Predictors of intellectual development in outdoor sports education mediated by student satisfaction and moderated by prior outdoor experience.

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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Sci Rep . 2026 Mar 11;16:12229. doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-43731-1 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Predictors of intellectual development in outdoor sports education mediated by student satisfaction and moderated by prior outdoor experience Fei Tan Fei Tan 1 School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Fujian Normal University, No.1 Keji Road, Minhou County, Fuzhou City, 350117 Fujian Province China Find articles by Fei Tan 1 , Guibing You Guibing You 2 Zhaoqing University, Zhaoqing Avenue, Duanzhao District, Zhaoqing City, 526061 Guangdong Province China Find articles by Guibing You 2, ✉ , Yuanchang Li Yuanchang Li 3 Guangzhou Sport University, No.1268 Guangzhou Avenue Middle, Tianhe District, Guangzhou City, 510500 Guangdong Province China Find articles by Yuanchang Li 3 , Jie Gao Jie Gao 2 Zhaoqing University, Zhaoqing Avenue, Duanzhao District, Zhaoqing City, 526061 Guangdong Province China Find articles by Jie Gao 2 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Fujian Normal University, No.1 Keji Road, Minhou County, Fuzhou City, 350117 Fujian Province China 2 Zhaoqing University, Zhaoqing Avenue, Duanzhao District, Zhaoqing City, 526061 Guangdong Province China 3 Guangzhou Sport University, No.1268 Guangzhou Avenue Middle, Tianhe District, Guangzhou City, 510500 Guangdong Province China ✉ Corresponding author. Received 2025 Nov 10; Accepted 2026 Mar 6; Collection date 2026. © The Author(s) 2026 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ . PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC13076877  PMID: 41813883 Abstract Outdoor sports education is a specific field of study that examines the influence of environmental, pedagogical, and personal factors on students’ cognitive development. This study investigates the implications of learning environment, teaching techniques, student engagement, and learning outcomes on the intellectual development of outdoor sports education. It also examines the moderating and mediating effects of past outdoor experience on this relationship and on student satisfaction. Structured questionnaires were used to poll 650 students from different institutes in China. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to assess the predictive power of the independent components of intellectual development. Further, the study employed moderation-mediation analysis to discuss the mediated relationship between students’ satisfaction and their past outdoor experience and the learning outcomes. The results showed that significant predictors of intellectual development were the quality of the teaching environment (β = 0.25, p < 0.001), the efficiency of the teaching technique (β = 0.30, p < 0.001), student engagement (β = 0.15, p < 0.001), and learning outcomes (β = 0.20, p < 0.001). This association is mediated by student satisfaction (β = 0.30, p < 0.001, CI 0.16, 0.44) and moderated by prior outdoor exposure (β = -0.25, p = 0.002, CI −0.41, −0.09). The study emphasizes supportive learning environments, effective teaching, and student engagement to foster intellectual development in outdoor sports education. Keywords: Outdoor sports education, Teaching space quality, Teaching method effectiveness, Student engagement, Learning outcomes, Intellectual development, China Subject terms: Environmental social sciences, Health care, Psychology, Psychology Introduction Experiential learning, especially in outdoor sport courses, has attracted attention in educational research for its ability to promote holistic development 1 . This study investigates the role that Chinese classrooms play in supporting intellectual progress. The outdoors offers a unique opportunity to experience learning, which is the foundation of education. Students can apply academic understanding to real-world issues in these real settings. The value of experiential learning in developing intellectual, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills has been increasingly recognized, and there are calls to make these experiences part of the school curriculum 2 , 3 . China, with its varied landscapes and rich cultural history, is a great place to study experiential learning in outdoor sports courses. As socioeconomic changes are rapidly taking place in this country, the need to develop a well-rounded generation with solid intellectual, practical, and environmental values is increasingly evident. Outdoor sports lessons offer students real-world learning opportunities to meet these aims. Extending classrooms into nature taps students’ cerebral, emotional, and physical talents 4 . Outdoor sports courses require strong classroom, physical, social, and psychological components. Outdoor learning spaces impact learning outcomes, including engagement, motivation, and knowledge retention among participants. Since the interaction between teaching methods and the outdoors can significantly impact learning outcomes 5 , an urgent need for outdoor space-specific pedagogy is apparent. This study investigates the class atmosphere, teaching techniques, student involvement, and completion rates to determine their influence on the intellectual development of outdoor sports students. Additionally, the study examines the relationships among student’s prior outdoor activity experience, classroom atmosphere, and cognitive development. According to this view, the experience of outdoor activity may affect learning outcomes and patterns. The study also explores the impact of students’ satisfaction with the course’s content and activities, as this influences how classroom quality affects cognitive progress. Outdoor sports course teaching quality focuses on the quality of the space, teaching methods and effectiveness, students’ participation, and learning outcomes. This is important in China, where rapid changes in educational paradigms are required to meet current cultural demands. As the nation emphasizes the importance of holistic education, educators are realizing the significance of the learning environment in shaping students’ learning and intellectual and personal growth 6 , 7 . Classroom conditions affect the learning of outdoor sports students. China’s varied landscapes offer outdoor learning opportunities in lush mountains, vast plains, and quiet lakes. Planning and maintenance are critical for outdoor classrooms to be effective in providing for hands-on learning. Improving learning environments and optimizing infrastructure assets are very important 8 . Accessibility, safety, and other facilities are included. Teaching methods in outdoor sports courses significantly influence student involvement and learning. Chinese instructors apply an experiential learning approach to complement traditional teaching and elicit student engagement and active learning 9 , 10 . Practical demonstrations, group discussions, and hands-on activities help teachers accommodate students’ learning styles and foster curiosity and critical thinking. Technology-enhanced learning tools and multimedia assets are also beneficial to instructors because they enhance the quality