the Mojave Desert in the mid 19 th century. Upon seeing groves of immature two armed plants, a group of Latter Day Saints likened them to human arms reaching up to God. The tree's unique shape reminded them of a biblical story in which Joshua reaches his hands up to the sky to stop the sun by God's command. Ranchers and miners who were contemporary with the Mormon immigrants took advantage of the Joshua tree by using the trunks and branches as fencing, or to fuel ore processing steam engines.

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The exotic and surreal landscape of Joshua Tree National Park.

Unfortunately most of the old growth trees were harvested, but if they survived they can live for two hundred years. The tallest trees reach about 50 feet 15 m in height.

Joshua Tree National Park is rich in cultural and histori cal resources harking back to the advent of Paleo Indians in the region. There are over 3,000 Native American sites in the park and almost all are associated with water. The most famous Indian location in the park is called Barker Dam and had once been an ancient initiation site surrounded by a high concentration of petroglyphs. The Cahuilla Native Americans have lived in the Southwest for generations and still identify with the Joshua tree as a valuable resource. Their ancestors used the leaves of Yucca brevifolia to weave sandals and baskets in addition to harvesting the seeds and flower buds for nutritious meals. Earlier Paleo Indians who came to the area were seasonal travelers following age old migration routes. During the Pleistocene era, one of the Southwest's earliest cultures, the Pinto people, lived here and hunted and gathered food along a slow moving river that ran through the now dry Pinto Basin. Later, other American Indians traveled through this area at times when plants yielded maximum food and animals were most abundant. They collected seasonal pinyon nuts, mesquite beans, acorns, and cactus fruit, leaving behind rock paintings and pottery ollas as reminders of their passing. Rock overhangs and caves provided shelter and places to store pottery containers and stone tools. Occasional flash floods continue to wash out ancient pottery shards.

The boulders of Joshua Tree are some of the most interesting geological displays found in the southern California deserts. About 1.5 million people from all over the world visit the park every year.

Joshua Tree National Park offers a bonanza of opportunities for the outdoor enthusiast. Sport rock climbers from all over the world flock to the park, par ticularly in winter, to challenge the naturally sculpted granite shapes in an activ ity known as "vertical adventuring." The spectacular rock formations, unique landscapes, starry skies, and seasonal blooms make it a photographers' dream. Late spring brings vibrant coloration to the desert floor, as wildflowers paint the scenery in a profusion of colors. Joshua trees and yucca plants bring forth

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their creamy blossoms, interspersed by blooming ocotillos with their flaming tips. Five oases dot the park's 794,000 acres 317,600 ha , rising like islands in a stormy sea. The best known, the Oasis of Mara, was inhabited first by Indians and later used by prospectors and homesteaders, and is now the site of the main Visitor's Center. These oases once served as gathering places, often life saving, to all prehistoric people who passed through this scorching hot desert. Beyond spectacular scenery, park literature pledges to "provide a space for finding free dom from everyday routines, space for self discovery, and a refuge for the human spirit." No wonder JoshuaTree National Park was selected as one of the New Age sites for the 1986 Harmonic Convergence. Like Sedona, this area is known for its power to convey serenity and a feeling of peace.

Getting to Joshua Tree National Park

JoshuaTree National Park is located 140 miles 215 km east of downtown Los Angeles, and 195 miles 315 km southwest of Las Vegas. The National Park may be entered from three park gates: Park Boulevard is a few miles east of the adjoin ing town of JoshuaTree, or 15 miles 23 km further east is the city of Twentynine Palms and the main Visitor's Center. The third entrance is off Interstate 10 on the other side of the park, serviced by the Cottonwood Springs Visitor Center. The park is open all year round. Between the towns of "Yucca Valley and Joshua Tree is the Institute of Mentalphysics and Spiritual Retreat Center "where the prophets of the future can commune with the eternal," according to Founder Dr. Edwin Dingle who claimed to have been an incarnated Tibetan Lama. The Institute is open to all religious faiths and encourages clients to visit the park to help them better commune with God and nature. Also near JoshuaTree National Park is the Integratron, an unfinished health rejuvenation center in the town of Landers reportedly positioned upon several major ley lines. Also in Landers is Giant Rock, the world's largest freestanding boulder.

Lake Shrine

Every few decades a spiritual educator emerges who makes an impact on an entire generation. Religious movements to this day continue to value the teach ings of Krishna, Buddha, Jesus Christ, Moses and Mohammed. More recently, the nonviolent teachings of Henry David Thoreau influenced Mahatma Gandhi, who in turn inspired Martin Luther King Jr. The Indian spiritualist Paramahansa Yogananda can be included in this elite grouping as well. Yogananda has been called one of the most prominent spiritual figures of the 20 th century. Hailed as the father of introducing Eastern spiritual yoga practices to the West, Paramahansaji "ji" is a respectful suffix added to names in India attributes his experiences and training with modern day saints and illuminated masters of India. In his writings and lectures he beautifully wove his personal accounts of the yogi masters with scientific clarity and subtle but definite laws by which Indian yogis performed miracles and attained self mastery.

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▲ Portions of Mahatma Gandhi's ashes reside at the World Peace Memorial on

one side of the Lake Shrine.

After decades of spiritual study under the tutelage of yogi masters throughout India, Yogananda embarked on his first journey to North America in 1920. His lectures struck a cord almost immediately and many Americans assisted in the establishment of the Self Realization Fellowship SRF . Several SRF hermitages and shrines were founded in the United States, especially in southern California where Paramahansaji spent the final decades of his life. The Lake Shrine was dedicated on August 20 th , 1950 by Paramahansaji, a date that corresponded with the 30 th anniversary of the SRF being established in North America. While supervising the planting and construction work in 1949, the year the Lake Shrine was donated, Yogananda stayed at times in the houseboat, still docked on the lakeshore. He desired the Lake Shrine to be used by spiritual seekers of all reli gious persuasions: "This SRF shrine is given to you for your use, for your medita tion, that you may be able in kind to self realization teachings and yoga, be able to resurrect the dead body into an immortal body, and keep it ever intoned in the heart of God."

In prehistory, the Chumash Indians of southern California utilized the spring fed lake as a source of fresh water and food. A movie studio executive owned the property in the 1940s, constructed the Dutch windmill replica, and donated the property to the SRF. When construction began on the Lake Shrine, Yogananda envisioned the placement of two artificial waterfalls to cascade down on opposite shores. The nonsectarian gardens surrounding the lake are filled with flora from six continents. There are tropical palms and ferns, Mexican weeping bamboo and Japanese black pines, cypress and ginkgo trees. There are coastal redwoods, des ert cactuses, impatiens, pampas grass, wisteria, passion flowers, and water lilies.

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Within this beautiful setting, Paramahansaji also envisioned the Lake Shrine to be repre sentative of all religions. Upon arrival, the visitor enters the "Court of Religions" where each of the five principal religions of the world is represented by a monument that bears its symbol: the Sanskrit symbol of Om for Hinduism, a Wheel of the Law for Buddhism, a Star and Crescent for Islam, a Star of David for Judaism, and a Cross for Christianity. "We must recognize the unity of mankind," he said, "remember ing that we are all made in the image of God. There must be world brotherhood if we are to practice the true art of liv ing. This shrine is dedicated A The lake side windmill is now a chapel to all religions that all may feel for quiet meditation,

the unity of a common faith."

Further around the lake, behind the Golden Lotus Archway, is a "wall less tern pie" open to the sky, called the Mahatma Gandhi World Peace Memorial. A brass coffer containing a portion of Gandhi's ashes, sent from India, was enshrined in a iooo year old sarcophagus when the Lake Shrine was dedicated. While on his travels in India, Yogananda was befriended by Mahatma Gandhi, and eventu ally received the only portion of Gandhi's ashes shipped outside of India. The carved sarcophagus that enshrines a portion of Gandhi's ashes is directly across the lake from the Windmill Chapel where Paramahansaji delivered some of his final lectures.

The verdant gardens surrounding the Lake Shrine offer the visitor a refuge of serenity and harmony. Paramahansaji designed it to represent a universal experience of all reli- gious faiths under the divine kinship that unites all people as God's children.

Paramahansa Yogananda hailed the Lake Shrine as "one of the most beautiful estates in the world, a floral wonderland." The 10 acre 4 ha site is a natural

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amphitheater, surrounded by verdant hills. A large natural lake, a blue jewel in a mountain setting, has given the estate its name the Lake Shrine. Two marble statues from China adorn the site a statue of Lord Buddha and Kwan Yin, the Chinese personification of the Divine Mother. A life size statue of Jesus Christ stands on a hill above one of the waterfalls. Another statue of Krishna playing the flute is located near the other waterfall, within a little garden.

In one of his last sermons, less than a year before his passing, Paramahansaji recognized the potency of the Lake Shrine. He praised the location as being surrounded by ocean, mountain, and lake. He eulogized it as a place where Jesus Christ and the yogi masters are reflected in every blossom, in every fish in the pond, in every little flower, in every true soul who visits. He suggested to the listeners at his 1951 Easter Sunday sermon: "May you all make it a Mecca and a place of pilgrimage. ... All those who come to this wonderful shrine will feel it. I have left my spirit here, in the ether, and all those who have true devotion will feel it."

Paramahansa Yogananda entered mahasamadhi, a yogi's final conscious exit from the body, on March 7 th , 1952 in Los Angeles. Weeks after leaving his body Yogananda's unchanged face shone with a divine luster of incorruptibility. The mortuary director of Forest Lawn in Glendale where he was laid to rest has commented that: "the absence of any visual signs of decay in the dead body of Paramahansa Yogananda offers the most extraordinary case in our experience ... no physical disintegration was visible in his body even 20 days after his death ... this state of perfect preservation of a body is, so far as we know from mortuary annals, an unparalleled one." There are people who say Paramahansaji is con stantly sending his love to the Lake Shrine. According to the monks on site "he always said that after he passed away he would be watching over this place and sending his blessings."

Getting to the Lake Shrine

The Self Realization Fellowship Lake Shrine and Gandhi World Peace Memorial are located in the Pacific Palisades community of Los Angeles, near the western terminus of Sunset Boulevard. The SRF Lake Shrine Retreat is at 171 90 Sunset Boulevard, about a quarter mile from the Pacific Coast Highway 1. Self Realization Fellowship services, meditations, and classes are held weekly at the Lake Shrine, which is open free to the public every day of the week except Monday, but the grounds are rarely crowded. Several SRF monks live full time at the Lake Shrine and the Temple complex located at the top of the hill. For those who believe surfing is their religion, one of the most popular surf breaks in southern California is called "Swamis," named after Paramahansa Yogananda. The Swamis break is located in southern Encinitas, just below the SRF hermit age where Paramahansaji completed his epic book Autobiography of a Togi.

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Lava Beds

Over a quarter million years ago, violent eruptions deposited enormous amounts of volcanic debris over large areas of northeastern California and south ern Oregon. Successive eruptions left behind lava tubes, molten rock formations, and a blanket of ash coating the landscape. Much later in time, approximately 12,000 years ago, the last glaciers in the Sierra Nevada were retreating and enor mous freshwater lakes covered much of northeastern California. Like neighbor ing Lake Lahontan in northwestern Nevada, huge flocks of migratory birds and now extinct land mammals roamed around the lakes and adjacent lava fields. The first Paleo Indians came to the region in search of the abundant game. The Klamath and Tule Lake basins were occupied by the first inhabitants at least 9,000 years ago, but perhaps as far back as 11,500 years ago. Even as Tule Lake was drying up, it still provided essential foodstuffs for long term habitation. The hard stemmed tule plant is also called bulrush Scirpus acutus , which still grows in the marshy areas of Tule Lake. The early inhabitants wove the plant into mats, shelters, boats, baskets, clothing, and sandals.

On the southeastern periphery of Tule Lake is a volcanic tuff mound that had been an island when the lake level was much higher. The exposed section of the point resulted after a widespread drought over 6,000 years ago lowered the lake level enough for a large undercut section to crack off. The early inhabitants paddled out to what is now called Petroglyph Point to carve strange symbols into the soft exposed rock. Petroglyph Point features over 5,000 mysterious symbols

A

▲ Petroglyph Point was once an island in a vast lake covering much of

northern California.

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A Hundreds of petroglyphs are protected behind a fence at Petroglyph Point, a remote section of Lava Beds National Monument.

along a wide cliff face. The ancient sculptors choose this recently exposed section of the island as their canvas beginning at least 4,500 years ago and continuing for another two thousand consecutive years. Many generations of Native Americans came to Petroglyph Point to carve anthropomorphic beings, animal style images, geometric patterns, and random lines oftentimes overlapping older pictures. Although large areas of the cliff face were available to the Indian artists, only certain sections were utilized for their strange etchings. The petroglyphs appear to be related to hunting magic or used to describe an event in the tribe's history. The thousands of carvings at Petroglyph Point, as well as those found on nearby boulders and in cave shelters, make Lava Beds one of the largest rock art concen trations in North America.

Lava Beds National Monument contains over 400 lava tube caves, but only a few were cho- sen by ancient shaman as special enough to paint archaic symbols and patterns. Modern Modoc people continue to travel across the country every year to experience the sacred- ness of these caves.

Lava tubes are formed when molten magma flows down a pathway and splashes in different directions to form walls and eventually a roof. Hot lava continues moving along inside until it hardens at its source and is blocked. Subsequent lava flows cover over the tubes, burying them even deeper. Such caves must have truly impressed the first visitors who ventured into them, especially when light shafts

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or percolating water drips were present. The Catacombs Tunnel at Lava Beds, for example, is nearly 7,000 feet 2,100 m long and links to adjoining passageways. Rock art was most likely an integral part of the rituals and ceremo nies performed by the Native American people. Certain lava tubes became special areas of wor ship, especially among young men who ventured into the underworld on their adolescence vision quests. By fasting, dancing, meditating, or swim ming underwater to another cave, young Modoc braves would seek a guardian spirit to guide them through life. It oftentimes took many days before the spirit entity would reveal itself to the young initiate. As a result, there are many cave associations in the legends of the Modoc tribe. Big Painted Cave features several faded picto graphs at eye level, with a secret opening down to a large pond of ice that was probably a favored water source. Symbol Bridge Cave is a wide tun nel opened at both ends, hence the reference to a bridge, with beautifully painted symbols on both sides. Fern Cave is a tube with a collapsed ceil ing, giving access to a rich collection of hundreds of wall paintings. These three pictograph sites are the most favored caves for returning Modoc pilgrims who come here to recall the stories and legends of their inherited legacy.

A light shaft in a lave tube. (Photo courtesy National Park Service)

The name Modoc is derived from the original name Moadoci, given to them by their powerful neighbors and traditional enemies the Klamath tribe of south ern Oregon. Archaeologists believe that the Modoc and their ancestral lineage had lived in the region for 9,000 years or longer. Before white settlers arrived the Modoc lived relatively peaceful lives, aside from the occasional skirmish over food, women, or hunting grounds with other tribes. Increasing hostility in the 19 th century with white homesteaders over land and resources precipitated the Modoc Indian War. The Modoc were forced to defend their homeland against the United States Army in a five month war in 1873, deftly avoiding capture time and time again by escaping through the familiar lava tubes. The Modoc War was the only major Indian conflict fought in California and the only occasion when a full rank general was killed in action. The Army eventually defeated the war riors and in the process destroyed the cultural identity of a people. The surviving Modocs were denied their request for a reservation on the Lost River and forced to relocate to an Oklahoma reservation.

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Getting to Lava Beds National Monument

Three entrances into Lava Beds National Monument access Route 139, all con necting via Tionesta and Hill Roads. Petroglyph Point is 3 miles 5 km on the unpaved Country Road 120 from the intersection of Route 139, about a half mile .7 km south of Newell. Big Painted and Symbol Bridge Caves are accessible by footpath, about a mile north of the Visitor Center. A dozen other lava tubes are located off the Cave Loop Road, just south of the Visitors Center. Fern Cave is only accessible by prior reservation with a park ranger every Saturday. Captain Jack's Stronghold fortress, where the Modoc fighting force of less than 60 men held off an Army force 20 times their size, is located roughly between Petroglyph Point and the eastern entrance to Lava Beds. There is a well marked turnoff to the Stronghold, and a self guided trail.