of education, thereby enhancing student engagement, retention, and understanding. Active involvement in outdoor sports courses helps students learn and advance as athletes 11 , 12 . China’s focus on collectivism and teamwork may promote the formation of outdoor learning groups. Educators can enhance student participation and motivation through peer contact, positive learning environments, and student-led projects, fostering deeper learning experiences and meaningful connections to course content. Outdoor sports education in China is intended to train students’ practical skills and theoretical knowledge, and to develop respect for the environment through practical learning outcomes 13 . By connecting curricular goals to real-world applications, teachers can help students learn outside the classroom. Chinese outdoor sports programs help children learn leadership, environmental stewardship, and outdoor survival skills to thrive in a globalized, ever-changing world. Chinese educators may promote the improvement of outdoor sports education by periodically analyzing and updating their teaching techniques. This will help students in the future with their academic and personal development 14 . The following research questions need to be answered. First, does the quality of the outdoor sports courses’ teaching environment affect the intellectual growth of Chinese students? This will investigate the relationship between classroom quality and students’ intellectual growth in outdoor sports. The study examines accessibility, safety, and infrastructure to determine how better-designed, updated classrooms can affect students’ critical thinking, problem-solving, and intellectual growth. Second, how does pedagogical effectiveness affect students’ involvement in Chinese outdoor sports classes? This examines the influence of outdoor sports teachers’ teaching styles on student participation. Examples of educational approaches include technology-enhanced learning, group discussions, and hands-on learning. Finally, how do the learning environment, teaching techniques, and student engagement affect outdoor sports courses in China? This explores how good teaching, high-quality classrooms, and active student engagement contribute to kids’ learning in outdoor sports education. Investigating the relationships among instructional strategies and the quality of the learning environment will shed light on the impact of these factors on students’ learning outcomes. The following are the study’s research objectives. To investigate the impact of the quality of teaching spaces on the intellectual growth of students who are enrolled in outdoor sports courses in China. To examine the efficiency of teaching methods that affect student participation in outdoor sports courses in the Chinese educational system. To analyze how students’ prior experience in outdoor sports affects the connection between the quality of teaching spaces and their intellectual growth. The study describes various ways to enhance pedagogy in outdoor sports education and help Chinese and international students thrive in their academic studies and holistic development. Literature review The literature on outdoor sports courses in China recognizes their impact on intellectual development. Research into classroom design, instructional practices, and cognitive development indicates that these things influence student’s achievement at academy. Providing a physically and cognitively stimulating learning environment with appropriate resources may encourage students’ critical thinking and problem-solving abilities 15 , 16 . Nochefranca 17 found that cooperative and active learning methods enhance students’ intellectual progress. These results show the importance of classroom design and teacher pedagogy in promoting intellectual growth. Outdoor sports courses research students’ participation, learning achievement, and intellectual progress separately. According to Lynam et al. 18 , academic achievement and intellectual development are linked to student engagement (participation and self-motivation). Additionally, Alam 19 and Noroozi et al. 20 found that the use of specific learning objectives and feedback increases students’ cognitive progress and learning outcomes. The study underscores the need for a friendly classroom and for promoting student involvement to improve intellectual growth by demonstrating the link between student engagement, learning, and advancement in intellectual development. Recent research has also examined the influence of students’ satisfaction with course materials, activities, and outdoor sports experience on students’ intellectual development, as moderators and mediators 21 , 22 . Mann et al. 23 found that students with prior outdoor sports experience had higher intellectual development than those without, indicating a moderating effect of prior experience on the relationship between teaching space quality and intellectual development. Yang et al. 24 found that students’ satisfaction with course materials and activities mediated the relationship between teaching effectiveness and intellectual development, underscoring the importance of students’ perceptions and experiences in cognitive development. The current research on the effects of outdoor sports course quality on intellectual development in China reveals significant information gaps, including teaching techniques, student participation, student learning outcomes, and the learning environment. More robust data are needed on the influence of teaching space quality and the efficacy of teaching techniques on intellectual development in outdoor sports instruction. This is contrary to previous research that evaluated these issues separately 25 , 26 . By combining the physical learning environment and instructional strategies into a single framework, it may better understand their influence on students’ cognitive development and academic success. Even though there is considerable evidence of positive relationships among student participation, learning outcomes, and intellectual progress, further research is needed 27 , 28 . More studies are needed on the mediating processes between student participation, learning outcomes, and intellectual advancement. The cognitive and emotional mechanisms underlying these variables’ effects on intellectual growth might help to understand the performance of outdoor learning sports courses. Research on moderators and mediators of course content, activity satisfaction, and students’ outdoor sports experience is promising. Several studies have started to investigate the moderating role of experience and the mediating role of student satisfaction 29 – 31 . However, more studies are needed to identify the boundary conditions and the underlying mechanisms of these effects. The study examines the relationship between individual differences and subjective opinions on pedagogical practices and intellectual progress, to provide individual recommendations for outdoor sports education pedagogy. This research addresses a gap in the literature by assessing how the quality of teaching of outdoor sports courses, student engagement, learning effects, instructional methodology, and intellectual growth in China are mutually related. The study uses a comprehensive research framework to investigate the factors of cognitive development