California Indians

The original native people of California were ancestors of the Great Plains Indians, who likely crossed the Alaskan land bridge from Siberia during the last Ice Age. The largest tribes from north to south were: the Modoc; Shasta Nongatl; Washoe; Yahi; Maiduu Yuki; Miwok; Ohlone; Yokuts Salinan; Chumash; and the Serrano. The California tribes seem to have traveled over the inland barriers centuries later, then established themselves in relatively isolated groups throughout the region. On the coast there was no long dis tance pattern of contact or com munication among them, unlike their Central and South American brethren. For many centuries, the California tribes lived in isolated harmony with the land and made pilgrimages to localized sacred sites. Hot springs and wells were particular favorites of the native people.

A The Native American named Ishi was considered the "Last Wild Indian." As the final survivor of the Yahi tribe, he emerged from the woods in August, 1911 near Oroville, California. Photo circa 1914.

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The single most destructive element to California Indians was the discovery of gold. Hundreds of thousands of immigrants from around the world descended upon the gold fields of California to seek their fortune. Nothing would block their way, especially native people who were viewed as more of a nuisance than anything else. Few California tribes were fortunate enough to retain even a small fraction of their land, let alone their way of life. The missionaries also played a large role in subjugating the Indians and encouraging them to forget their cul tural ties. Most California tribes died of disease, genocide, starvation, warfare, or were relocated far away from their native homelands.

Mission Trail

The first sea explorers to reach California visited briefly, primarily seeking supplies and safe harbor before setting off again. The Spanish were the first to make land claims on California, soon to be followed by the English explorer Sir Francis Drake near the San Francisco Bay, and later the Russians at Fort Ross in northern California. In order to shore up their possessions, the Spanish needed to establish a land trade route to link their permanent settlements. The Spanish referred to Mexico's northwest peninsula region as Baja California, and the region north of Baja was called Alta California, almost all of which today is the state of California. Under Spanish rule, the California Mission Trail was established in 1769 to connect the inland and coastal religious communities from southern Baja to the Bay Area in northern California.

Before the Mission Trail, several isolated Catholic colonies were established on the west coast of California, some as early as the 15 th century. The Mission Trail in Alta California, known as El Camino Real or "The Royal Highway," connected each colony to be within a day's travel by horseback, or two on foot. To facilitate overland travel on the 600 mile 966 km long El Camino Real, mission settlements were rarely separated over 30 miles 48 km apart, so that each mission was accessible by a single strenu ous day's ride on horseback. Heavy freight movement was practical only via water. Tradition has it that the Spanish padres sprinkled mustard seeds along the

9 trail in order to mark it with bright yellow flowers.

4 A Chumash Indian poses in traditional clothes.

Visitors to California are often amazed by the abun dance of Spanish saints among city names through out the state. The names of the saints of the day were often applied to newly discovered localities, whether

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rivers, bays, mountains or valleys. Spanish saints' names were also chosen for presidios or forts, pueblos or towns, and of course, the Franciscan mis sions. Today, most of these early mission ary settlements are thriving urban com munities. From north to south, visit the old missions in the mod ern city centers of: Sonoma, San Rafael, San Francisco, San Jose, Santa Cruz, Carmel, San Juan Bautista, San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, Los Angeles,

San Juan Capistrano and San Diego. In the Bay Area, modern El Camino Real was one of the first state highways in California, now designated Route 82. Given the lack of standardized road signs in 1906, it was decided to place distinctive bells along the route, hung on supports in the form of an 11 foot 3.3 m high shepherd's crook, also described as "a Franciscan walking stick." Hundreds of these cast metal bells can still be seen along the route.

The Carmel Mission was home to Father Serra for most of his life in California.

The Mission Trail unified California in the name of proselytizing Christianity.

Most missions were instrumental in California's early development. Perhaps the most significant was the Los Angeles mission called San Gabriel Archangel, located just south of Pasadena. San Gabriel was the first land link with the capi tal Mexico City in 1774, and became the chief point of contact with Mexico for many decades. Its strategic location made San Gabriel the wealthiest of all the missions. The prosperity of San Gabriel resulted in the building of a beautiful church, peaceful gardens and the acquisition of an expansive art collection. The founder of the Mission Trail, Father Junipero Serra lived most of his life and died in the Carmel mission, one of the most scenic and best preserved missions in this historic chain. Father Serra is currently being considered for canonization. If he becomes a saint, Catholic pilgrims could soon be flooding the Mission Trail in record numbers.

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Getting to the California Missions

The old missions are a proud and historic part of every California community where they reside. Most are located in the middle of the oldest sections of town, and roads with names like El Camino Real, Dolores and Mission Street usually lead right to their doorsteps. An unpaved portion of the original Spanish road has been preserved just east of Mission San Juan Bautista this road actually follows part of the San Andreas Fault. The country missions are equally fascinat ing. From north to south roughly paralleling Highway 101 between Carmel and San Diego look for: Mission Nuestra Senora de la Soledad Ruins near Soledad; Mission San Antonio de Padua on the Hunter Liggett military base; Mission San Miguel Archangel near San Miguel; La Purisima Mission State Historical Park near Lompoc; Mission San Buenaventura near Ventura; and Mission San Luis Rey de Francia near Oceanside. Sunday masses are held in some of the old basilicas, or a nearby Catholic church on the grounds. All have become museums of sort, and a small donation is always appreciated.

Mount Shasta

Towering Mount Shasta is the prominent centerpiece of northern California, rising like a glimmering diamond in a field of evergreens. Mount Shasta is situated at the intersection of three western mountain ranges: the Sierra Nevada to the southeast, the Cascades extending north to British Columbia, and the western Klamath Range. At 14,162 feet 4,249 m , Shasta is the second highest of the Cascade Range volcanoes and is home to California's five largest glaciers. Mount Shasta rises more than 10,000 feet 3,300 m from its base, soaring abruptly over a landscape of relatively level ground. Because it is physically unconnected to any nearby mountain Shasta is visible for a hundred miles in all directions on a clear day. This cone shaped stratovolcano is relatively young, as is evident by the lack of extensive glacial erosion. Tiny sulfur vents just below the summit suggest this dormant volcano is merely taking a geological nap. Long regarded as a place of intense energy, the "Gentile Giant" Mount Shasta possesses a visible and majes tic presence. New Age mystics believe it represents our planet's version of the human being's first or root chakra, located near the base of our spine. This theory then expounds that the mountain connects to our collective survival.

To the Modoc Native American people, Mount Shasta was the center of the universe. "Before there were people on the earth," begins a Modoc legend, "the Chief of the Sky Spirits grew tired of his home in the Above World because the air was always brittle with an icy cold. So he carved a hole in the sky with a stone and pushed all the snow and ice down below until he made a great mound that reached from the earth almost to the sky." Today it is known as Mount Shasta. This lengthy creation story goes on to explain how the Chief named Skell formed the trees, rivers, animals and rocky hills, bestowing all the features of the mountain with spiritual significance. The towering volcano was located in the

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southwest corner of Modoc territory before part of the tribe was displaced in the 1850s, corresponding to the time when gold was discovered in the region. The Modoc have prophesied that when Shasta loses all its glaciers and snow, it will again erupt. When Shasta erupts, according to tribal elders, the world will go through major reformations and climatic changes. During interspersed California drought years, Mount Shasta comes close to being devoid of glaciers. Could the Modoc have foreseen today's global warming and changing weather patterns?

Any Indian tribe who came into view of Mount Shasta held the mountain in very high esteem. Tribes such as the Karuk, Klamath, Modoc, Yiirok, Shasta, Wiyot, Yuki, Okwanuchu, Achomawi, Atsugewi, Wintuand and the Wintun revered the mountain as a spiritual cen ter. Others would travel great distances to catch a view of Wyeka, or "Great

White." The dormant volcano is believed to contain powerful Earth spiritual energy where the Great Spirit himself was thought to reside. Native peoples were reluctant to climb large mountains like Shasta because the power of the Great Spirit was too strong there. Since the lodge of the Great Spirit is on peaks such as Shasta, he demands respect and only those of a pure heart can climb to the sum mit and not be harmed. That is why most native people today still do not climb to the peak, although on the lower slopes, such as Panther Meadows, purification rituals and sweat lodge ceremonies continue every year.

▲ Mount Shasta rises above Tule Lake

in northern California, and is visible for a hundred miles in all directions on a clear day.

A/Vount Shasta is a very powerful beacon to the indigenous peoples of northern California and southern Oregon. It is also the rumored

home of Bigfoot, citizens of Lemuria, The Great White Brotherhood, and regular UFO

sightings.

The energy of Mount Shasta is so powerful that it has been described by New Agers as the "Epcot Center" of sacred sites. Shasta is said to be the abode of many different spirits and beings, both present and past. Almost all metaphysical

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A Among the many mysteries of Mount Shasta include clusters of mounds that appear to have moats surrounding them, and appear like crop circles

when viewed from above.

stories relate to the mountain's interior, which is home to several mysterious and legendary beings. Inside Mount Shasta is supposedly a massive cavern with gold lined offshoot caves. Here can be found the legendary city of Telos with gleaming gold temples. Although they will flee at the sight of a human, keep a lookout for Bigfoot, the Lemurians, the Yaktayvians, and one white robed character named Phylos who can materialize himself at will. The Lemurians are said to be a peace ful pre Atlantian race believed to have lived on the now submerged Pacific conti nent of Lemuria some 14,000 years ago. The Lemurians were survivors of a great flood who migrated to the safety of the Pacific Northwest. The Yaktayvians are another mysterious race said to be living inside Shasta who can supposedly use their magic bells and force fields to keep humans away from their "doorways" into the mountain. These extraterrestrials reportedly utilize the summit for entering the caverns inter dim ensionally with their spacecraft. Although these entities are of an ancient race, they would rather not interact with or be seen by humans. In their view, we are a primitive people who are ruled by fear and violence. They prefer to disguise their activities and not overtly influence the course of human civilization.

Also included in the extensive list of Shasta mysteries are unexplained mound clusters at different locations around the mountain. Some mounds near Goose Lake were created by Ducks Unlimited for birds to nest, but others defy ratio nalization. Archaeologists and geologists are in stark disagreement with one another, each claiming the other must explain the mounds. Large boulders are oddly found at the top of some mounds, rather than rolling down over time by

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the forces of gravity. Many of the mounds do not show signs of deterioration or erosion. What's more, no Native American group claims responsibility, nor do any such groups have a history of creating mounds in this part of the world. At a twin cluster of mounds near the small town of Tennant there are mounds surrounded by interconnected moats. Although the moats are usually dry it is clear that water somehow interacts with the two clusters. Seen from above, the Tennant Water Mounds take on the appearance of crop circles because of their unusual geometric shapes. Nature certainly does not create anything this perfect. It is possible that an eccentric rancher with a penchant for sacred geometry created the mounds with a bulldozer as a watering hole for his livestock. By why go to so much trouble? Those who believe in the underground city of Telos offer another explanation. When the dew point reaches an optimum level, the moats around the mounds are filled by a channel connected to an underground water source. When filled, the water molecules are excited to the point that they can self regulate the mounds by clearing the moats of any debris. Once in operation the water mounds serve the purpose of creating lenticular cloud cover for entering or exiting spacecraft. It wouldn't be the most far out Shasta theory After all, unexplained sightings of ape men, UFOs and hooded phantoms are reported every year. Such stories only enhance the mystery and legend of this powerful mountain.

Climbing Mount Shasta

Mount Shasta is not a technical ice climbing mountain, and several routes to the summit make the ascent relatively accessible for those lacking mountaineer ing experience. This is not to say the ascent is easy, because it certainly is not. Weather and season often determine difficulty and, on average, half of those attempting the summit turn back. Altitude sickness is a primary reason for not reaching the summit, second only to foul weather. Since the mountain is so huge, weather patterns develop here, and it is not uncommon to be caught in high winds and/or heavy snowfall. If there are large, rounded lenticular clouds forming over the summit, a storm is likely brewing and it may be time to start descend ing. Lenticular clouds are the least common cloud in the world, but they are the

A Mountain climbers approaching the summit of Mount Shasta.

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most common cloud in Nevada and the Shasta region of California. The ideal months for climbing Mount Shasta are July and August, although the potential to climb exists from late spring to middle autumn. Consult the ranger's station in the town of Mount Shasta for permits and updated weather forecasts. Also, there are several places to rent crampons, boots and ice picks in the towns of Mount Shasta or Weed connected by Interstate 5. All are essential for any summit climb no matter the season. To acclimatize in higher elevations, spend at least one day and one night on the mountain, either at Sierra Club's Horse Camp, or at the 10,000 foot 3,000 m Helen Lake campsite.

OREGON

r I "Mie first human migrants established themselves in the Pacific Northwest JL over 15,000 years ago, but the first known human artifacts in what is Oregon date to 11,200 BCE. In 1938, archaeologist Luther Cressman discovered sage bark sandals near Fort Rock Cave, suggesting a wide dissemination of human activity during the last Ice Age. By 8000 BCE there were Native American settlements across the state, with the majority concentrated along the lower Columbia River, in the western valleys, and near coastal estuaries. Native Americans lived sustain ably in the diverse Oregon landscape among the tall, dense forests, below the rugged, glaciated Cascade volcanoes, and around semiarid scrublands, prairies, and deserts until the arrival of the white man.

The "Oregon Country" was opened to the European era after the 1804 1806 Lewis and Clark expedition down the Columbia River. Before that, it was a vast wilderness inhabited by several native tribes. Upon arriving at the mouth of the Columbia River, Lewis and Clark were astonished to find "an Indian with freckles and reddish hair" and the area tribe using beeswax. After the expedition, fur trad ing, mineral prospecting, and homesteading on native lands greatly reduced the indigenous population of Oregon. The once mighty Klamath and Modoc tribes of southern Oregon were all but exterminated or driven away forever. Smaller native tribes in the north managed to survive and two reservations exist in the high desert region, far from the prized fertile Willamette Valley in the west.

Crater Lake

The symmetrical Crater Lake actually occupies a caldera, which is the collapsed cone of a volcano, rather than a crater. A latter forming cinder cone is found on top of Wizard Island. The volcano containing Crater Lake was once a large conical mountain towering over 12,000 feet 4,000 m , called Mount Mazama. In a tremendously powerful explosion about 7,700 years ago a violent eruption discharged copious amounts of lava, yet at the same time cracks opened beneath the volcano and drained away several cubic miles of molten lava inside. Mount Mazama, drained by these internal fissures, was without a base to support its

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cone. The mountain collapsed into the hollow middle creating a deep basin. Eventually the caldera cooled and the basin filled with rainwater and snow, fill ing the lake in approximately 720 years to its current level. Some hydrothermal activity remains along the lake floor, suggesting that Mazama may become active again in the future. The spectacular eruption was witnessed by the Klamath people of southern Oregon, and became a focal point of their religion and awe of the mystic lake.

For thousands of years before the white man's arrival, Crater Lake was the focal point of Klamath mythology. The tribe had lived near the lake for so long that Klamath oral history accurately recalls the volcanic eruption that eventually formed Crater Lake. The Klamath people considered the lake so sacred that no one would visit it except for the most practiced shaman, or those in training. The Klamath used Crater Lake for vision quests, which often involved climbing the caldera walls and performing other dangerous tasks. Those who were successful in such quests were often regarded as having increased spiritual powers. An oral history was passed down, but directions to the lake, and the trail to sacred Wizard Island, were kept as a closely guarded secret within the tribe. Thus, over time, the lake was forgotten by non shamanic Klamath members, and it wasn't until many years after the white man's arrival that the lake was finally discovered, and then only by accident. Prospector John Wesley Hillman stumbled upon Crater Lake in 1853 as ne searched for a rumored gold mine.