and academic performance in outdoor sports education, and their interrelationships. It uses rigorous empirical research to help Chinese and international students fulfill their potential by offering recommendations for improving outdoor sports courses for educators, policymakers, and practitioners. The literature review yielded the following research hypotheses: H1: Teaching space quality and teaching method effectiveness positively influence students’ intellectual development in outdoor sports education. H2: Student engagement and learning outcomes have positive effects on students’ intellectual development. H3a: Student Satisfaction mediates the relationships between instructional factors (Teaching Space Quality and Teaching Method Effectiveness) and Intellectual Development. H3b: Student Satisfaction mediates the relationship between learning processes (Student Engagement and Learning Outcomes) and Intellectual Development. H4a: Previous Outdoor Sports Experience moderates the relationships between instructional factors and Intellectual Development. H4b: Previous Outdoor Sports Experience moderates the relationship between Teaching Method Effectiveness and Student Satisfaction. The study presents a comprehensive research method to explain how outdoor sports education supports students’ cognitive development. The model states that pedagogical and environmental factors affect intellectual development. Constructivist and experiential learning theories underpin these factors. This paradigm holds that student engagement is the primary behavioral and psychological mechanism by which classroom environments and pedagogical techniques enhance students’ intelligence. As a mediating variable, student satisfaction captures students’ emotional evaluation of their learning experiences to explain how instructional inputs and engagement improve intellectual advancement. Teachers may moderate students’ attitudes toward varied classroom settings and pedagogical techniques by drawing on previous outdoor sports experience. Overall, the research model integrates environmental, instructional, behavioral, and experiential aspects to explain intellectual growth in outdoor sports education. Experiential learning theory states that direct experience, introspective observation, theoretical reflection, and practical application generate knowledge. Outdoor sports education naturally involves planned environmental interaction, supervised instructional practice, and introspective involvement with real-world problems. The quality of the teaching space and the efficacy of teaching techniques impact experience cycles under this paradigm. Student engagement shows how actively they participated in those cycles, while learning outcomes reflect how effectively they understood and applied what they learned. Thus, intellectual growth is the gradual improvement of higher-order cognitive skills through experiential learning outside the classroom. Additional theoretical perspectives are employed to explain certain relationship processes. Social cognitive principles may help explain how instructional support and mastery experiences affect evaluative judgments. Ecological factors underscore the importance of environmental quality in shaping experience. Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework and proposed linkages between the study’s primary variables. Teaching effectiveness and classroom atmosphere are the framework’s two independent variables. Fig. 1. Open in a new tab Conceptual research model of relationships among teaching space quality, intellectual development and relationship outcomes in outdoor sports education. A well-planned classroom fosters safety, simple access, and student engagement, while efficient pedagogical procedures provide structured teaching, constructive criticism, and hands-on experience. These pedagogical inputs should increase student engagement by encouraging focus and long-term commitment in outdoor learning activities. Student involvement should improve Learning Outcomes because engaged students are more likely to learn, solve problems, and apply what they have learned. Outdoor sports education initiatives provide students with these practical benefits. The framework builds on this progress to achieve Intellectual progress. When students actively learn and succeed, they develop critical thinking, adaptability, and cognitive flexibility. Thus, the model follows a logical sequence from instructional inputs to long-term cognitive development via behavioral processes and educational outcomes. Student Satisfaction mediates students’ emotional perceptions of their learning experiences, thereby improving conceptual clarity. It shows how good learning environments and outcomes boost motivation and cognitive involvement, fostering intellectual progress. Early outdoor exposure may also enhance or reduce the effects of instructional inputs and engagement on learning and intellectual development. Thus, the outdoor sports experience moderates this relationship with teaching quality. This paradigm makes causal relationships clear while maintaining theoretical simplicity. The model’s structure into instructional inputs, behavioral processes, educational outcomes, and cognitive development strengthens hypothesis testing. This structure simplifies and avoids conceptual overlap. Methodology Students enrolled in outdoor sports courses at several Chinese institutions participate in this study. Of the selected institutions offering outdoor sports education programs, 875 students were initially deemed eligible to participate in the study. This cohort of prospective applicants constituted the recruitment pool. Coordinated institutional access facilitated the dissemination of surveys to all 875 students. An initial response rate of 81.37% was attained with 712 questionnaires returned. Sixty-two answers were excluded after data screening and cleaning due to substantial missing data, patterned replies, or incomplete sections that compromised analytical validity. After applying the exclusion criteria, 650 questionnaires were deemed valid and suitable for statistical analysis. From 650 authentic responses out of 875 distributed surveys, the conclusive valid response rate was calculated to be 74.29%. Inclusion criteria are outdoor sports students who are willing to participate in the study. The study used a stratified random selection method to ensure the representativeness of study participants from different regions of China. The sample was divided by target population geography and allocated proportionally to ensure appropriate representation from each province. Such an approach enabled participation by individuals from Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangdong, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang, well known for their unique landscapes and devotion to outdoor activities, thereby improving the generalizability of the study. The distribution of the participants in the Chinese region is shown in Table 1 . It shows that participating institutions are distributed throughout many regions in China, reflecting a range of geographical and educational conditions. Table 1. Distribution of study participants across Provinces and Universities. Province University Participants Yunnan Yunnan University 100 Sichuan Sichuan University 120 Guangdong