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The Klamath legend of Crater Lake relates the story of a powerful deity named Llao, or the "Chief of the World Below," who lived under Mount Mazama before the erup tion. The Chief emerged on the surface one day with a mission to secure a bride from the Klamath people. He found the beautiful and beloved

▲ Hikers marvel at the sight of Wizard Island Loha, who rebuffed the in Crater Lake. Chief and his promises

of eternal life. The Chief

was so enraged that he swore to destroy the Klamath with a "curse of fire." A great battle of all spiritual deities took place with the Chief of the World Below spewing rivers of molten lava and red hot rocks upon his enemies. The surround ing countryside was engulfed in flames and the tribe had to flee to Klamath Lake. Desperate to survive the ordeal, the tribe sent its two wisest elders to sacrifice themselves as deliverance for the wickedness of their tribe. The two medicine men climbed the mountain and threw themselves into the fiery pit. The Chief of the World Below retreated to his subterranean home and the mountain fell upon him. Soon the rains came and filled in the hole where the mountain had been and the curse of fire had been lifted. The story of these terrible events was passed for many generations, and few ever dared approach the place that caused the tribe so much fear.

The depths of Crater Lake belong to a wrath- ful spiritual deity, so powerful in fact, that no person except the most experienced Klamath

shaman would risk venturing to its shores.

Even today, the deep sapphire-colored cal- dera lake is considered by New Agers as one of holiest places in North America.

Crater Lake is the 2 nd deepest lake in North America at 1,949 f eet 594 m » slightly less than the deepest lake, Canada's Great Slave Lake at 2,015 feet 614 m . It is the 7 th deepest lake in the world, but on the basis of average depths, Crater Lake would be the deepest in North America and the 3 rd deepest in the world. There is a direct relationship between the lake's brilliant blue color and its remarkable depth. All color emitted on a sunny day is absorbed by the deepness,

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where only blue is reflected upwards. The remarkably clear water also contributes to its blueness. It is claimed to be among the purest water in the world, with some measurements putting it 20 times purer than most bottled drinking water. Crater Lake is fed solely by falling rain and snow, with no inflow or outflow at the surface, which contributes to its pristine state.

The relatively young lake has an even younger companion, named Wizard Island. After the volcano collapsed, a final eruption created a cinder cone inside the caldera, which became an island when the lake filled with water. Wizard Island rises 760 feet 230 m above the lake surface and an astounding 2,250 feet 675 m above the caldera floor. Klamath shaman regarded the crater atop Wizard Island as the ultra sacred entrance to an underworld gateway. Shaman would cau tiously make their way over to the island and pay humble tribute. The gateway was a spiritual passageway between the above and below worlds and could only be successfully approached by those who were pure of heart.

Getting to Crater Lake and Wizard Island

Crater Lake National Park is located in south central Oregon, accessed off highway 138 to the north closed in the winter and highway 62 from the south. The access road from highway 62 to Rim Village is open year round for spectacu lar winter views. Adding to the tranquility of the region and nearly surrounding Crater Lake National Park is the Rogue River National Forest. Directly across the lake from Rim Village is Cleetwood Cove, which is the only access to the lake shore. There is a boat service at Cleetwood Cove offering a lake tour and drop off at Wizard Island, departing several times a day in the summer months only. Catch the early morning boat and spend the day hiking to the island's summit. The 360 degree view from the top of Wizard Island is among the finest in the park.

WASHINGTON

Most people perceive the state of Washington as being in the heart of the rain soaked Pacific Northwest, which it is, however the state is also a land of contrasts. East of the Cascade Range the semi desert half of Washington has few trees, while the dense forests of the Olympic Peninsula, such as the Hoh Rain Forest, are among the only temperate rainforests within the continental United States. Mount Rainier, the highest mountain in the state, is covered with more glacial ice than any other peak in the lower 48 states. Despite being somewhat isolated from the rest of the United States, Washington's position on the Pacific Ocean and the harbors of Puget Sound give the state a leading role in maritime commerce with Canada, Alaska, and the Pacific Rim. Rather than extensive bridges, Puget Sound's many islands are served by the largest ferry fleet in the United States.

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Famous for the ornately carved totem poles, canoes and masks of the Northwest Coast Indians, the spectacular scenery and the abundant sea resources allowed indigenous people to uniquely interpret their role in nature for thousands of years. "The Earth is our mother" and "the Sun is our father" were common expressions among the Indians of the Pacific Northwest. The various tribes of Washington coexisted peacefully until the arrival of European explorers who were intent on exploiting as much of the natural resources as possible. But even during the first hundred years of contact with foreigners, the land remained mostly unexplored virgin territory. Only 300 settlers lived north of the Columbia River in the early 18 00s when Washington was part of the Oregon Territory. It became its own territory in 1853. The population boomed after the railroads came through in the 1880s, leading to statehood in 1889. The growth of the timber industry and the lucrative outfitting of the Klondike gold rushers in the late 1890s paved the way for a complete transformation from Native American fishing settlements to the Modern Age. Its economy is dominated today by aircraft manufacturing and technology.

Cascade Volcanoes

The Cascade Mountain Range extends from northern California to southwest ern British Columbia in Canada, a distance spanning over 700 miles 1,100 km . The Cascade Volcanoes, also called the Cascade Volcanic Arc, encompass many peaks held sacred by Native Americans and features more UFO and Bigfoot sight ings than any other region in North America. A wide variety of minor sacred sites can be found in nearby caves, waterfalls, rock towers or near the numerous hot and cold water springs or dormant volcano vents. Some native legends allude to enormous, hidden grottos featuring sleeping giants, supernatural apparitions and other marvels within the volcanoes. Externally, the Cascades soar above the other surrounding mountains, standing out like snow capped jewels in this spectacular volcanic mountain chain. The most renowned Cascade Volcanoes are Mount Rainier, Mount Saint Helens and Mount Baker in Washington, as well as Mount

Hood in Oregon and Mount Shasta and Mount Lassen in California. Each is veiled with its own unique Native American persona. One truly amaz ing aspect of the Cascades is how new the mountain range is, and how steep the slopes rise. The base of Mount Rainier, for

▲ The tall and rugged Cascade mountains. example, soars above the

(Photo Courtesy U.S. National Forest) sea level city of Tacoma to

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14,410 feet 3,323 m , making Rainier the tallest mountain in the Cascade Range. Most of the Cascade Volcanoes are typified by deep volcanic gorges and some of the loftiest peaks on the North American continent. Because the Cascades form a barrier just east of the rain drenched Pacific coast, the western slopes are shrouded in dense foliage, while the eastern slopes taper off into high desert terrain.

Each of the Cascade Volcanoes is cloaked in

myth and folklore. Mount Saint Helens is called the Little Sister by tribes of the Pacific Northwest. Mount Rainier is her grandfather.

Native Americans have inhabited the Pacific Northwest for thousands of years and developed numerous myths and legends relating to the Cascade Volcanoes. According to some of these tales, such as the Bridge of the Gods legend, various peaks such as Mount Hood and Mount Adams are alive and act as god like chiefs who engage in war by hurling fire and stone at one another. Mount Saint Helens with its pre 1980 graceful appearance was regarded as a beautiful maiden, or Little Sister, for whom Hood and Adams feuded. Among the many stories con cerning Mount Baker, one describes the volcano as a woman who was formerly married to Mount Rainier, living next to him. Then, because of a marital dispute, she picked herself up and walked north to her current position. Other mythology describes Mounts Jefferson, Baker, Shasta and Garibaldi as a sanctuary for various tribes who escaped a great flood long ago. The Cascade Arc includes nearly 20 major volcanoes, among a total of over 4,000 individual volcanic features, includ ing numerous vents, stratovolcanoes, shield volcanoes, lava domes, and cinder cones. Localized native tribes developed their own names and folklore for each of the Cascade Volcanoes and many of the smaller peaks.

Native Americans particularly revered Mount Rainier, calling it Takoma, the Lushootseed name meaning "the Great White Mountain" or "the Mountain that was God." They refused to disgrace the glacier clad peak by climbing it, instead giving it a wide berth when passing nearby. Early European explorers found that the Indians were actually afraid of the mountain it was one of the few areas the Indians were unable to guide the explorers and thus the area remained totally unexplored until the mid 19 th century. Native Americans also claimed that the mountain was an active volcano with a "lake of fire" at the summit. These legends were dismissed as folklore until the first ascent of the peak in 1870 confirmed numerous steam vents and a lake at the top formed by melting snow. Since then, geologists have verified the Indian legends, dating the last eruption to about 5,800 years ago.

In some of the most remote and deeply forested regions of the Pacific Northwest, particularly around the wilderness regions of the Cascades, there have been hundreds of sightings of the man ape known as Bigfoot. The creature

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▲ The Cascades soar above scenic Route 530.

is described as anthropomorphic, with somewhat human facial features, 8 to 12 feet 3 4 m in height, between 800 and 1,000 pounds 360 450 kg , excessively hairy, horrible smelling, omnivorous, mostly but not exclusively nocturnal, soli tary and essentially gentile. The Chehalis Indians of British Columbia named the creature Sasquatch, but the beast is by no means confined to their reservation. Although sightings of the mysterious Bigfoot range from British Columbia and the Yukon Territory in Canada all the way south to northern California, a vast majority of North American Bigfoot encounters are reported in Washington state, with many sightings around Mount Saint Helens. Unfortunately for Bigfoot and those who hope to catch a glimpse of this mysterious creature, sightings have dropped off considerably since the violent eruption of Mount Saint Helens on May 18 th , 1980. If ever there was a population of "ape men" living along the slopes of Mount Saint Helens, they now might be buried under billions of tons of mud and debris.

Another phenomenon of the Cascade Volcanoes is the numerous UFO sight ings above the mountaintops. In fact, the modern age of UFOs began on June 24 th , 1947 when a reputable businessman and amateur pilot named Kenneth Arnold reported seeing nine silver disc like objects moving in formation directly in front of his flight path. He checked his watch as they passed Mount Rainier, and again when they passed Mount Adams at a speed, Arnold figured, to be more than 1,700 miles 2,737 km per hour. Other witnesses spotted the "flying saucers" that same day and the local newspaper printed the story as front page news. That single day of sightings was the first of many that soon spread across the nation,

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starting the UFO controversy that persists to this day. Some UFO researchers suggest the reason why volcanoes are frequented so regularly by extraterrestrial vehicles is that they contain large subterranean cavities where the inter dimen sional spacecrafts can take refuge from the outside world. Such reports of para normal activity only increases the marvel surrounding the Cascade Volcanoes.

Getting to Cascade Volcanoes

Mount Rainier National Park is located just outside the city of Tacoma, accessed by Route 7 to Route 708. Mount Saint Helens National Volcanic Monument is located halfway between Mount Rainier and the Oregon state border, via Route 504 off Interstate 5. To reach the north Cascade Volcanoes, take Washington State Route 20 from Burlington on the western slopes to the town of Twisp east of the North Cascades National Park. This route is considered the "most scenic mountain drive in Washington."

Columbia River Gorge

The Columbia River Gorge is one of the most dramatic canyons in North America, extending partway along the north Oregon and south Washington state borders, and providing the only navigable water route through the Cascades. The narrow canyon is the only connection between the Columbia River Plateau and the Pacific Ocean. The gorge itself is about 100 miles 160 km in length and is the largest National Scenic Area in the United States. Beyond its physical beauty, the gorge was a Native American settlement for at least 10,000 years before the arrival of the first European explorers. Various aspects of the gorge were of deep religious significance to the indigenous people. Native Americans inscribed their stories in the basalt cliffs and caves in hundreds of locations above the river. Ancient symbols such as sunbursts, animals and circles can still be found etched upon the basalt cliffs. Virtually every petroglyph, rock formation, waterfall or cavern had a spiritually connected legend, some tracing back 11,000 years accord ing to archaeological studies. By far the most important spiritual location along the gorge was The Dalles, the most productive salmon fishing location on the river. Indian bands of the Columbia River the Cascades, Watlala, Wasco, Walla Walla, Umatilla and Wishram possessed a common understanding of the world. To these tribes, the animal deity Coyote created it, and for everything to be right, each person had to follow established traditions. These practices passed from generation to generation through tales told during the icy times of winter the months of the long moons. The American Indian way of life quickly changed after Lewis and Clark navigated the Columbia River in the early 19 th century fol lowed by Oregon Trail pioneers who viewed the Indians as a hindrance obstruct ing their westward expansion.

Scattered along the cliff walls are many indications that the native people held the gorge section of the Columbia River especially sacred. Dozens of petroglyphs

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illustrate aspects of Indian life and mythology, often depicting the Indians in an interconnected relationship with the land. The most famous petroglyph is called Tsagaglalal, which means "She Who Watches," and is located on a cliff overlook ing the Columbia River and Horse Thief Lake State Park in Washington. The most visible sacred site in the gorge is Beacon Rock, named by Lewis and Clark who camped at its base in 1805 en route to the Pacific Ocean. The sheer mass of the columnar andesitic basalt rock formation is all that's left from the core of an ancient volcano eroded away by the Columbia River. Standing as a gigan tic monolith rising approximately 850 feet 255 m above the Columbia River, Beacon Rock is the second largest freestanding rock in the world after Gibraltar in Spain. Local Indian clans knew Beacon Rock as Che che op tin, meaning "the Navel of the World."

The Columbia River Gorge has been a rec- ognized sacred place to native people for thousands of years. Near the gorge was discovered one of the most controversial skeletons in North America.

About 80 miles 130 km from the east ernmost end of the Columbia Gorge, out on the flats of the Columbia Plateau, a well preserved skeleton was found near the town of Kennewick on July 28 th , 1996, giving rise to the name Kennewick Man. The skeletal remains, complete with an arrowhead lodged in the pelvic bone, were so obviously Caucasian that local police initially thought it was a 19 th century settler killed by an Indian arrowhead. Among its features were high rounded eye sockets and a long, broad nose. All the teeth were intact at the time of death. The man was of a tall and slender build. He was also wearing the remains of advanced clothing. Early examination of Kennewick Man's head immediately indicated that the physi cal features were unlike any American Indian Mongoloid skull. Kennewick Man, initially identified by anthropolo gists as "Caucasoid," is one of oldest, most complete skeletons ever found in the New World. In recent years the

26

▲ This Kennewick Man facial reconstruction shows a middle- aged man who looked more like a "European accountant than a Paleo-lndian hunter."

West Coast States

COLOMBIA GORGE

Tl^ PETROGOTttUp

MEDICINE MAN

TSAGAGLALAL "She Who Watches"

<2>

COYOTE FACE AND WATER DEVILS found where the river is very dangerous

OWL WITH POWER RAYS

GOATS AND ELK symbolize power to ensure good hunting

COMMON PERSON AND CHIEF

FOUR POINTED STAR

I SPI

SPEDIS OWLS symbolizes use of property, but not ownership

description of the skeleton as "Caucasoid" has been rejected by most anthropolo gists who have determined the skeleton's modern ancestry is most closely related to the indigenous Ainu people of Japan. There are now a good dozen sets of more or less complete remains from the pre archaic period 9,000 5,000 BCE in the western United States, and none of them resemble modern Native Americans. It would be astonishing if they did, since the world they inhabited, in the waning millennia of the last great Pleistocene glaciation, was totally different environ mentally from the world of the last few thousand years.

After radiocarbon dating of a finger bone, it was revealed that the Kennewick Man was at least 9,000 years old, putting him in the Pacific Northwest sometime around the year 7,200 BCE. Such dating certainly throws the conventional Bering Strait land bridge theory into a tizzy, as well as creating a controversy with local tribes who have filed complaints for possession of the Kennewick remains. In

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2004, the Federal Appeals Court sided with the scientists, ruling that a cultural link between the tribes and the skeleton was not met. Although discovered on Native American homelands, the Kennewick Man bears none of the characteris tics belonging to the Mongolian stock from which all the American Indians sup posedly originated. According to this find, Caucasian or East Asian populations were most likely amongst the North American continent's earliest settlers. The only possible scenario that fits well with the Kennewick Man discovery is that a group of Pacific voyagers migrated to North America over 9,300 years ago, and possibly mixed with Native American tribes on the West Coast. Similar ancient Caucasian skeletal artifacts of this time period have been uncovered in north western Nevada. The Kennewick skeleton dating calls into question current accepted theories on prehistoric migrations to North America, and certainly adds to the importance of the Columbia River for the earliest arrivals.

Getting to Columbia River Gorge

Just east of Portland, Oregon the Columbia River Gorge begins to narrow and take shape along Interstate 84. State Route Highway 14 extends along the river on the Washington side. Beacon Rock State Park can be reached by crossing the toll bridge at Cascade Locks, and traveling 4 miles 6.5 km west on Highway 14, or if traveling east from Vancouver, Washington, follow Highway 14 for 35 miles 57 km until the spotting the well marked signs for the State Park turnoff. It is pos sible to hike to the summit of Beacon Rock along a mile long chiseled trail that is fairly steep. Unfortunately the government destroyed the site of Kennewick Man's discovery by dropping 500 tons 453,500 kg of dirt and rock on it because of Native American interest group pressure, prompting researchers to call the government's actions "beyond negligent." In 2006, the East Benton County Museum in Kennewick, WA opened a new Kennewick Man exhibit.

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Take only memories. Leave nothing but footprints.

-Suquamish Chief Seattle

HE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE OF WHAT IS TODAY ALASKA and Hawaii developed their unique cultures in relative isolation for thousands of years before the coming of European explorers.

In both locations, British sea captain James Cook was the first European explorer to encounter the native people, and in both cases with disastrous results. Captain Cook had made several voyages in the 18 th century to Alaska in search of the fabled Northwest Passage, a route through the southern Arctic Ocean connecting the Pacific to the Atlantic. Incidentally, the Northwest Passage proved impractical as a sea lane, but in the early 21 st century it is being considered as a viable summer ship ping route due to global warming and the rapidly disappearing Arctic ice cap. Instead of locating the Northwest Passage, Captain Cook encountered the Tlingit, Haida, Aleuts, and Inuit native people of the Pacific Northwest. These were the remote descendants of the first humans to set foot on North American soil. Unwittingly, Captain Cook's crew spread deadly diseases in which these people had no natural immunities, and the result was a near total destruction of their age old cultures. On another attempt to chart the Northwest Passage, Cook stumbled upon the Hawaiian

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archipelago in the North Pacific. On a return voyage, the eminent explorer was murdered on the Big Island by superstitious natives, including a young man named Kamehameha who went on in 1795 to become the first and only unifier king of the Hawaiian Islands.

Alaska and Hawaii, the 49 th and 50 th states to join the union respectively, both entered the North American scene as afterthoughts. Alaska was called "Seward's Folly" because the land was deemed worthless after Secretary of State William Henry Seward facilitated the sale from Russia in 1867. This popular opinion would quickly change when gold was discovered near Juneau in 1880. The big 1897 Klondike rush and the even bigger 1898 Nome rush put Alaska on the map, but other resources such as oil deposits, salmon fishing and strategic military bases led to Alaska's statehood in 1959. Hawaii was incorporated into the United States a few months after Alaska, largely because of its strategic military and shipping location in the middle of the North Pacific Ocean. Hawaii has the distinction of being the only state to have once been an independent kingdom nation. Both states retain the aboriginal names given by their earliest inhabitants: Hawaii was chosen over Captain Cook's original name "Sandwich Islands;" and the indig enous name Alaska" is derived from the pronunciation of Alyeshka, meaning "the Great Land." Both states hold the distinction of being the northernmost and southernmost extremities of the United States. Each state also has a mountain that can be considered the largest in the world.

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ALASKA

The indigenous Inuit inhabitants of the Arctic coastal regions have had a long and intimate relationship with the harsh climates of northern Alaska. The Inuit, also called the Eskimos, have more than 20 different words for snow, depending on which dictionary is consulted. The West Greenlandic dictionary lists 49 words for snow and ice, while the Kobuk Inupiaq Dictionary, used in schools throughout northwestern Alaska, lists 23 words in the Inuit language, known as Inupiaq, to describe snow in its many different forms. There are three specific words for snow on the ground, while the other 20 describe a myriad of snowy conditions, including melting ice, particular snow to use for drinking water, and a variety of snow descriptions as it is falling. Unlike English, Inupiaq is a poly synthetic language, meaning that there are dozens of affixes to add nuance to the meaning of a simple noun like snow.

Described as 'America's last frontier," Alaska is teeming with wild animals liv ing on boundless expanses of unblemished terrain. It is a rugged outback wilder ness featuring several major mountain ranges crossing portions of the state, all running roughly parallel with the Pacific coast. The continuous Cordillera that extends from the southern tip of Cape Horn all the way through the Americas terminates in northern Alaska. Between the major ranges are lesser mountains, broad valley, and interior basins. The primary attraction for most visitors to Alaska is the state's stunning natural features and its fabulous wildlife. Alaska is still a place where the ecosystems remain intact and animal migration routes go uninterrupted. For those who live here, out every door is a short route to wilderness. With less than one person per square mile, and almost all residents concentrated in small urban areas, enormous regions of the state are completely free of human activity. For perspective, Alaska is three and a half times larger than California, while having less than two percent of its population. Alaska is also famous for the northern lights, or aurora borealis, primarily visible during the long nights of winter, and the "midnight sun" around the summer solstice.

Denali (Mount McKinley)

Mount McKinley, named after assassinated U.S. president William McKinley in 1897, is one °f tne most impressive mountains in the world. Efforts in the 20 th century to officially rename the peak Denali, the native Alaskan name, have been unsuccessful, yet most people still refer to the mountain by its traditional name pronounced duh NAH lee . As the highest peak in North America, towering almost from sea level to 20,320 feet 6,773 m , Denali has been called 'America's rival to Everest." The mountain is regarded as the largest continental mountain in the world, with an impressive 3.5 mile 5.6 km vertical rise. Denali is surrounded by a closely related grouping of peaks within a larger range, considered the larg est massif in the world. The Alaska Range where Denali dominates also contains massive snowy summits that would dwarf the Colorado Rockies, but they appear

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no more than foothills beside Denali's majestic bulk.

Winter temperatures can plunge to below 75°F 50°C , and midsummer temperatures on the mountain regu larly fall below zero. Denali is such a huge mountain that it creates its own weather around the upper elevations. The Alaskan air is thin, yet superbly clear between storms. Details of the mountain can be seen from afar and Denali is vis ible from Fairbanks over a hundred miles away. The frequently cloud covered peak ▲ Soaring above flowing rivers of appears in stark contrast to the blue sky frozen ice, Denali is the the tallest and its glacier clad slopes. The perpetual mountain in North America. snow i s deep atop the mountain, occa

(Photo courtesy National Park Service) sionaJly hundreds of feet thick in some

places. Glaciers carve out deep, trough like gorges and fill them with ice as they make their slow descent down the slopes of the mountain. The longest glacier in Denali National Park is the 35 mile 56 km long Muldrow Glacier extending from the northern flank of Mount McKinley to within a mile of the park road a virtual river of ice. Each year the Alaska Range slowly grows taller as the southern edge of the Denali fault line continues to thrust itself upwards, overriding the northern plate and pushing the valley floor ever downward. On the slopes of this enormous mountain roam wild grizzly bears, Dall sheep, moose, and caribou.

With its base nearly at sea level and its sum- mit rising over 20,000 feet (6,000 m), Denali

features the earth's steepest vertical relief. The mountain is shrouded in Native American

mythology.

Native Americans living in the long shadow of Denali proclaim the peak to pos sess potent supernatural energies. The neighboring Tena and Koyukon Alaskan tribes consider Denali to be extremely sacred. The Athapaskan Indians of Interior Alaska named the mountain Denali, meaning "The High One," or "The Great One." In other regions of the state it had different names: Doleyka, Traleika, Bulshia, Gora and Tenada. New Age adherents ascribe the power of Denali to its location upon on a major global grid intersection. In the tradition of the Great White Brotherhood, New Agers similarly perceive the mountain as a reception point on the earth grid, anchoring and transmitting cosmic energies related to the spiritual evolution of humankind.

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The Tena people orally passed down from generation to generation an ancient tale of Denali's creation. The legend spoke of "the world before," the earth as we know it today, which ultimately resulted in the manifestation of our physi cal world and the beginning of human procreation. In the Tena creation myth a peaceful demigod named Yako lived alone with the animal spirits in eastern Alaska. Yako was told by Ses, the great brown bear, that far to the west is the Raven war chief Totson, where there are beautiful women of Yako's race in his vil lage. Risking the wrath of the war chief, Yako locates the village and sings a song to attract a mate. A young girl is given to him, but Totson is jealous of his song and intimidates Yako, who must escape quickly in his canoe. Totson chases Yako, hurling arrows and spears at the fleeing couple without success. Finally Totson throws his special magical spear, but Yako matches his magical wit, creating the tidal wave of stone that is Denali to block the spear. The magic spear is deflected off Denali into the heavens, while Totson's war ship crashes into the rocks and Totson is transformed back into a raven. Yako, exhausted after the conflict, goes into a long sleep and when he awakes the girl has grown to become a beautiful woman. The two begin an Adam and Eve type relationship, being the first couple to procreate and spawn the Tena people. Their children, taught by their parents to live in peace, justice, and plenty, would in future generations migrate far to the east and south of North America. It is interesting to note that the Apache and Navajo languages share similar lingual roots to the Tena, as well as sharing com parable legends and shamanistic traditions.

Climbing Mount McKinley

The Sourdough Party made the first successful ascent of Mount McKinley in 191 o, but reached the slightly lower North Peak, which is 850 feet 255 m shorter than the South Peak. The true summit was achieved three years later by the Karstens Stuck party. Each year the mountain attracts a thousand climbers or more, but only about half actually reach the summit. It is not an extremely dif ficult climb from a technical standpoint, but it is sufficiently challenging because of unpredictable weather, high altitudes, and avalanche conditions. Independent climbing groups are required to apply for permits with the National Park Service. Permit information and a list of authorized guides are listed in the Appendix. Denali National Park is located 120 miles 195 km south of Fairbanks along the Parks Highway AK 3 , and 240 miles 387 km north of Anchorage. The park is accessible by air, rail, bus, or highway. Some roads accessing the park are only open in the summer.

Sitka

Long before the Russians colonized the rain drenched Alaskan panhandle as the center of their fur trading empire, several indigenous tribes inhabited the region. The largest and most powerful was the Tlingit, led by the Kiksadi clan, also called the Tlingit Kolosh. These people thrived for several hundred years in Sitka, or

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Shee Atika as it was pro nounced by natives. The native Tlingit Kiksadi clan were known as the "People on the Outside of Shee," referring to the village Shee Atika on Baranof Island facing the calm waters of Sitka Sound. .Shee was the original Tlingit name for Baranof Island. Here the Tlingit settled for hundreds of years and developed a A This etching of old Sitka depicts Native Americans r i C h heritage featuring cul

livinq in the shadow of the imposing Russian fort on , . ,

3 _ ^. 3 tural items such as totem

Castle Hill.

poles, ceremonial dresses, carved masks, petroglyph images and stylized weapons. Designs varied from vil lage to village, with each clan depicting different animals significant to their own tradition. The Kiksadi Tlingit clan of Shee Atika, led by the fierce warrior Katlian, used the raven as the principle motif for their battle attire.

Despite being a hospitable and social people, the Tlingit congeniality did not extend to the Russians who arrived at Sitka in 1799. What could have become an equally beneficial trade arrangement soon led to increased hostility over southern Alaska's fertile fishing and hunting grounds. Mutual suspicion led to outright violence in 1802 when Tlingit warriors attacked a Russian outpost a few miles northwest of Sitka and killed nearly everyone at the settlement, including Aleut Indians allied to the Russians. In September, 1804 the Russians returned in force and demanded that the Tlingit abandon Shee Atika and surrender to the Tsar of Russia. Anticipating such a move, the Tlingit retreated from their village into a nearby fortress to prepare for war with several Russian warships. After a cannon volley did little to destroy the Tlingit stronghold, the Russians and Aleuts advanced on the fort and were bloodily repulsed. Thus began a six day siege on the Tlingit fortress. On the seventh day the Russians and Aleuts were surprised to find the fort completely abandoned. Out of gunpowder and flints, theTlingits escaped silently at night and deserted their centuries old sacred homeland. The Russians lost no time in erecting their own settlement exactly upon the site where Shee Atika had stood, including a new Russian palisade atop "Castle Hill."

For many centuries Sitka was the homeland and ritual site of the Kiksadi Tlingit Indians. The settlement was invaded in 1802 by Russian fur traders who renamed it "New Archangel," but the Tlingit name of Sitka stuck.

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Four years after being founded, New Archangel became the capital of Russian America and a bustling international port of call. The Russians were busy ere ating a wilderness empire on the northwestern coast of North America that extended all the way down to Fort Ross in northern California. As headquarters for the Russian American Company's fur and other trading operations, Sitka became Alaska's economic and cultural capital for over half a century. The opu lence of Baranov's Palace, replete with a grand piano and decorations in Saint Petersburg style, earned Sitka the nickname 'The Paris of the Pacific." After the region was nearly denuded of sea otters and fur seals, the remote colony held less and less interest for the Russian government. Embroiled in problems at home and fearing a takeover by the United States or Great Britain, the Tsar finally decided to sell Alaska in 1867 for 7.2 million, thus ending the 126 year Russian New World enterprise following the collapse of the pelt trade. The capital Sitka hosted the ceremony in which the Russian flag was lowered and the United States flag was raised, immediately following the "Seward's Folly" acquisition of Alaska. The flag lowering and raising event is reenacted in Sitka every October 18 th , commemorated as 'Alaska Day."

The original Tlingit inhabitants of Sitka enjoyed a rich cultural life, both

esthetically and spiritually. Surrounded in a world of natural abundance, they

reaped most of their food from the ocean but worshipped land and air animals

equally. In a subtle way, Tlingit shaman carved rain god images into low lying

rocks, knowing that salmon would not enter spawning rivers until a downpour of

rain raised the water level. The enduring image of Pacific Northwest Indians is

the famous totem poles depicting crest signs of animal and human figures. Totem

poles communicate cultural information by portraying the history and greatness

of a clan's lineage. They depict legends, ridicule enemies, or provide a mortu

ary receptacle for ere

mated ashes. Totem

poles cannot be read

like a book, but pro

vide insight into the ^

history or legend they

were intended to rep

resent. It was largely

the exhibition of

totem poles at various

19 th century exposi

tions that propelled

Alaska towards state

hood and attracted

new settlers into the

untamed wilderness. , . . ,.

▲ 19th century photo of the Tlingit Indians near Sitka.

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Getting to Sitka

There are no bridges from the mainland to Baranof Island, so the only way to access Sitka are the regular ferries or scheduled flights from Alaska's capital Juneau. Sitka's location on a remote island makes transportation to the city inherently difficult, inconvenient and expensive. By air, the Rocky Gutierrez Airport on Japonski Island offers regular service from Alaska Airlines and charter carrier Harris Aircraft Services. Flight delays due to Sitka's weather are frequent. The Sitka airport is located on Japonski Island, which is connected to Baranof Island by the John O'Connell Bridge. Many cruise ships dock in the deep water harbor of Sitka and tourists are allowed an afternoon to explore the town and visit the Sitka National Historical Park just outside of town.

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

The Hawaiian archipelago is the most remote population center in the world. The eight main islands are centrally located in the North Pacific Ocean, some 2,500 miles 4,000 km from the nearest continent or populated island chain. Before the arrival of humans, all flora and fauna on the Hawaiian Islands came by air, on ocean currents, or attached to migratory birds. The odds were against any life form making this long journey successfully, but time is always on the side of evolution. Those species that managed to survive the transition rap idly diversified and flourished due to the equitable climate and few competitors. Species endangerment began when the first Polynesian people stepped ashore with their introduced plants and animals causing some extinctions and near extinctions, particularly among birds. Many endemic plant species could not compete and became extinct, or are on the verge of extinction today. The State of Hawaii has the most amount of endangered species and threatened wildlife in the United States.

The coming of European sailing vessels in the late 18 th century began another era of incredible change not only for the wildlife, but also the indigenous people. Those who followed in Captain Cook's wake the explorers, whalers, mis sionaries, laborers, and merchants introduced a new world of ideas, religions, customs, possessions, diseases, and feral animals to the once isolated islanders. The introduced microbes of the Europeans arrived as silent and indiscriminate killers. Arriving with Captain Cook in 1778 were syphilis, gonorrhea, tuberculo sis, typhoid, and influenza, which the islanders had no immunity. Hawaii's native population was reduced from a half million in 1779 to 84,000 by 1853, the year when smallpox finally reached Hawaii and killed another 10,000 survivors. Such reduction in numbers allowed races of other people to move in, along with the trappings of the modern world. Today nearly all of Hawaii's resources must be imported from the outside world, including: oil, gas, plastics, manufactured goods, building supplies, and most food products. The old Hawaiian tradition had been

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inexorably changed before a new understanding could be formulated. The legiti mate Kingdom of Hawaii was a sovereign nation recognized by the international community until a 1893 overthrow of the government. American businessmen instigated the United States annexation of Hawaii to exert their power monopoly

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over the islands at the expense and total disrespect of the Hawaiian people. Never a people to take conquest lightly, there is a growing political movement today among native Hawaiians and partial native descendants to break away from the United States and again become a sovereign nation.