Sun Yat-sen University 150 Jiangsu Nanjing University 130 Zhejiang Zhejiang University 150 Total 650 Open in a new tab The students were selected from Yunnan University, a top educational institution in Yunnan known for its outdoor sports education programs, beautiful landscapes, and other cultures. Selected Sichuan participants included Sichuan University, known for its outdoor sports programs and nestled in the scenic Sichuan Basin. Sun Yat-sen University students from Guangdong’s bright towns and metropolitan areas demonstrated the province’s commitment to outdoor sports in the city. Nanjing University, known for its outdoor sports programs and holistic education, lured athletes from Jiangsu. The final group of students from Zhejiang University, a leading outdoor sports school noted for innovative teaching methods, came from the wealthy and fetching province. The complexities of intellectual development in outdoor sports courses across all regions of China are reflected in the representative, diverse sample that have selected from different regions and institutions. The study participants were from Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangdong, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang. These provinces represent the west, centre, and east of the country. This geographical distribution captures the outdoor sports teaching methods in China’s higher education system and improves the data by reflecting different institutional settings and regional development levels. All measurement scales were adapted from reputable peer-reviewed research. Each scale began with English as its main language. The survey was administered in Chinese, thereby achieving conceptual and linguistic parity through translation and back-translation. A second expert who spoke both languages back-translated the instrument into English. To ensure semantic consistency, the two English versions were compared and minor contradictions discussed. Before collecting full-scale data, 45 eligible students participated in a pilot test. Feedback was sought on wording, clarity, and comprehension. Based on their feedback, the study made minor wording modifications to clarify. The pilot test shows good internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha values exceeding 0.70 for each construct. The study measures classroom atmosphere, instructional technique, student involvement, learning outcomes, and classroom demographics using a standardized questionnaire. The questionnaire includes Likert-scale questions to collect quantitative data on participants’ views and experiences. Questions inquire about student outcomes during the learning, student engagement in the learning process, the quality of their classroom surroundings, and age, gender, education, and outdoor sports experience. Table 2 summarizes the data collection process for the study, which included participant views about outdoor sports education. Table 2. Summary of data collection procedures. Data collection method Description Online survey Participants were invited to complete a structured questionnaire administered through online survey platforms. Paper-based survey For participants without internet access, researchers distributed and collected paper-based surveys in person. Open in a new tab To improve university response coverage and accessibility, online and print surveys were used to gather data. A standard technique was developed before data collection to ensure uniform questionnaire delivery across research sites. Paper-based surveys were administered and collected in person during designated class sessions, while online questions were administered on a secure survey platform for invited participants. Data collection research assistants were trained on survey administration techniques, ethics, and respondent teaching to ensure consistency. Training emphasized regular directions, neutral communication, and no leading responses. Participants were informed of the research’s academic purpose, assured anonymity and confidentiality, and given informed consent before completing the questionnaire. Participation was entirely voluntary, and respondents were free to withdraw at any stage without penalty. Data authenticity and completeness were ensured through multiple quality control measures. Missing answers, inattentive responses (e.g., repeating responses across questions), and anomalies in online survey completion time were investigated. The final analysis excluded questionnaires with significant missing data or errors. For paper surveys, responses were double-checked before data entry to prevent transcription errors. For analysis, only fully completed questionnaires that met validity requirements were preserved. The study used statistical and procedural techniques to assess the potential for common method bias (CMB), given that it relied on self-reported data from a single entity at a single point in time. The incidence of common method bias was reduced with the use of several procedural safeguards. Respondents had less anxiety around the assessment due to assurances of anonymity and confidentiality, as well as the absence of correct or incorrect answers. The questionnaire facilitated cognitive compartmentalization of predictor and criterion data by distinguishing between the two. The use of recognized measurement scales enhanced reliability and validity, whilst the utilization of clear and concise language decreased ambiguity. Social desirability bias was minimized because the study lacked identifying information. The data collection phase was enhanced by using these measures to mitigate systematic response bias. The variables, instruments, sample questions, and some cited literature of the research framework are summarized in Table 3 . Table 3. List of variables, instruments, sample questions, and referred work. Variable Instrument/scale Sample question Referred work Intellectual development Scale of intellectual development (SID) “The outdoor sports course significantly improved my critical thinking skills.” 35 Teaching space quality Teaching and learning comfort level scale (TLCLS) “To what extent do you agree that the teaching space was conducive to learning?” 32 Teaching method effectiveness Evaluation of teaching competencies scale (ETCS) “How effective were the teaching methods in conveying important concepts?” 33 Student engagement Higher education student engagement scale (HESES) “How often did you actively participate in class discussions and activities?” 34 Learning outcomes Student engagement scale (SES) “To what extent do you feel more confident applying what you learned?” 36 Open in a new tab Construct definitions and operationalisation Intellectual development in outdoor sports education is conceptualized as the expansion of students’ higher-order cognitive abilities. It shows how formal experiential education improves analytical reasoning, reflective judgment, integrative thinking, and problem-solving. Intellectual development is domain-based cognitive advancement driven by engagement with one’s environment, deliberate study, and self-reflective physical activity in natural settings. Thus, it supports epistemological and applied cognitive development driven by education rather than permanent cognitive capacity. The extent to which students perceive the physical, environmental, and contextual elements of outdoor learning places that enable structured instruction is called “teaching space quality”. Outdoor sports education learning environments must be environmentally accurate, well-organized, and favorable to hands-on activities. This concept extends beyond aesthetics to assess how well the outdoors supports cognitive engagement and education. Teaching technique effectiveness refers to how successfully outdoor sports educators believe specific strategies work. Task alignment with learning objectives, feedback quality, experience integration, and instructional techniques that stimulate inquiry and reflection all contribute to successful teaching. Because outdoor sports education is experiential, guided inquiry and applied pedagogy are prioritized above classroom methods. Students engage in outdoor sports learning because they are emotionally, intellectually, and behaviorally involved. It shows the learner’s involvement, attentiveness, and mental absorption in learning. Process-oriented engagement captures students’ involvement throughout the learning process, rather than focusing on outcomes or evaluations. Further, this study shows students’ comprehension and use of outdoor sports education material. This operationalizes engagement-related educational measures, such as the Student Engagement Scale, to focus on post-learning competence indicators, including perceived skill improvement, confidence in applying acquired strategies, and knowledge integration across settings. Therefore, outcomes, not interaction, are the priority. To eliminate conceptual overlap, learning outcomes were statistically assessed for discriminant validity in student satisfaction. Confirmatory factor analysis indicates that the learning outcomes load onto a distinct latent construct, but the factor loadings and inter-construct correlations fall below the specified standards. This supports conceptual separation. Student satisfaction is an emotional assessment of their outdoor sports education. Students’ individual satisfaction with needs, expectations, and learning opportunities is shown. Satisfaction is an emotional evaluation of the event, unlike engagement and learning outcomes, which quantify involvement and skill. Positive emotional assessment promotes cognitive development pathways and the internalization of learning events, according to experiential learning theory, which supports its mediating role. The “Previous Outdoor Sports Experience” moderator assesses students’ prior participation in organized or unorganized outdoor sports, regardless of the curriculum. This auxiliary experience resource affects students’ cognitive engagement with outdoor challenges and perception of educational inputs. Previous experience may help students handle task complexity and contextual ambiguity, thereby improving cognitive integration. The moderation investigation confirmed that prior experiences affect the intensity of instructional element-intellectual development relationships, rather than mitigating them. The questionnaire comprised well-established measurement scales from previous research to verify content validity and conceptual consistency. On a Likert scale, higher scores indicated more agreement or effectiveness across all items. Instruments were chosen based on their validity in educational and physical education research and on their applicability to outdoor sports education. The study measured Intellectual Development using an updated version of Erwin’s Scale of Intellectual Development 32 . This scale measures higher-order cognitive outputs, including critical thinking, problem-solving, and reflective learning. A representative item includes: “The outdoor sports course significantly improved my critical thinking skills.” The instrument is widely used in educational settings and has strong psychometric properties. The study further utilized the Teaching and Learning Comfort Level Scale (TLCLS) questions by Puteh et al. 33 to assess the quality of the teaching environment. This scale measures students’ perceptions of classroom space and the learning environment. Sample questions include “ The teaching space for the outdoor sports course was conducive to learning.” This was chosen because it is valuable for analyzing learning environments, particularly those with physical activity and hands-on learning. Catano and Harvey 34 used the Evaluation of Teaching Competencies Scale (ETCS) to measure Teaching Method Effectiveness. This instrument emphasizes the pedagogical effectiveness, instructional clarity, and learning facilitation of educational techniques. A sample question is “ The teaching methods used in the course were engaging. ” The scale has been extensively validated in higher education research. The Higher Education Student Engagement Scale (HESES) proposed by Zhoc et al. 35 measured behavioral, cognitive, and emotional student engagement. The sample question is “ I actively participated in class discussions and activities. ” This scale includes engagement parameters for active learning environments. Learning Outcomes (LO) were assessed using a subset of Mazer’s Student Engagement Scale (SES) 36 items, which focused on students’ assessments of their learning progress, self-confidence in applying what they learned, and skill advancement. The sample items include “ The outdoor sports course improved my practical skills. ” In accordance with educational research norms, all scales were either used directly or extensively modified for outdoor sports teaching. The Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability, and average variance extracted tests showed that all constructs had appropriate internal consistency and convergent validity. Data processing begins with Cronbach’s Alpha, which assesses the questionnaire’s internal consistency. KMO tests are conducted to consider whether the sample size is large enough to perform a factor analysis. Descriptive statistics: it summarizes and characterizes the features of the data, including data frequencies, the standard deviation, and the mean. Factor analysis then indicates what the variables measure. A moderation-mediation study reveals the role of moderating the role of previous outdoor sports experience and the mediating role of course content and activities. Finally, the relationship between intellectual development and other independent variables is analyzed using multivariate regression. This holistic approach ensures robust data collection and analysis to provide an overview of the intellectual development of the target audience on outdoor sports courses in China. Table 4 illustrates the analysis of the data for ready reference. Table 4. Statistical techniques and their purposes in data analysis. Statistical technique Purpose Cronbach’s alpha Measure internal consistency reliability of scales KMO (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin) test Assess sampling adequacy for factor analysis Descriptive statistics Summarize the main features of the data Factor analysis Examine underlying structures of measured variables Moderation-mediation analysis Investigate the effects of moderating or mediating variables Multivariate regression Analyze the relationship between independent and dependent variables Open in a new tab The data were analyzed using moderation-mediation analysis and hierarchical regression to evaluate the proposed research model. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to assess the extent to which teaching space quality, teaching technique efficacy, student engagement, and learning outcomes affect intellectual growth. The continual inclusion of predictors made this technique stand out. It enables analysis of each variable’s distinct impact while controlling for others. In a theoretically informed block order, the regression model included variables for outcomes (LO), essential instructional elements (TSQ and TME), and behavioral aspects (SEN). The study examined how student satisfaction mediated relationships among instructional aspects, engagement, learning outcomes, and intellectual growth, and how prior outdoor sports experience moderated these relationships using a moderation-mediation approach. The investigation uses Hayes’ PROCESS macro models 4, 1, and 7. These models estimate direct, indirect, and conditional effects using bootstrapped confidence ranges. It precisely defined the dependent variable, mediators, moderators, and independent variables to develop a model that met theoretical predictions. For model fit and effect significance, bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals (5,000 resamples) were utilized. Non-zero intervals indicated substantial mediating effects. The postulated causal mechanisms are thoroughly investigated, results are strengthened, and indirect effects may be non-normal. Hierarchical regression and moderation-mediation analysis test the proposed relationships, identify the conditional effects of prior experience and student satisfaction on intellectual development, and examine the unique contributions of instructional and behavioral factors. CFA verified the measurement model’s structure. Observable items and latent variables are appropriately connected in the model. Further reliability tests, including Cronbach’s alpha and Composite Reliability (CR), indicated reliability over 0.70. Convergent validity was met when all constructs had Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values over 0.50, and discriminant validity was met when the Fornell-Larcker criterion and HTMT ratios were below 0.90. Results Table 5 presents the demographic survey results for the respondents. The gender distribution is well-balanced (55% Male and 45% Female), ensuring the research results include both genders. Table 5. Summary of demographic information. Demographic factor Category Frequency (%) Age Under 18 15.5 18–25 30.0 26–35 25.5 36–45 18.5 46 and above 10.5 Gender Male 55.0 Female 45.0 Educational background High School 20.5 Bachelor’s Degree 45.5 Master’s Degree 25.0 Doctoral Degree 9.0 Previous outdoor sports experience Yes 65.0 No 35.0 Frequency of participation in outdoor sports courses (FPOSC) Rarely 15.0 Occasionally 30.0 Regularly 40.0 Frequently 15.0 Open in a new tab The demographic profile of the students shows a large proportion of younger participants (35% are aged 18–25). Participants’ educational histories make up their credentials, i.e., 45.5% have bachelor’s degrees, 25% have master’s degrees, and 9% have doctorates. The variety of educational units in this sample allowed strengthening the study observations. 65% of the participants have played outdoor sports previously, so the study are dealing with an experienced group. The fact that 40% of outdoor sports course participants take them regularly shows that they are enthusiastic and dedicated. Table 6 shows the extent to which students who used outdoor sports as their main form of physical activity felt that their intellectual progress was affected by their classroom environment. Standard deviation data displays the distance of each study participant’s responses from the mean. Low standard deviations indicate greater agreement among participants regarding the quality of the teaching space and the effectiveness of the techniques. Table 6. Summary of teaching space quality and teaching method effectiveness. Teaching space quality Mean score (SD) Teaching method effectiveness Mean score (SD) Yunnan University 4.2 (0.6) Yunnan University 4.5 (0.4) Sichuan University 4.3 (0.5) Sichuan University 4.4 (0.5) Sun Yat-sen University 4.1 (0.7) Sun Yat-sen University 4.3 (0.6) Nanjing University 4.4 (0.4) Nanjing University 4.2 (0.6) Zhejiang University 4.5 (0.4) Zhejiang University 4.1 (0.7) Open in a new tab The mean rating is 4.2 (SD = 0.6) out of 5, which is acceptable and appropriate in the teaching area according to the participants. As is common, universities are often viewed by participants as sites of learning and intellectual development. The average score measuring the effectiveness of educational approaches in transferring important concepts is 4.4 (SD = 0.5). This implies that students believe outdoor sports class methods aid learning and thinking. Table 7 comprehensively tests the reliability, validity, and adequate sample size of the study. Table 7. Reliability, validity, and sampling adequacy analysis. Construct Items Cronbach’s alpha Composite reliability (CR) Average variance extracted (AVE) Intellectual development (ID) 5 0.92 0.93 0.70 Teaching space quality (TSQ) 5 0.88 0.9 0.64 Teaching method effectiveness (TME) 5 0.91 0.92 0.67 Student engagement (SEN) 5 0.86 0.88 0.61 Learning outcomes (LO) 5 0.84 0.87 0.59 Student satisfaction (SS) 5 0.89 0.91 0.66 Previous outdoor sports experience (POSE) 5 0.82 0.85 0.58 Overall ----- 0.85 KMO (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin) 0.87 Open in a new tab All study constructs underwent reliability and validity tests to ensure strong measurement tools. Composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s alpha assessed internal consistency. The result demonstrates that all constructs were dependable with Cronbach’s alpha and CR values above 0.70. Since all AVE values exceed 0.50, convergent validity indicates that the indicators accurately represent their respective concepts. The Cronbach’s Alpha of a survey instrument was 0.85, indicating good internal consistency. The items in the questionnaire have adequate item correlations and were well-measured. The KMO score of 0.87 indicates that the sample size is appropriate for factor analysis. This ensures that the dataset is valid and robust enough to support factor analysis in revealing hidden structures in the measured variables. Table 8 presents the outcomes of the factor analysis to understand the structure of the observed variables in the study. Factor analysis is used to identify hidden dimensions or entities by analyzing data interactions. Factor loadings indicate the orientation and strength of the association between each variable and the underlying factors. Higher factor loadings suggest that variables are more aligned with the construct(s) identified by component analysis. Table 8. Factor analysis results for key variables. Factors Loading 1 Loading 2 Loading 3 Loading 4 Loading 5 Intellectual development (ID) 0.79 0.71 0.66 0.60 0.54 Teaching space quality (TSQ) 0.85 0.72 0.64 0.58 0.51 Teaching method effectiveness (TME) 0.78 0.68 0.61 0.56 0.49 Student engagement (SEN) 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.57 Learning outcomes (LO) 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.59 0.52 Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) – model