11 the Hawaiian Islands were created by volcanic activity, but only on the Big

-<cJ^Island of Hawaii are those volcanoes still active and visible. Not only is the Big Island the youngest mass of land in the world, it is the largest single object on earth that is, if the huge bulk of the underwater mountain is included. By such calculations, Mauna Kea is the tallest mountain on the planet, stand ing 13,796 feet 4,139 m above sea level and 20,000 feet 6,000 m below the ocean. The combined above water and submerged mountain slopes of Mauna Kea far eclipse the height of Mount Everest. As the tallest mountains in the Pacific Basin, Mauna Kea and its sister peak Mauna Loa are the only peaks to have supported glaciers during the last Ice Age. In the shadow of the twin peaks emigrating Polynesians first arrived in Hawaii and erected their villages, sacred heiaus, and etched petroglyphs rock carvings to explain their existence. The first Polynesian voyagers are estimated to have arrived at South Point Ka Lae on the Big Island around the 2 nd or 3 rd century CE. The progeny of these original Polynesians, along with successive waves of new arrivals, went on to populate the rest of the Hawaiian archipelago.

The name Pu'uhonua is an ancient Hawaiian title for "City of Refuge," where those guilty of kapu something forbidden could be absolved of their misdoing, or the innocent could wait out a violent battle. If a person outside the royal family looked directly at a chief or got too close, it was considered kapu. This strict taboo standard also applied to a commoner walking in the chief's footsteps, touching the chief's possessions, landing a boat on the chief's beach, or allowing one's shadow to fall on the palace grounds. The penalty for breaking kapu was always execution, unless one could escape to a City of Refuge. Everyday activities, too, were regu lated by kapu. Women could not eat food reserved as offerings to the gods such as pork or coconut; they could not prepare meals for men; or ever be seen eating with men. Even activities such as gathering wood, fishing or killing animals were all strictly controlled. At the instance of a kapu being broken, suddenly everybody in the community was aligned against the kapu breaker, lest the gods become angered and take revenge on everyone in the form of volcanic eruptions, tidal waves, fam ine or earthquakes. The only hope for someone breaking kapu was to avoid capture and run to a City of Refuge. Each Hawaiian island had at least one, and the Big Island is thought to have had six, yet only three are known for certain: Pu'uhonua O Honaunau, Waipio Valley and Coconut Island near Hilo.

THE BIG ISLAND HAWAII

Pu'uhonua O Honaunau (City of Refuge)

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A This small peninsula of jagged black lava rock features the preserved and restored remains of a royal palace, fish pond, beach and private canoe landing, three heiaus, and a pu'uhonua sanctuary that is protected behind the mortar- free masonry of its 16 th century Great Wall,

Since only the strongest and the smartest could survive this rigid social system, kapu was the primary way ancient Hawaiians would "weed out the weaklings." Thus, survival of the fittest was a fundamental principle of ancient Hawaiian law, in which might was considered right, unless one could safely escape to a City of Refuge. Inside the heavily fortified sacred precincts were high priests and several heiau meaning "temple" and pronounced hey OW surrounded by a high wall. The Hawaiian word hei means to summon, capture or ensnare, and au implies a vibration, current, or invisible power or energy. Thus, a heiau captures spiritual power mana . Outside the City of Refuge was a fortified compound for the royal chiefs ali'i , which was guarded by armed warriors and a fleet of war canoeists. As noted, condemned criminals had only one option before their summary execu tion escape to a City of Refuge but getting there was the hardest part because every person on the island sought to kill the criminal to avoid catastrophe by the gods. Those who survived the chase and got through the heavily fortified compound were awarded clemency for their crime. Upon arrival, a ceremony of absolution was performed by the kahuna pule priest and the offender could then return home safely, usually within a few hours or the next day. All island ers respected the spirit of the Pu'uhonua. Since no blood was ever to be spilled within its' confines, non combatants during war, loaded with provisions, would seek the City of Refuge to wait in safety until the conflict was over. Since the object of war in ancient times was to exterminate the enemy, which included anyone who belonged to the opposing side, women, children and the elderly risked execution unless they could escape to a City of Refuge. Similarly, warriors who were undecided on either battling chief could wait for the outcome and then swear their allegiance to the winner.

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A City of Refuge served as safe haven for people wishing to avoid a violet conflict, or guilty criminals hoping to avoid execution and receive a second chance. Pu'uhonua O

Honaunau is one of the few that survived dismantling in the Christian era.

The kapu system, however, was to be short lived after the arrival of European explorers, and the City of Refuge stood at the crossroads of immense change within the lifetime of a single person. To most native islanders, the first Europeans in their tall mast sailing ships came as a big surprise. The islanders had no way of interpreting these arrivals, so they assumed the Europeans were visiting gods and treated them as such. When Captain Cook returned to the Big Island to fix a broken mast after making initial contact, the Hawaiians took this as a bad omen and killed the eminent explorer in a scuffle at Kealakekua Bay, a mere eight miles 13 km north of Pu'uhonua O Honaunau. An impressionable and ambitious man in his mid twenties named Kamehameha pronounced kah MAY ha MAY ha was present for Cook's first arrival and tragic second landing. It is quite possible that Kamehameha was involved in the brawl that took Cook's life, and present at the ceremony afterward where his body was burned, stripped of flesh, and offered to the gods in exchange for the great navigator's mana. Before Cook's death, the young Kamehameha was fascinated by the ship Resolution, visiting the vessel several times and even obtaining permission to spend a night on board. What interested him the most were the Western weapons the ship carried, an interest that was to become a determining factor in his successful bid to unify all the Hawaiian Islands

under a single regime. He lived his dream and became known as King Kamehameha the Great, but upon his death in 1819 his wife and son disman tied the kapu system forever. Pu'uhonua O Honaunau and all the old pagan temples on the island were either destroyed or fell into disrepair. Fortunately, the temples along the Kona Coast where Kamehameha died

Wrathful gods watch over the inner precincts of were simply aban the City of Refuge. doned and remain in

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good condition today. The pali cliffs above Kealakekua Bay, where Captain Cook met his undignified fate, were a sacred burial location for great chiefs, including perhaps the remains of Kamehameha I and Captain Cook himself. An obelisk on the north side of Kealakekua beach stands to commemorate the spot where the renowned navigator was killed.

Getting to Pu'uhonua O Honaunau (City of Refuge)

Called the single most evocative historical site in the Hawaiian Islands, the City of Refuge has adopted the name Pu'uhonua O Honaunau National Historic Park. It is located 25 miles 40 km south of Kailua Kona via Hawaii Route 11 to Hawaii Route 160 intersection between mileposts 103 and 104 . Information line: 808 328 2288. There are alternative routes near the turnoff for the Painted Church, or via the ocean route past Napo'opo'o. There is a small entrance fee to the historic site, administered by the National Park Service. Just south of Pu'uhonua O Honaunau is a beautiful public beach renowned as one of the best snorkeling locations on the island. Getting down to Kealakekua Bay requires a strenuous hike both ways, but the views are fantastic and dolphins can often be spotted in the bay. There is no entrance fee to Kealakekua Bay. Numerous snorkeling boats congregate at Kealakekua Bay every day, but swimmers are not allowed to swim ashore from boats.

Pu'ukohola Heiau (Hill of the Whale)

In the year 1790, the Polynesian prince Kamehameha of the northern part of Hawaii had proven his ability to be king through birthright and feats of strength. A war in that year captured Maui, Lanai, and Molokai under the leadership of the young warrior. Upon returning to the Big Island, Kamehameha's aunt delivered to the prince advice from the esteemed prophet Kapoukahi from Kauai who pre dieted that he would succeed in conquering all of the Hawaiian Islands if he took the precise steps in constructing a luakini war temple at the Hill of the Whale. The prophet said the new temple was to be built on top of an older temple and be dedicated to his family's war god, Kuka'ilimoku. But this much was clear: if he wished to conquer all the Hawaiian Islands, starting with his as yet unified Big Island, Kamehameha had to erect his temple by following rigid guidelines pre scribed by the priests, which specified there could be absolutely no interruptions at the site during construction.

Hawaiian heiaus temples were locations of worship that were central to native reli gious beliefs. From the heiau, the kahuna priest was able to communicate directly with the gods, and pass this information on to the ali'i royal chief . Pu'ukohola Hawaiian for "Hill of the Whale" was constructed for ceremonies related to war. Heeding the prophet's advice, the Pu'ukohala Heiau was built by Kamehameha himself and thousands of servants in the years 1790 1791. Kamehameha built this temple with care and determination, battling back his enemies who tried

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unsuccessfully to interrupt construction on several occa sions. Upon completion, the purpose of the temple was a place to honor the war god Kuka'ilimoku and perform reli gious ceremonies dedicated to him. At the opening ceremony for the temple, Kamehameha's cousin and chief rival Keoua Kuahu'ula arrived and was instantly killed upon landing ▲ Hill of the Whale temple under construction, his canoe. With Keoua's mana (Image courtesy National Park Service) spiritual power being offered

to his family's war god there was little resistance left to prevent Kamehameha from conquering and uniting all of Hawaii. Kamehameha's native island thus became the name for the entire archipelago. The great king fulfilled the prophecy and became the first Hawaiian king to rule all the islands and establish a Kamehameha monarchy that was to last until 1893. Many heiau once existed throughout the Hawaiian Islands, but their use ceased with the demise of the kapu taboo system in 1819.

Pu'ukohola Heiau was the last known pagan structure built in Hawaii. The sacred war temple played a crucial role in Kamehameha's ascendancy to unify all the Hawaiian Islands.

How the temple on the Hill of the Whale was constructed, who built it, and how it shaped Hawaiian history is well known. Pu'ukohola Heiau is an incredibly impressive structure made entirely of water worn lava rocks placed on top of an older temple from two centuries earlier. There was no mortar used in ancient Hawaiian heiau construction, so the whole structure was built of precisely fitted stacked stones. It is believed to have taken several thousand men over the course of one year to build it by hand. There is nowhere in the immediate area to get the specific rocks required, so it is estimated that the workers formed a human chain over 20 miles 33 km long to hoist the rocks out of Pololu Valley in North Kohala. The temple is 224 feet 67 m by 100 feet 30 m , with 20 foot 6 m high walls. Among those helping with construction were two stranded sailors, John Young and Isaac Davis, who became trusted military advisors to King Kamehameha. John Young lived his adult life at a homestead at the Hill of the Whale, first teaching the Hawaiians how to use cannons and firearms, then acting as a sandle wood trade agent for the king. Young was grandfather to Queen Emma and one of only two white men buried in the Royal Mausoleum in the Nu'uanu Valley on

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Oahu. When King Kamehameha the Great died in 1819, so did the old religion of Hawaii. His wife Queen Ka'ahumanu and his son Liholiho had both converted to Christianity shortly after his death. Kamehameha the Great ruled according to Hawaiian tradition but outlawed some of the more severe practices such as human sacrifices. The old religion was instantly dismantled and all the pagan temples fell into disrepair upon his son Liholiho's ascension to the throne.

Getting to Pu'ukohola Heiau (Hill of the Whale)

This massive rock structure is now the main reason for a small National Park meant to preserve the heiau and the surrounding area on the Kohala Coast, popularly known as the dominion of Kamehameha the Great. The Hill of the Whale is located one mile 1.6 km south of the town Kawaihae via Highway 270, just north of the Highway 19 intersection in Kawaihae. There is no entrance fee to the 77 acre 30 ha historic site, administered by the National Park Service. The official name is the Pu'ukohola Heiau National Historic Site and includes: Pu'ukohala Heiau, King Kamehameha's Royal Palace, Mailekini Heiau, the underwater Haleokapuni Heiau dedicated to the shark deities, as well as the John Young Homestead. Information line: 808 882 7218.

Kilauea

The word kilauea is Hawaiian for "much spewing" or "much spreading," in reference to the mountain's frequent outpouring of lava. Such displays of fierce volcanic eruptions made a considerable impact on the native Hawaiians. Kilauea Crater is considered the mythical home of Pele, an ancient Polynesian deity whose name means "volcano goddess." Certain unique lava formations around Kiluea are named in her honor. These include the thin, brittle strands of volca nic glass called "Pele's Hair" that often form during a lava flow as it enters the ocean, and the small droplets of lava named "Pele's Tears" that cool in the air and retain their teardrop shapes. Pele was among the most centrally recognized volcano divinities whose worship in Hawaii became widespread in the 13 th century as Pele ai honua, or "Pele, who eats the land." Hawaiian chants and oral traditions chrono logically relate the many eruptions procured by an angry Pele long before the first European arrivals. In addition to manifesting herself as molten lava, she can occasionally appear as a beautiful young maiden, or as an elderly crone. Small acts of charity to her human image were

Bizarre lava formations scatter around Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.

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•Road

HAWAII VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK

'Trail Lua ~

Crater

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Puhiwau Crater-

thought to spare the giver a terrible fate in the form of fire and brimstone. She is said to have resided in all of Hawaii's volcanoes during each island's period of activity. Today, Pele chooses the active Mauna Loa and Kilauea Caldera on the Big Island to call home. According to legend, Pele will sometimes visit other islands in the Pacific, but whenever there is an eruption on the Big Island she is the one responsible for hurling the fiery fumes and fallout skyward. To ancient Hawaiians, Kilauea was the source of all creation and residence of an irate god dess who would sometimes take revenge for human misbehavior.

According to contemporary beliefs of some Hawaiians, Pele is a goddess who punishes people who dare take something that belongs to her. Every year thou sands of visitors pass through Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and take home a souvenir rock or a packet of volcanic sand. Locals will warn that Pele frowns on such activity by haunting the guilty persons with bad fortune. After months or years of hard luck, many tourists return the earthen mementos to park headquar ters or the local post office. Beliefs were so strong in the mid 19 th century that Christian missionaries were perturbed to find most Hawaiian converts refusing to discount the Pele legend. The breaking of the kapu system was not enough, even after Queen Kapi'olani defied Pele by venturing into Kiluea Caldera to read her Bible aloud and eat the taboo red ohelo berries previously forbidden for women to eat, let alone spit the pits into the crater. Pele did not punish the queen and the islanders were amazed, yet belief remained strong. In 1881, an eight month flow from Mauna Loa threatened to wipe out the village of Hilo, much to the dis may of the faithful Christians who prayed daily for the flows to cease. When the lava reached within a mile of central Hilo, Princess Ruth Ke'elikolani was called in from Oahu to help fend off the angry Pele. Under the gaze of missionaries and journalists, the princess chanted and left offerings of pink silk handkerchiefs and brandy for Pele. By morning the flow had stopped.

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In geological terms, Kilauea ranks among the most active volcanoes on earth. In Hawaiian tradition, Kilauea is where the fire-goddess Pele tends the fiery furnaces and throws flaming red lava from the boiling depths.

At a fixed location in the North Pacific Ocean a large opening in the mantle of the earth is called the Hawaiian "hot spot" by geologists because of its pro digious generation of molten lava over many millions of years. As the Pacific plate slowly drifts to the northwest it takes the older islands with it and makes room for new seamounts to form. Kilauea shares the hot spot with its larger active sibling Mauna Loa 13,677 feet or 4,169 m and the Loihi Seamount, cur rently growing 21 miles 33 km southeast of the Big Island at 3,200 feet 960 m below sea level. The Loihi volcano is not predicted to reach the surface for at least another hundred years, and at the most another 10,000 years. The Hawaii Center for Volcanology and University of Hawaii scientists constantly study the eruptions on Kilauea and Mauna Loa, and gain further insight into the underwa ter nature of volcanoes by visiting Loihi in a mini submarine. Unlike most other active volcanoes around the world, Kilauea is approachable and largely predict able. Kilauea has been called the "drive up" volcano because of its easy access to volcanic activity, especially near the summit caldera. Visitors who are fortunate enough to experience an eruption will certainly remember it for a lifetime. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is an outdoor museum in volcanology, geology, ecology, meterology unique scenery and desolate solitude.

▲ The Kilauea Caldera is ringed on two sides by steep cliffs, around 400 feet (120 m) high. Strong-smelling sulphur drifts up from the caldera floor giving the scene an otherworldly appearance. Crater Rim Drive is an 11-mile (18-km) loop tour around the famous caldera.

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▲ Walking off marked trails in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park can be life

threatening.

The present Kilauea volcanic outflow on the southeastern flank of Mauna Loa has been in a sustained eruption since January, 1983. Known as the Vu u v CTo Eruption, the current lava flows have added over 500 acres 205 ha of new land to Hawaii's southern shore. The current lava flows have destroyed nearly 200 houses and covered 8 miles 13 km of highway with as much as 82 feet 25 m of lava. It has also destroyed a National Park visitor center, most of Kupaahu town, buried Kaimu Bay, Kalapana Black Sand Beach, and a large section of State Route 130, which now abruptly dead ends at the lava flow. Near the Kilauea Caldera is the recently destroyed 700 year old Waha'ula Heiau temple of the red mouth , which acted as a luakini heiau sacrificial war temple devoted to the god Ku. The caldera was the site of nearly continuous activity during the 19 th century and the early part of the 20 th century. Since 1952 there have been 34 eruptions, and since January, 1983 eruptive activity has been continuous along the east rift zone. There are no signs that the current eruption is slowing or will come to an end anytime soon.

Getting to Kilauea Crater

The Kilauea Visitor Center is located just off the Hawaiian Belt Road Route 11. When visiting Hawaii Volcanoes National Park always stay on the marked trails and heed all warning signs for volcanic fumes. Visitors with heart or health conditions, as well as pregnant women and small children, are especially at risk in contact with volcanic fumes and should avoid Halema'u ma'u Crater and Sulphur Banks in particular. There is admission fee per vehicle when entering Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.

Waipio Valley

When Halley's Comet passed earth in the year 1758, Hawaiian shaman pre dieted the emergence of a potent leader. In this auspicious year of the white tailed star a baby boy was born to a princess and a high chief in the Kohala

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district on the northwestern tip of the Big Island. Many rulers of Hawaii feared the newborn child because the comet omen could only represent a destined leader who would one day challenge their authority. Legend has it that the young boy named Kamehameha was whisked away by priests and taken to the sacred Waipio Valley so the other chiefs could not subjugate him. Living in the valley and teaching the boy were royalty and priests of the na ali'i koa ranks, or the chiefly warriors. Kamehameha, meaning the "Lonely One," trained during his adoles cence, amassed his prophesied power, and went on to become the first and only king to unify the Hawaiian Islands.

King Kamehameha the Great spent much of his boyhood in Waipio Valley, and returned many times during his adulthood to renew his spiritual power. Kamehameha I, like many Big Island chiefs before him, came to worship in the place where so many great kings were buried. In 1780, the year after Captain Cook's death, Kamehameha received his war god Kuka'ilimoku at Waipio, who proclaimed him the future ruler of the islands. It was off the coast of Waimanu, near Waipio, that Kamehameha engaged Kahekili, the chief of the Leeward Islands and Kahekili's half brother Kaeokulani of Kauai, in the first true naval battle of Hawaiian history, the so called Battle of the Red Mouthed Guns Kepuwahaulaula , so named because it was fought with European naval weapons. Kamehameha routed his enemies and thus furthered his ability to conquer all the islands.

Waipio is the largest and longest valley on the Big Island. It was known as the "Valley of the Kings," and here King Kamehameha con- solidated his power to become the greatest

ruler of Hawaii.

Waipio has the remains of four heiaus, or Hawaiian temple platforms, located on the valley floor. The most sacred, the Pakaalana Heiau, was also the site of one of the island's two major pu'uhonua, or "a Place of Refuge," the other being Pu'uhonua O Honaunau City of Refuge on the Kona Coast. The three other Waipio heiaus were once used to make sacrifices to the gods, oftentimes human. Ancient burial caves are located in the sides of the steep cliffs on either side of the valley. Many rulers were buried in the Valley of the Kings, and it is felt that because of their lingering mana divine power , no harm would come to those who lived in the valley. In fact, despite great devastation in the 1946 tsunami and the 1979 flood, no person died in those valley disasters. The Waipio floor is checkered with abandoned taro patches, and constantly watered by several waterfalls in the valley. Hawaii's highest waterfall, Hi'ilawe Waterfall, cascades 1,300 feet 390 m near the rear of the valley. Many of the ancient stories of Hawaiian gods are set in Waipio. It is here that beside the Hi'ilawe Waterfall, the brothers of the mighty god Lono found the goddess Kaikiani dwelling in

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▲ 19* century drawing of warriors preparing for battle. Waipio Valley was a renowned ancient Hawaiian location of kings and warriors.

a breadfruit grove. Lono descended on a rainbow and made her his wife, only to later kill her when he discovered a chief of the earth making love to her. As she died she assured Lono of her innocence and proclaimed her love for him. In Kaikiani's honor Lono instituted the Makahiki games. These contests were held at a designated period of time following the harvesting season when wars and battles were ceased, sporting competitions between villages were organized, and festive events were commenced.

For many centuries Waipio was the most fertile and productive valley on the Big Island. Located along the Hamakua Coast on the northeast shore of the Big Island of Hawaii, Waipio Valley is the largest and most southern of the seven val leys on the windward side of the Kohala Mountains. Waipio means "curved water" referring to the curvaceous nature of the Waipio Stream on the valley floor. This verdant green box canyon is surrounded on three sides by 2,000 foot 600 m cliffs rising nearly straight up, in a valley six miles deep and a mile wide at the coast. At its cultural peak, around the time of Captain Cook's arrival in 1779, the valley was cultivated with taro and populated with as many as 10,000 laborers. A large number of fish were held in numerous fresh water fish ponds in the valley. In the late 1800s many Chinese settled in Waipio as farmers and fishermen. The conditions were like the Garden of Eden, until 1946 when the most devastating tsunami in Hawaii's history swept enormous tidal waves far back into the valley and destroyed everything in its wake including the four heiaus. After the 1946 tidal wave, most people left the valley and it has been sparsely populated ever since. A severe deluge in 1979 covered the valley floor from side to side in four feet of water. Before the tsunami the valley community supported schools, restaurants, churches as well as a hotel, post office and a jail. Today only about 50 people live there permanently They remain the taro farmers, fishermen and those who are reluctant to leave their simple lifestyle.

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Getting to Waipio Valley

Waipio Valley is located along the northern Hamakua coast on the Big Island. Beyond Honoka'a town, Mamane Street Highway 240 continues north for 9 miles 14 km until it comes to an abrupt halt at the upper crest of Waipio Valley. Getting down to the valley floor is challenging along a steep 25 percent gradient paved track. The mile long 1.6 km road descends from the lookout. Only 4 WD vehicles, horseback riders or hikers can make it down. The hike takes about 15 minutes down, and 30 minutes back up. There is a refreshing waterfall for visitors to stand under after the long hike down. The entire valley is lush with vegetation and features an inviting black sand beach.

f the eight major islands in the Hawaiian archipelago, Kauai was firstborn.

V_^/ Because of its advanced age, Kauai has thicker soil and is more verdant and lush than any of the others, hence the nickname "Garden Island." Crowning Kauai is Kawaikini Peak, rising 5,243 feet 1,598 m above sea level. Slightly lower at 5,148 feet 1,570 m is Mount Waialeale, whose name translates as "rippling water." The northeastern slope of Waialeale draws nearly 500 inches 1,270 cm of rain per year, making it among the wettest spots on earth. The high annual rainfall has eroded deep valleys in Kauai's central mountain mass and formed spectacular canyons. The spectacular Waimea Canyon, known as the "Grand Canyon of the Pacific," is almost 10 miles about 16 km long and more than 0.5 miles 0.8 km deep. At 19.7 miles in length, the Waimea River is one of the longest rivers in the Hawaiian Islands and is the longest navigable river in the entire state. Kauai is the only island that King Kamehameha was never able to capture by force. Two major naval campaigns to invade were thwarted by inhospitable sea conditions and pes tilence. Yet before Kamehameha died, he successfully united all eight Hawaiian Islands by accepting a tribute from King Kaumuali'i of Kauai.

There are traces of the earliest inhabitants of Hawaii landing at Waimea Bay and creating the very first society. The word waimea, meaning "reddish water," was a common name in pre contact Hawaii where a muddy river meets the sea. The mouth of the Waimea River was one of the most important ancient sites in the Hawaiian archipelago. The famous canyon valleys of the Waimea River and its tributary, the Makaweli River, were heavily populated in pre contact times. The early civilization that grew up around Waimea Bay was distinctly unique from the other islands and may have once supported an entirely dissimilar race of people. In Hawaiian lore, a diminutive group of people called the Menehune "black dwarfs" once occupied all the islands, especially Kauai. The name likely derives from the same term given to the first aboriginal people of Tahiti called

KAUAI

Waimea Bay

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▲ A church on Kauai. Some of the earliest missionaries began converting native Hawaiians to Christianity near Waimea Bay.

Manhune, a divergent race who were driven away from their homeland by invaders. Like the medieval Irish monks sailing away from the islands in the north Atlantic each time the larger Vikings approached, the Menehune similarly retreated when the taller Polynesians began conquering the south ern Hawaiian Islands. Kauai is known to be culturally dif ferent from the other islands, supporting the earliest waves of Polynesians, and possibly earlier Melanesian immigrants. If Menehune groups retreated north along the Hawaiian archipelago this could explain why the island of Kauai, as their last holdout, retains the most stories about this small race of people. Legend of the last Menehune king relates the story of him sailing westward from Kauai along with most of his people. The sea farers would have passed the outer Nihoa and Necker islands, where carved stone images have been found which are not typically Hawaiian. Confusion came when Western writers heard stories of Menehune and assumed they were a mythical race of hairy leprechauns who worked at night and hid all day. European images of gnomes spread to the Pacific and a new genre of "Hawaiian" folklore soon developed. Chroniclers received tales of a magically strong little folk working in large numbers, constructing the finest voyaging canoes, huge temple platforms, long aqueducts and large fishponds in fact nearly all large construction projects in Hawaii are attributed to Menehune builders. Legend has it that each project by the Menehune was completed in a single night, or else left completely undone. They were said to have lived in the forests and were shunned by the Hawaiians. Today, the Menehune are blamed when things go missing like misplaced keys, but the cherished myth of the Menehune as builders continues to live in Kauai. Near Waimea Bay there is solid evidence of an earlier people in the form of rockwork lining called the "Menehune Ditch" an ancient aqueduct that once brought water from the Waimea River to irrigate dry lands for growing taro. The rocks were expertly shaped and fitted together, using a method of stonework requir ing immense labor, and not typical of Hawaiian construction techniques. Most Hawaiians still consider the term reproachful or belittling, meaning a people of small status. But some descendents apparently remained on Kauai, where a cen sus ordered by King Kaumuali'i in the early 19 th century recorded 65 persons as being of Menehune ancestry.

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Waimea Bay was among the first settlements

of Polynesian immigrants in the 4 th cen- tury ce, and may have been the homeland to an even earlier people. It was also the first known location of contact with European

navigators.

In the winter of 1777 1778, on his third voyage to the North Pacific, the English navigator Captain James Cook made the first recorded sighting of the Hawaiian Islands. Lookouts spotted Oahu first, then Kauai. Cook's two ships Resolution and Discovery sailed along the island's southern shore looking for a place to land and finally dropped anchor at Waimea Bay. Captain Cook went ashore on Jan. 20, 1778 and was welcomed as the returning god Lono. Cook describes the event in his journal: "Several hundred ... were assembled on a sandy beach before the Village. The very instant I leaped ashore, they fell flat on their faces, and remained in that humble posture 'till I made signs to them to rise. They then brought a great many small pigs and gave us without regarding whether they got any thing in return." Along with a small party of Marines and a "tolerable train" of Hawaiians, Cook hiked into Waimea Valley observing exten sive plantations of taro, sugarcane, plantains, and paper mulberry trees, as well as a heiau where a human sacrifice had just taken place. The English ships stayed for only three days at Waimea Bay, until departing north to continue searching for the elusive Northwest Passage above Alaska and Canada.

Kauai was an independent kingdom when Captain Cook visited the island in 1778, and remained so until 181 o when it became annexed to the Kingdom of Hawaii. Shortly after Cook's visit many European ships began arriving at the islands, with the first fur traders arriving in 1786. Sandalwood was discovered in 1791 on Kauai, and Waimea Bay soon became a principle port of call. Waimea town developed as a provisioning port for whalers and sandalwood traders, until both of those commodities were nearly extinguished. Near the captain's bay a contingent of Russians came in the early 19 th century and built a fort to try and gain a foothold in Hawaii. The Russians

failed in their attempt to seize the isle, but a A The Hawaii of Captain

. ti r ^ , , , , ff Cook was one of superstition

ruined Russian fort still occupies a coastal bluff , . r / , . .

and intense fear of wrathful above the Waimea River. It wasn't long before gods

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Waimea was among the first missionary settlements to proselytize the Christian faith to heathen Hawaiians. The first major attempt at agricultural develop ment in Hawaii occurred with the establishment of a sugar plantation in 1835. Sugarcane production was until recently the main industry on Kauai, but tourism is now the major economic draw

Getting to Waimea Bay

Kauai is a 30 minute flight to the west of Oahu, and less than an hour's flight from Maui. From the airport town Lihue only one road extends along the south and west shore Highway 50 to Waimea town and beyond to Mana Point at road's end. Waimea Bay is now the Lucy Wright Beach Country Park, named after the first native Hawaiian teacher at a local school. A small plaque com memorates the exact spot where Captain Cook landed. Highway 550, or Waimea Canyon Road, intersects the main part of town and extends up to the crest of Waimea Canyon, with fantastic views overlooking the "Grand Canyon of the Pacific." A rich sugar plantation region extends 9 miles 15 km northwest of Waimea through Kekaha to Mana. Barking Sands Military Reservation is on the coast near Mana.

LANAI

The word lanai in Hawaiian means "hump," and can also be used to describe an outdoor patio. In the case of the island, viewing Lanai from afar at cer tain angles can resemble a humpback whale about to submerge. In the 1930s, the 6 th largest of the Hawaiian Islands adopted the nickname "Pineapple Island" when the Palawai Basin supported the world's largest single pineapple plantation. The ideal 3,000 foot 900 m elevation growing conditions on the plateau con tinue to support small pineapple patches, but the grandeur of harvesting a ton of pineapples per day are long gone. Lanai closed most of its production facilities in the early 1990s because high wages made Hawaiian pineapples too expensive in the competitive export market. The new nickname is the "Private Isle" cater ing to ultra exclusive holidaymakers. Bill Gates' controversial marriage in 1993 shut down the island for several days. Interestingly, pineapples are not native to Hawaii, but come from Brazil. Pineapples are not a fruit either, but the edible part is an un pollinated flower.

The Garden of the Gods

The earliest Polynesians to reach Hawaii never settled Lanai because they thought it was filled with evil spirits. Troublesome Maui islanders of royal descent were banished to die from fright on Lanai, instead of being put to death. Only when one outcast in the 15 th century was seen building huge bon fires every night on the eastern shore did other Hawaiians decide to inhabit

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Lanai and set up a small subordinate colony to Maui. The population never exceeded 3,000 people, concentrated in small coastal villages subsisting primarily on fishing and raising pigs. These few settlers etched some of the finest Hawaiian petroglyphs in the hills above the Palawai Basin, built small shrines, and watched sunsets from the Garden of the Gods.

The Garden of the Gods is an unusual conglomeration of lava and multicolored boulders with a strange sculptural beauty, considered by most visitors as a "must see" on Lanai. A million years of wind and water erosion has created the surreal landscape on an isolated upland plateau. Erosion at the site has sculpted an array of pinnacles and buttes in a canyon surrounding the open country side. The scenery resembles the Badlands of ▲ An old sugar cane train near South Dakota more than anything typical the Garden of the Gods, on Hawaii. The morning and afternoon sun

reflection increases the light and shadow of the odd formations, giving them an unusual quality. The rock colors change with the setting of the sun by taking on a rich red and brown hue in the late afternoon. The canyon of red earth and lava rocks is known for the morphing color during sunset when most visitors report having a profound personal experience. Even those who visit in daylight say they have had spiritual moments at this site. Some of the most spectacular views on the island are from the Garden of the Gods. The natural windswept rock forma tions combined with the distant views of Maui and Molokai is absolutely breath taking. Perhaps the most obvious trait of the site is the thousands of stacked rock formations called cairns scattered across the landscape. Although most of the cairns have been erected in recent times, the Hawaiians believe they were built as shrines with sincere intentions and should be left alone. The isolated beauty of the Garden of the Gods is a sacred place to many Hawaiians and should be treated with respect.

A sweeping view of several Hawaiian Islands amid a bizarre landscape of multi-colored rocks typifies the Garden of the Gods. Visitors at this remote location have reported a variety of spiritual experiences.

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Early Polynesian settlers often depicted their migration and everyday life on Hawaii in the form of etched drawings on rocks called petroglyphs. The earliest examples dating back 500 years show stick figures in various poses, later to evolve into wedge shaped bodies holding oars or weapons and sometimes superimposed upon each other. The Luahiwa Petroglyph rock carvings, hidden in the hills south of Lanai City from Palawai Basin, aren't easy to find but are considered some of the finest renderings in all of Hawaii. Luahiwa is the site of 20 boulders on a hillside and they are carved with some 400 petroglyphs of human figures, dogs, and European introduced horses. From the west side of the basin a short way up Hoiki Road, walk the hillside towards the peak of Lana'ihale and the petroglyph boulders will soon come into view. Increase the odds of spotting the carvings by enlisting the help of a local guide or getting directions from hotel staff. Palawai Basin is located on Manele Road HI 441 , halfway between Lanai City and the south shore.

Getting to the Garden of the Gods

The Garden of the Gods borders the Palawai Basin, which is the floor of a vol cano that formed Lanai a million years ago. The Garden of the Gods is 7 miles 11 km northwest of Lanai City on the Polihua Road, an old pineapple track. This rugged dirt road should only be attempted in a 4 WD vehicle in good weather. Getting there can be rugged and the road is even rougher past the Garden of the Gods. The dirt track ends at Polihua Beach on Lanai's north coast. Polihua Beach is a wide, white sand strand with good swimming and outstanding fishing. The western tip of the island is Ka'ena Point, also reached by a very rough road branching off just past the Garden of the Gods. Ka'ena Point is another beauti fill location, but do not go swimming here because the currents are very strong off the point.

MAUI

Back in the dawn of time, according to legend, the demigod Maui raised all the Hawaiian Islands from the sea. Native Hawaiian tradition attributes the island's name to the legend of Hawai'iloa, the Polynesian navigator who is credited with discovering the Hawaiian Islands. The story relates how he named the island of Maui after his son, who was in turn named after the demigod Maui. Polynesian mariners, originating from Tahiti and the Marquesas Islands, were the first people to inhabit Maui. The Tahitians introduced the kapu system, a strict social order that affected all aspects of life and became the core of Hawaiian culture. The first chief to unite Maui from centuries of tribal warfare was a chief named Pi'ilani. He not only united all of Maui in the 16 th century, but went on to conquer the neighboring Kahoolawe, Lanai and Molokai islands. Together, the four islands are known as Maui Nui. Pi'ilani is also credited as the first chief to initiate a road encircling an entire Hawaiian island; wide enough for eight men

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to walk shoulder to shoulder, and completed by his son Kihapi'ilani. Parts of the modern Pi'ilani Highway follow the ancient route, and near La Perouse Bay sec tions of the original road are still intact.

Modern history began in the mid 1700s when Maui was sighted by Captain Cook, who sailed near the shore but never attempted a landing. The first European to set foot on Maui was the French admiral Jean Francois de Galaup de La Perouse in 1786, yet he defied orders and refused to claim the island for the French Crown out of respect for the Hawaiian people. The last eruption on Maui occurred four years later, wiping out the village at La Perouse Bay where the French navigator had just landed. King Kamehameha I took up residence in Lahaina after conquering Maui in 1790, immediately following the decisive Battle of Kepaniwai in the Iao Valley. After uniting the Hawaiian Islands Kamehameha the Great made his capital Lahaina, mainly because it was centrally located in the archipelago where he could keep a lookout for any war canoes coming from the other islands. The Island of Maui is nicknamed the "Valley Isle" because of the large fertile isthmus between its two volcanoes.

Haleakala

Everything on eastern Maui centers around, or is inside, the massive cone shaped Haleakala volcano. Rising 10,023 feet 3,055 m into the tropical sky, from a sea level base of 33 miles 53 km in diameter, Haleakala is the world's largest dormant volcano and holds many unusual distinctions. Viewing the huge moun tain from top down, Haleakala National Park centers around an enormous crater at the summit an immense rectangular shaped bowl measuring 7.5 miles 12 km long, 2.5 miles 4 km wide, and .5 mile .8 km deep which could easily accom modate the whole island of Manhattan. Along the upper slopes of Haleakala and inside the crater lives the rarest plant in the world, the silversword. On the south eastern slopes lies the area of greatest cli matic change in the world. Within one mile it is possible to travel from a tropi cal rain forest on the windward side to des ert conditions on the leeward side.

Significant archaeo logical remains have been found inside the crater, yet there is no evidence that the

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ancient Hawaiians ever made their homes in this hostile environment. In pre contact times they hiked to the summit to mine basalt for adzes, to hunt birds, conduct religious ceremonies, and bury their dead. Lately archaeologists have discovered traces of an ancient paved road that once crossed the crater floor and led down through the Kaupo Gap. One of the most spectacular sections of the crater is called Pele's Paint Pot, named after the vivid streak of red sand against the view of brown and yellow mounds on either side.

Haleakala Crater was a very sacred place to ancient Hawaiians, who visited but rarely stayed for too long. The literal translation Hale-a-ka-la means "House of the Sun."

According to an old Tahitian chant, when the earth was discovered by Polynesians in the primordial ocean, the great god Maui set sail in his fleet of canoes and visited all the Hawaiian Islands, building temples wherever he stopped. The legendary demigod Maui has many fantastic tales attributed to his presence on the islands, especially on his namesake island. Within the Haleakala Crater is where Maui captured the sun and demanded the sun take longer cross ing the horizon every day to allow his mother's tapa bark cloth more time to dry. The trickster god Maui caught the sun in a web of ropes and kept it hostage in the "House of the Sun" for many days. The sun agreed to slow its movement, and Maui let it go. Although clouds usually shroud the lower slopes of Haleakala

and sometimes fill the crater, the summit is often bathed in dramatic sunlight. This magnificent display of light is also attrib uted to the demigod Maui. The impres sion everywhere is of dazzling colors, and viewing the sunrise from the summit of Haleakala is one of the most popular activities for Maui tourists.

The crater of Haleakala is not a crater at all, but the collapsed and eroded por tions of a once 13,000 foot 3,900 m tall mountain. The cinder cones inside the crater are the result of minor eruptions long after the erosion process began. Geomancers detect enormous energy coming up through the shield volcano Haleakala. Dowsers believe there is a massive crystal underneath Haleakala; A A helicopter flying over Haleakala a wedged part of the earth's crystallized Crater. core pushed up by the volcano. Maybe

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this is why there are more New Age healing centers and workshops on the slopes of Haleakala than all the other Hawaiian Islands combined.

Getting to Haleakala

Winding its way up the slopes of Haleakala to the summit is Highway 378, which is an easy drive for any rental car. Haleakala National Park is open every day of the year. The Hawaiian Islands are serviced by many major airlines from all parts of the Pacific Rim. Most flights land in Honolulu on Oahu, but an increasing number are flying direct from the mainland to the Big Island, Maui and Kauai. Rental cars and accommodations can be arranged at Maui's Kahului airport.

lao Valley

Long a place of pilgrimage for the royalty and warrior classes of Maui, the lao Valley is renowned for its unprecedented beauty Today it continues to be one of the top tourist attractions on Maui. The valley is the eroded caldera of the West Maui Mountains, an amphitheater where four streams converge. The state park is relatively small, but ample amounts of history and lore surround the area. Mark Twain wrote of his experience in the valley: "I still remember, with a sense of idolent luxury, a picknicking excursion up a romantic gorge there, called the lao Valley." Dominating the valley is a unique rock formation called the lao Needle. As the most obvious feature of the park, it towers 1,200 feet 360 m above the valley floor but is inaccessible for climbing. A path nearby the needle leads to a botanical garden filled with plants brought to the island by Hawaiians who lived in the valley preceding European contact. Before modern farming techniques, the lower portion of lao Valley was ideal for agricultural production necessary to support a large population. These favorable conditions included a wide valley floor, rich alluvial soils, terraced gardens, and a constant supply of water from lao Stream. Such factors combined with access to abundant marine resources in Kahului Harbor, made this a prime location for settlement on West Maui before the arrival of Europeans. The lower section of lao Valley contained some of the most productive taro farming gardens on the island, and as such became a vibrant political and religious center. Fronting the mouth of lao Stream are two large heiau platforms named Haleki'i and Pihana, the last remaining ancient Hawaiian religious structures in the Wailuku area. Traditional history credits the Menehune with construction of both structures in a single night with rocks collected from Paukukalo beach. Other accounts credit the rulers Kihapi'ilani, Ki'ihewa and Kahekili as the builders of the two lava rock platforms. The Haleki'i heiau was most likely a compound for chiefs, which had thatched huts on top of the stone structure guarded by ki'i statues placed around the surrounding terraces. Pihana heiau, the full name of which is Pihanakalani or "the gathering place of the ali'i," was a luakini type heiau. The luakini war temples were for the exclusive use of male ruling chiefs, and the most infamous religious practice were the frequent

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human sacrifices made to appease various gods. As such, the upper portion of Iao Valley was the most important location on West Maui for ancient Hawaiians, the equivalent to Egypt's Valley of the Kings: they buried their kings in the long lost Olopio Cave, and access was strictly forbidden to commoners.

The word "Iao" is said to mean "supreme light" or "supreme point." Iao Needle was the focal point of religious activity in West Maui and warriors likely used it as a lookout.

The 17 th and 18 th centuries saw an intensified period of frequent warfare on Maui, first between the chiefs of Maui, and then with the chiefs of Oahu and Hawaii. The most famous was the Battle of Kepaniwai in Iao Valley, where Kamehameha I of Hawaii led his forces to conquer Maui's army in an effort to unite the islands in the late 18 th century. Prior to that, the lower Iao Valley was a political center under chief Pi'ilani who had succeeded in unifying Maui by warfare. His two sons, Lono a Pi'ilani and Kihapi'ilani fought for political control after his death. Eventually, with the help of warriors from the Big Island, Kihapi'ilani became the ruler of Maui. The last powerful ruler before Kamehameha was Kahekili, the fierce tattooed chief who ruled from about 1765 to 1790. Lower Iao Valley was the site of Kahalelani, his royal residence. He successfully defended his capital in the 1770s when an army of warriors from the Big Island led by Kalani'opu'u invaded. Kahekili's warriors hid behind the sand dunes, surprised the invaders and systematically slaughtered them all. The most famous event in the history of Iao Valley was a battle fought between the forces of Kahekili and those of King Kamehameha the Great, which took place in 1790. Kamehameha arrived from the Big Island in a fleet so huge it was said that the whole Kahului Harbor was filled

with war canoes containing his massive army. Kamehameha brought along a cannon, called Lopaka, and two Europeans, John Young and Issac Davis, who knew how to operate it. The Maui warriors were led by Kalanikapule, the son of the high chief Kahekili, who fought evenly with the Big Island invaders for two days. On the third day Kamehameha brought out the cannon, and a great slaughter occurred, con clusively deciding the fate of the famous battle. Had the A The Iao Needle in Iao Valley. fighting been in the usual style

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of hand to hand combat, the forces would have been equally matched and the outcome would have likely been a draw. As it was, the Maui army retreated into the narrow Iao Valley and fell under intense cannon fire. The warriors desperately tried to escape by climbing up the steep cliffs. The battle was subsequently called Ka 'uwau pali clawed off the cliff and Kepaniwai damming of the waters , because the Iao Stream had become so clogged with dead bodies floating down stream. The town Wailuku also borrows its name from the battle, literally mean ing "bloody river." As devastating as the battle was to the defenders of Maui, most of the important chiefs escaped and proceeded to take refuge on the islands of Molokai and Oahu.

Getting to Iao Valley

Iao Valley State Park is located 3 miles 5 km above the sleepy town of Wailuku on Iao Valley Road. This West Maui refuge is a 6.2 acre 2.5 ha place of uncom mon history and beauty Upon arrival visitors suddenly find themselves in a lush rainforest environment. The air is moist and cool and occasional rainstorms are common. Iao Valley State Park is designated a National Natural Landmark.

MOLOKAI

/T~^he mellow island of Molokai is regarded by most visitors as the most authen JL tic version of what Hawaii must have been like 50 to 60 years ago. There is not a single elevator or traffic light on the island and no building is taller than a palm tree. Yet this sleepy image was not the case in ancient times when Molokai had a bustling population with sophisticated farming techniques and an intricate network of enclosed "aquaculture" fish ponds. Attesting to the richness of the island are the ruins of over 50 separate fish ponds that once extended 20 miles 32 km along the southeastern coast, and the main reason why Molokai was so cov eted by other chiefs. Several heiaus scatter across the island, as well as Molokai's own pu'uhonua or a "City of Refuge." Higher up in the mountains is one of the last sandlewood groves and a "sandlewood boat," which is a pit dug in the exact shape of a boat's hull to precisely fill the cargo hold with the fragrant trees des tined for export to the Far East. When trade with foreigners began, so did intense servitude of the native Hawaiians. It is said the sandlewood harvesters eventually started pulling out saplings to spare their children from such cruel work.

Kalaupapa Peninsula

Isolated from the world by rough surf and the tallest sea cliffs in the world, this lonely peninsula was created by a late eruption long after the rest of Molokai was formed. The flat and exposed spit of land, although exceedingly difficult to access, once held an extensive ancient occupation. Just east of the peninsula is the virgin Waikolu Valley, a lush tropical wilderness long considered sacred by

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the Hawaiians. Although mostly buried in the undergrowth of trees and bushes, numerous shrines, heiaus and gravesites lie hidden on the Kalaupapa Peninsula and Waikolu Valley. With over 1,000 years of native occupation, Kalaupapa has one of the richest and most valuable archaeological preserves in Hawaii. But Kalaupapa was not to remain the pristine homeland to future generations. Once the first shipments of lepers started arriving in the 1860s, the unaffected native population quickly relocated "top side" to avoid contact.

v f :

Kalaupapa Peninsula was the infamous home

of Hawaii's only leprosy colony. A Belgian priest named Father Damien devoted his life to easing the leper's brutal suffering.

When the whalers, laborers, and missionaries came to the Hawaiian Islands in the early 19 th century, they brought with them diseases completely foreign to the Hawaiian people, including the contagious leprosy, or Hansen's Disease. This hideous disease was likely brought over with plantation laborers from China. The first case was diagnosed in 1835 on Kauai and called Ma'i Pake, or the "Chinese disease." Those unfortunate few who contracted leprosy esti mated to be one in fifty by 1865 were sent into permanent exile on Kalaupapa Peninsula, one of the most remote regions in the Hawaiian archipelago. The dis

figured Hawaiians suffered immensely upon banishment from their homes and family, as the disease seemingly struck at random with no cure. Upon the first sign of the horrible disease the lepers were rounded up and immediately shipped to the Kalaupapa colony for life. The first few decades at "the Settlement" were complete anarchy as new arrivals were met with the motto "there is no law in this place" and instantly stripped of their possessions and oftentimes raped. The horrendous conditions lasted until 1873 when Father Damien arrived from Belgium and showed his saintly devotion by nursing the sick, burying the dead and befriending those considered untouch able in Hawaiian society. At the earlier settlement of Kalawao Father Damien set to the task of building a church to nourish the poor souls of Kalaupapa. The Saint Philomena's church became the only refuge of compassion available

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▲ The "Penis of Nanahoa" rock formation above the Kalaupapa Peninsula.

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to the banished lepers. Father Damien finally contracted leprosy himself, died at the age 49, and was buried next to his church until his body was exhumed in 1936 and returned to Belgium. His right hand, however, was returned to his original grave in 1995, just a year after the Vatican beautified him. Surprising to most visi tors today is that elderly leprosy patients still live on the Kalaupapa Peninsula. The disease is now controlled and contagion is eliminated by modern drugs, yet these aging patients prefer to live amid the solitude of Kalaupapa.

On a slight hill overlooking the Kalaupapa Peninsula, very close to the trail leading down, is an ancient Hawaiian fertility ritual center at a place called Pu'u Loa knoll. Woman hoping to become pregnant would come to the fertility shrine known as Ka Ule O Nanaboa, meaning "the Penis of Nanahoa," to recite prayers and offer gifts. After being directed by the kahuna priests to the fertility shrine, women would place offerings at the furrowed tip of a large phallic stone, sleep overnight, and then were said to return home pregnant. Their directed prayers were to encourage the latent potency of the stone penis to enter the woman's uterus. The shrine used to be fully exposed to the plains below, but is now shrouded by trees and foliage. A well worn trail from the lookout parking lot leads visitors to the Pu'u Loa knoll. Ancient petroglyphs are concealed in an overhanging rock nearby, and other phallic images and emblems can be found in the vicinity.

Getting to Kalaupapa Peninsula

The Kalaupapa Peninsula Lookout is located one mile 1.6 km north of Kalae via Hawaii 470, then a steep three mile 5 km descent by foot trail to the Kalaupapa National Historic Park. Once on the peninsula floor, only guided tours are allowed. Info line: 808 567 6802. Mule rides are available, as well as a small airport where planes can land for pre arranged walking tours of Kalaupapa.

OAHU

Being the most populated island in Hawaii, Oahu has adopted many nick names: "The Gathering Island," "The Meeting Place," and "The Capital Isle." As one of the original islands settled by the first wave of Polynesian settlers it was called the "Heavenly Homeland of the North." The United States government has long held an interest in Pearl Harbor, the deepest harbor in the North Pacific and home of the U.S. Pacific Fleet. Although crowded and sometimes congested, Oahu should not be mistaken for the rampant commercialization of Waikiki or Honolulu. Oahu is rich in culture and history and is every bit as beautiful as the other islands. The spectacular Waianae and Ko'olau mountain ranges spread the island like the wings of a butterfly to open upon an impressive valley. From Waikiki, travel to the windward coast past one incredible beach or scenic bay mile after mile.

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Kaena Point

The rugged and windswept Kaena Point is the least populated, and least visited, region of the island. Located on Oahu's far northwest corner, the desolate Kaena Point is at the tail end of the Waianae Mountain Range, as well as the conflu

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ence of two distinct weather systems the leeward and windward. Just beyond the point the ocean currents meet in a constant splash of dark water and white foam on jagged rocks. Kaena Point is the winter nesting grounds for many rare Hawaiian birds, including the immense Laysan albatross, which occasionally take to the air to drive people away from their nests if they come too close. The lighthouse at the point offers splendid views. On a clear day the island of Kauai is visible to the northwest. The ten miles 16 km of dirt road rounding Kaena Point has become an increasingly popular trip for naturalists, hikers, and orni thologists.

Kaena Point is the legendary "leaping place of souls" for recently deceased Hawaiian

spirits.

Ancient Hawaiian mythology describes a colorful array of spirits and dimen sions in the afterlife. A Hawaiian euphemistic term for dying was to "travel west," and in the case of people on Oahu it was a journey to Kaena Point on the western extremity of the island. Upon death, or even during a near death experience, a Hawaiian person's soul would first travel directly to Kaena Point to determine if it was ready to continue. As the newly released soul approached the point, it was met by the spirits of deceased ancestors or friends who were waiting for the soul to arrive. They might send the soul back if the death were not real or if certain earthly obligations were not fulfilled. The spirits could help revive the body if the death was not final. If death was final, the ancestral guides would entertain the soul, comfort it, and begin leading it on its journey off the earthly plane. When the deceased soul was ready to depart, it was guided to Leinakauhane white rock , where the soul would make its plunge into the ocean on its way to eternity. A big white stone on the north side of Kaena Point was the literal leaping place of souls into the land of po heaven .

Another aspect of the departing soul visiting Kaena Point is less tantalizing. Legend also scrutinized how honorable the person had led his or her life. If the newly deceased soul had not fulfilled all earthly obligations to the priesthood, or had been a bad person and disrespected

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▲ Kaena Point, where the windward side meets the leeward.

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their ancestors, the soul continued wandering around Kaena Point, or was returned to the body. In the event the body was indeed dead and could not be returned, the bad soul wandered for eternity out on the hot and dry western extremity of Oahu. Here the wandering soul would lurk as a ghost, subsist by eating spiders and moths until an 'aumakua guardian angel ancestor deity would take pity on the soul and guide it away. The 'aumakua usually took the form of an animal, such as a sea turtle, an owl, octopus, or bird. The helpful animal guides would eventually escort the bad soul to the leaping stone where the spirit would plunge into "endless night." At this point the guardian angel would guide the soul through sea caves and other wondrous worlds until the soul was then ready to enter the land of po.

Getting to Kaena Point

Access to Kaena Point can be made from both the windward northwest and leeward southwest sides. The old dirt road used to be open for 4WD traffic, but time and erosion have closed the road. Both access points are on the same road the Farrington Highway yet the roads no longer connect around the point. Old maps may show this road rounding Kaena Point, and indeed it does, but there is no way any vehicle can make it past some of the deep erosion trenches or barrier walls to keep vehicles out. Several side trails lead to remote beaches, blowholes, and exceptional viewing areas along the coast. Look for the parking lots where the pavement ends, at the 42 mile marker on the leeward side, and the 46 mile marker on the windward side.

Waimea Valley

Before Western contact almost all Hawaiian people lived on the wet, windward side of each island. These rain soaked regions allowed for one of the most pro ductive farming regions in Polynesia. The word waimea in Hawaiian means "red dish water" derived from the red volcanic soil, rich in iron oxide, accumulated from the abundant rains on Oahu's North Shore. "Wai" meaning water and "mea" for the color red was a common name for fertile farming communities on other islands, including large settlements on the Big Island and Kauai. In the case of Oahu's Waimea Valley, a structured and organized work force constructed numer ous terraces made of large boulders used for heavy taro farming and enclosed animal holding pens. Waimea was noted for productivity and quality of products, especially the pink taro rootstock that was particularly prized by the chiefly alii class. The fact that the ancient Hawaiians domesticated animals, cultivated crops from irrigated fields and constructed elaborate fish ponds attest to the high level of agricultural advancement they had achieved.

With intensive food production in place to feed many mouths, the popula tion boomed and elaborate social and political institutions were formulated. Waimea Valley became one of the leading centers for powerful island chiefs,

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priestly brotherhoods, and highly trained athletes. As early as 1092 CE, Waimea Valley was one of four chosen lands on Oahu to be awarded to the Kahuna Nui, or "High Priests of Oahu," in perpetuity The priesthood of Paao the most powerful kahu nas on the islands was centered in Waimea and

exerted substantial control A A recreated Hawaiian village in the Parks of over all Oahu chiefs. King Waimea. Kamehameha's own per

sonal kahuna, Hewa Hewa Nui, was a direct descendant of the Pa'ao priesthood. Throughout Hawaii, the kahuna were experts in their field of study, whether it was fishing, farming, healing, or consultation with the gods, they played an important role to both the chiefly class and the common classes. In the valley are the remnants of royal burial mounds of stacked rocks, several heiaus dedi cated to various gods, family shrines to aumakua deceased ancestors , and a large platform to indicate the king's residence. The largest platform, the Hale O Lono Heiau, built sometime between 1470 and 1700 CE, was dedicated to Lono, one of four principle Hawaiian gods. Lono ruled the spirits who controlled agriculture, harvests, weather, medicine, and sports. Here the kahuna la au lap'au, or a medical priest practitioner of herbal medicine prayed to Lono for advice, and passed on his wisdom from generation to generation.

Once a center for the ancient Hawaiian reli- gion of Oahu, today Waimea Valley is a com- mercially run park, replete with a botanical garden, exotic animals, and footpaths that wander among remnants of temples, homes and entire villages. Within Waimea Valley there are more than 40 historic sites.

The first communication with foreigners on Oahu took place on February 27 th , 1779 , when the ships Discovery and Resolution touched at Waimea Bay on their way to Kauai after Cook's death. The Resolution stayed anchored for a few days longer to collect water for the long voyage north. The crew instantly took a liking to the valley, calling it "uncommonly beautiful and picturesque." The new Captain Clerke described Waimea as "by far the most beautiful Country we have yet seen among the Isles ... bounteously cloath'd with Verdure, on which were situated many large Villages and extensive plantations." The Resolution departed with

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out incident, and Waimea was not again visited by European ships for 13 years, until the Daedalus set anchor on May 12 th , 1792, headed by Lieutenant Richard Hergest who was a crew member on the Resolution. By this time, King Kamehameha's access to European weapons was enabling him to defeat all his rivals. When the Waimea chief and his warriors came aboard the Daedalus to trade arms, Hergest ordered them all thrown overboard to the chief's utter humiliation. Thinking the islanders were meek, Hergest took a party ashore to explore the valley while the rest of the crew filled their water caskets. Within minutes Hergest and two men were ambushed below a hill and killed by the fearsome pahupu, or "cut in two" warriors, so named because half their bodies were fully tattooed. The warriors ran down the steep slope from the Pu'u O Mahuka Heiau, Oahu's largest temple of human sacrifice. The slain seamen were taken as sacrificial offerings to another heiau at Mokule'ia, to be baked and stripped of their flesh in the same manner as Captain Cook had been treated. In this way, the mana could be taken from the foreigners and usurped by those offering the sacrifice.

▲ The restored Hale O Lono Heiau is the most prominent historic relic in Waimea Valley. Three stone terraces rise next to the main entrance into the park.

Getting to Waimea Valley

The Waimea Valley Audubon Center, formerly called Waimea Valley Adventure Park, is located at 59 864 Kamehameha Highway Hawaii 83 , about 5 miles 8 km northeast of Haleiwa town. The Waimea Bay Beach Park is on the ocean side of Hawaii 83. Once on the valley floor follow the signs inland to the Waimea Valley Audubon Center. The commercially run valley no longer offers off road adven tures, kayak paddling, horseback riding or the cliff diving show. The "adventure tourism" aspect was controversial to many locals who didn't see these activities as appropriate in a place they consider sacred. Instead, the Center encourages self guided, leisurely walks through the gardens. Hours of operation are 10:30 am to 4:30 PM everyday, admission fee required. Info line: 808 638 9199. The Hale O Lono Heiau rises on three tiers next to the admission gate parking lot, and the Pu'u O Mahuka Heiau is perched on the eastern bluff above the mouth of the Waimea River. Pu'u O Mahuka can be visited by driving up Pupukea Road and taking the first right after crossing over the cattle guard.

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NIHOA AND NECKER OUTER ISLANDS

wo small northwestern islands beyond Kauai and Ni'ihau had been fishing and hunting grounds to the ancient Hawaiian people for centuries. The

two outcroppings are Nihoa and Necker Islands, and like the others, they are ancient remnants of volcanoes. Nihoa Island is about 170 miles 275 km from Kauai, and Necker Island is another 150 miles 240 km further west. The truly amazing aspect of these islands is how absolutely small they are in size. While little Ni'ihau offers an environment of 73 square miles 118 sq. km , Nihoa is only 156 acres 62.4 ha and Necker a mere 39 acres 15.6 ha . Considering that an acre of land is only 1/640 of a square mile, any settlement on either Nihoa or Necker would have been extremely crowded.

It is hard to imagine a colony of people spending their whole lives on these remote nubbins of rock. But the evidence is ample, including 60 archaeological sites on Nihoa and 34 on Necker. Several well built temples remain, as well as a cave showing human occupation. If the canoes used to reach the island were some how damaged in the rough surf, the settlers would not have been able to repair their canoes with resources from the islands. They would have been trapped until other canoes arrived from Ni'ihau or Kauai. Partial skeletons of men, women, and children have been found on Nihoa, and two burial sites located. While mys tery remains as to what happened to the peoples of Nihoa and Necker, a lack of food sources and fresh water suggest a tragic human drama. Without timber for new canoes and very limited resources to survive upon, it is likely a protracted drought lead to widespread starvation. Whether the inhabitants died off, were rescued, or sailed off on their own, both islands were uninhabited when the first European seafarers arrived in 1789.

Nihoa and Necker Islands each supported small Polynesian settlements in the 14 th cen- tury ce, before mysteriously vanishing. The inhabitants erected dozens of heiau platforms and various shrines on both islands.

Since neither island is tall enough to catch the rain, subsisting for any period of time would have been exceedingly difficult. Necker Island is smaller and has even fewer resources than Nihoa. There are no trees and no soil for growing crops on Necker. No springs of drinkable water have been located on either island. The freshwater comes from the estimated 20 30 inches 50 76 cm of rain that falls annually from passing squalls. Despite these harsh conditions no less that 33 temples have been erected on Necker, and 15 on Nihoa, both attesting to elabo rate rituals and ceremonies being performed. Many of the temple sites closely resemble those of the Marquesas Islands and Tahiti, possibly establishing a link between this site and early Polynesian cultures. While it is unclear if Necker ever supported a permanent population, Nihoa was inhabited by the kanaka

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maoli, perhaps a version of the Menehune, a people who lived there sometime between iooo and 1500 CE. About 35 house sites, 15 bluff shelters, 15 heiau, and 28 agricultural terraces have been identified on Nihoa. Various artifacts have also been collected, including fishhooks, sinkers, fiber fishing lines, cowry shell lures, hammerstones, grindstones, adzes, and coral rubbing stones. Remarkable are the unique human images found nowhere else in Hawaii, but are reminiscent of idols from the Marquesas. Several stone statues, the largest around 16 inches 41 cm high, depict people with outstretched tongues and lacking necks. The images look like flat gingerbread men with expressive round faces. Who or what these images represent is unknown.

The earliest Europeans to visit Kauai and record the ancient lifestyle describe native Hawaiian canoes departing for the northwestern islands on hunting excur sions for turtles and seabirds. Oral histories from Ni'ihau residents recall Nihoa as being occupied each summer until the late 1800s as a fishing colony. Nihoa, jutting up from the sea beyond sight of Kauai and Ni'ihau, is the westernmost place in the tradition of Kauai geography. The word nihoa has several meanings, including "firmly set," "toothed," or "serrated," possibly a reference to its jag ged profile. From one angle the island looks like a molar standing isolated at sea and would have been useful as a navigational checkpoint. Nihoa is a mile long, a quarter mile wide, and almost 900 feet 270 m high on its east end. In the 1800s and 1900s, Western sailing ships exploited the area for seals, whales, reef fish, turtles, sharks, pearl oysters, and sea cucumbers. The island was formally annexed to Hawaii in 1894, and was designated a wildlife refuge by Teddy Roosevelt in 1906. Today the only inhabitants of Nihoa are insects, monk seals, two species of land birds the finch and millerbird found nowhere else , and numerous seabirds terns, boobies, petrels, shearwaters, albatrosses, tropic birds, and frigate birds . The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service control both islands. Landing on either island is prohibited except for scientific study and cultural purposes.

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Getting to Nihoa and Necker Outer Islands

If permits are secured to visit the Outer Islands, the next hard part is getting there. Ship landing on Nihoa Island is difficult. All landings must be made on a rocky shelf in Adam Bay, and only in ideal weather conditions. High, sheer cliffs prevent landing on the east, north, and west sides. The island slopes down to the south, but the shoreline is rocky and unprotected from the surge of southerly swells. Large vessels anchor offshore, and those wanting to go ashore have to use a small boat or swim ashore. There is no known outfitter that charters trips to Nihoa, let alone Necker, which is 320 miles 515 km off the coast of Kauai. Both islands are living Hawaiian history and should not be disturbed. Both Nihoa and Necker Islands are on the National Registry of Historic Places.

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Western Canada

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