fit indices Construct χ² / df CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR Measurement model 1.85 0.94 0.92 0.061 0.045 Open in a new tab TSQ shows Teaching Space Quality; TME shows Teaching Method Effectiveness; SEN shows Student Engagement; LO shows Learning Outcomes; SS shows Student Satisfaction; POSE shows Previous Outdoor Sports Experience; and ID shows Intellectual Development. The variable TSQ shows strong factor loadings across multiple components, suggesting a complex impact on students’ cognitive maturation. The outdoor sports lessons may be influenced by classroom design on cognitive development. Good teaching techniques are important for students’ intellectual development, since TME has sizable factor loadings. The significant ways SEN is correlated with the extracted components might yield improved cognitive engagement and learning outcomes in the classroom. Additionally, LO and ID factor loadings point to their utility as study outcome variables. High factor loadings of the variables suggested that the items measure important aspects of students’ intellectual development and academic achievement in outdoor sports. The component analysis provides validation of the research model by ensuring that expected correlations exist and that hidden components are revealed that affect cognitive progress through outdoor sports education. This understanding is critical to the customization of therapies and training and highlights the practical implications of the findings. An unrotated factor solution was used to conduct an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on all measurement items simultaneously. The findings are shown in Table 9 . Table 9. Harman’s single-factor test results. Factor Eigenvalue % of variance explained Cumulative % Factor 1 7.84 38.47% 38.47% Factor 2 3.12 15.30% 53.77% Factor 3 2.41 11.82% 65.59% Factor 4 1.76 8.64% 74.23% Factor 5 1.28 6.21% 80.44% Open in a new tab The initial unrotated factor accounted for 38.47% of the overall variance, falling below the commonly recognized 50% criterion. Data indicate that common-process bias is unlikely to be a significant issue, as no single factor accounted for the majority of the variance. To investigate the potential for shared method variance, the study conducted a confirmatory factor analysis comparing the proposed multi-factor measurement model with a one-factor model, in which each item was constrained to load onto a single latent construct. Table 10 presents the results of the fit comparisons. Table 10. CFA model comparison for common method bias. Model χ²/df CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR Single-factor model 5.82 0.71 0.68 0.091 0.085 Proposed multi-factor model 2.41 0.93 0.91 0.048 0.041 Open in a new tab In comparison to the proposed multi-factor model, which demonstrates much better fit (CFI and TLI values over 0.90 and RMSEA < 0.05), the single-factor model shows inadequate fit across all indices. The association among the constructs is not attributable to a singular shared latent factor, as shown by the significant deterioration in fit of the single-factor model. In conclusion, the findings appear unaffected by prevalent methodological bias. Discriminant validity was assessed using Fornell-Larcker criteria and the HTMT ratio (see, Table 11 ). All HTMT values were below 0.85 and that each construct’s square root of AVE exceeded its inter-construct correlations. The data clearly support discriminant validity. Table 11. Fornell–Larcker criterion and HTMT matrix. Construct TSQ TME SE LO SS ID POSE TSQ 0.82 TME 0.54 0.85 SE 0.49 0.57 0.81 LO 0.46 0.52 0.60 0.83 SS 0.58 0.63 0.55 0.59 0.86 ID 0.50 0.56 0.53 0.61 0.65 0.84 POSE 0.32 0.29 0.34 0.30 0.27 0.31 0.79 HTMT matrix TSQ — TME 0.63 — SE 0.58 0.67 — LO 0.54 0.61 0.72 — SS 0.69 0.74 0.66 0.71 — ID 0.62 0.68 0.65 0.73 0.78 — POSE 0.38 0.35 0.41 0.37 0.33 0.39 — Open in a new tab TSQ shows Teaching Space Quality; TME shows Teaching Method Effectiveness; SEN shows Student Engagement; LO shows Learning Outcomes; SS shows Student Satisfaction; POSE shows Previous Outdoor Sports Experience; and ID shows Intellectual Development. The moderate relationship between intellectual growth in outdoor sports education, learning environment, and instructional methods based on student satisfaction as a mediator is demonstrated in Table 12 . The relationship between Intellectual Development and Teaching Space Quality (β = -0.21, p = 0.003) and Teaching Method Effectiveness (β = -0.25, p = 0.002) is highly influenced by Previous Outdoor Sports Experience. According to the negative interaction coefficients, high-quality instruction benefits students’ intellectual development more for those with less outdoor learning experience and vice versa. Previous outdoor sports experience significantly moderates the relationship between Teaching Method efficiency and Student Satisfaction (β = -0.18, p = 0.003), thereby affecting students’ perceptions of instructional efficiency. A teaching method may have a different effect on the student’s progress in intellectual aspects depending on their experience of outdoor sports. These results prove that one should account for the characteristics of students and their living conditions when building outdoor sports education programs in order to maximize learning. Some believe that student’s outdoor experiences breed their classroom ideals, viewpoints, and behavior 37 – 39 . Bandura’s social cognitive theory focuses on the role of past knowledge in the process of learning. The large moderating effect in this study gives rise to Bandura’s view that the background of students in outdoor sports may modify consideration of their engagement to instructional tactics and cognitive development. Barker et al. 40 and Arblaster et al. 41 have emphasized the importance of accounting for people’s backgrounds and experience in educational interventions and support our findings. Table 12. Results of moderation-mediation analysis. Hypothesis path Structural path tested Effect (β) SE t-value p -value 95% CI H3a Teaching space quality → Student satisfaction → Intellectual development 0.24 (Indirect effect) 0.06 — < 0.001 [0.12, 0.36] H3a Teaching method effectiveness → Student satisfaction → intellectual development 0.27 (Indirect effect) 0.07 — < 0.001 [0.13, 0.41] H3b Student engagement → Student satisfaction → Intellectual development 0.19 (Indirect effect) 0.05 — 0.002 [0.08, 0.30] H3b Learning outcomes → Student satisfaction → Intellectual development 0.16 (Indirect effect) 0.05 — 0.004 [0.06, 0.26] Indirect effect (mediation) Student satisfaction (a × b) 0.30 0.07 — < 0.001 [0.16, 0.44] H4a Teaching space quality × Previous outdoor experience → Intellectual development -0.21 (Interaction) 0.07 -3 0.003 [-0.35, -0.07] H4a Teaching method effectiveness × Previous outdoor Experience → Intellectual development -0.25 (Interaction) 0.08 -3.12 0.002 [-0.41, -0.09] H4b Teaching method effectiveness × Previous outdoor experience → Student satisfaction -0.18 (Interaction) 0.06 -3 0.003 [-0.30, -0.06] Interaction effect (moderation) Previous outdoor sports experience × Teaching method effectiveness → Intellectual development -0.25 0.08 -3.12 0.002 [-0.41, -0.09] Open in a new tab Student Satisfaction mediated the associations between Teaching Space Quality and Intellectual Development (β = 0.24, 95% CI [0.12, 0.36]) and between Teaching Method Effectiveness and Intellectual Development (β = 0.27, 95% CI [0.13, 0.41]). Student Satisfaction had a strong indirect influence on Student Engagement (β = 0.19, 95% CI [0.08, 0.30]) and Learning Outcomes (β = 0.16, 95% CI [0.06, 0.26]). Bootstrapping confidence intervals that never contain zero shows large mediating effects. Student satisfaction (a × b) has a significant indirect effect on learning qualities that promote intellectual progress (β = 0.30, 95% CI [0.16, 0.44]), indicating that satisfaction is a key transmission route. Table 13 presents the results of the first hierarchical regression model, which tests the effects of age, gender, education level, and prior outdoor experience on intellectual progress in outdoor sports training. The research demonstrates that demographic variables account for most of the variance of intellectual development (R 2 = 0.20). Gender has been found to slightly positively connect with intellectual growth (β = 0.08, p = 0.086); on the other hand, age, education, and experience of prior outdoor activities all demonstrate substantial positive correlations (β = 0.12, p = 0.018, β = 0.15, p = 0.005, β = 0.10, p = 0.043. These findings are supported by educational psychology and development theory. Table 13. Hierarchical regression analysis. Model Variables β t-value p -value R2 ∆R2 1 Demographic variables 0.20 – Age 0.12 2.45 0.018 Gender 0.08 1.75 0.086 Educational background 0.15 3.20 0.005 Previous outdoor experience 0.10 2.05 0.043 2 Independent variables 0.40 0.20 Teaching space quality 0.25 4.80 < 0.001 Teaching method effectiveness 0.30 5.50 < 0.001 Student engagement 0.15 4.38 < 0.001 Learning outcomes 0.20 4.57 < 0.001 Open in a new tab Model 2 of hierarchical regression analysis examines the capacity of independent factors for introducing intellectual progress in outdoor sports training. The positive correlation between teaching space quality and intellectual growth (β = 0.25, p < 0.001) suggests that the teaching environment significantly affects students’ cognitive growth and academic achievement. Outdoor sports education may enhance intellectual development by engaging and encouraging students. Appropriate teaching methods favorably influence intellectual development (β = 0.30, p < 0.001), underscoring the importance of effective teaching strategies for learning and cognitive development. Bandura’s social cognitive theory explains these findings by positing that observational learning, self-efficacy, and instructional feedback modify cognitive processes. Significantly, student engagement is a predictor of intellectual progress, underscoring the importance of active involvement as a factor in cognitive maturation. The relationship between learning and cognitive growth is bidirectional, as learning outcomes positively impact intellectual development (β = 0.15, p < 0.001). Acquired knowledge and skills in school help improve IQ and cognitive abilities. The findings support experiential learning and constructivist frameworks’ predictions that instructional tactics, learning environment, and student engagement greatly affect experiential students’ cognitive development. The moderation-mediation research found that student satisfaction mediated the relationship between engagement and intellectual growth and that previous outdoor sports experience moderated instructional factors, engagement, and learning outcomes. Similar experiences promote motivation, self-efficacy, and the ability to transform involvement into significant cognitive gains, supporting social cognitive theory. Another priority is helping students to see how their learning benefits their intellectual growth. The sample included students of various ages, genders, education levels, outdoor activity experiences, and outdoor course participation. Despite their flexibility, younger students may require more scaffolding to achieve the same learning objectives as older students, who tend to be more reflective and support cognitive development. Master’s and PhD students were more analytical than undergraduates and high school graduates, who benefited more from supervised, step-by-step practical learning. Prior outdoor sports experience enhanced students’ ability to actively engage and gain cognitive benefits. Given these differences, teaching methods must be flexible, helping less experienced students and challenging more experienced ones. The research has practical implications for teaching sports in natural settings. Teachers should promote friendly classrooms, increase student engagement, and encourage critical thinking and active participation. Understanding student variety may help adapt instruction so that all students, regardless of age, experience, or education, can develop intellectually via outdoor experiential learning. The study shows that well-structured environments, practical instruction, and student diversity may maximize the cognitive and developmental benefits of outdoor sports education. Discussion The results indicate a positive relationship among instructional components, learning processes, student satisfaction, and cognitive development. Student satisfaction is a crucial factor in elucidating the link among intellectual development, instructional quality, and learning processes, given the significant indirect effects. The findings of the moderation analysis indicate that students’ prior engagement in outdoor activities influences the strength of these associations, suggesting the presence of boundary conditions within the structural connections. The quality of the classroom influences student satisfaction, which, in turn, affects their intellectual advancement. It is intelligent growth that occurs in supportive classrooms with more engaged and effective students. Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation is used to support the idea that the pleasure students get from learning mediates between the quality of the class and the cognitive advancement of the learner 42 , 43 . This theory is based on the impact of environmental factors such as the quality of the instructional space on intrinsic motivation and general pleasure in educational environments. The study’s mediation effect emphasizes the application of positive learning environments to promote happiness and intellectual advancement among students. Other research has demonstrated that the environment impacts students’ educational experiences and outcomes 44 , 45 . According to the biopsychosocial theory, people’s interactions with the social and environmental environments influence their cognitive development throughout their lives 46 . This theory, strengthened by positive correlations among age, educational background, past outdoor experiences, and cognitive development, holds that environmental experiences and interactions shape development. Educational background is positively related to intellectual development, and research has shown that educational attainment affects cognitive capabilities and academic achievement 47 . Education enhances cognitive abilities, knowledge, and critical thinking in the classroom. The positive relationship between gender and intellectual growth supports gender socialization theories, which hold that societal norms and expectations influence cognitive development and academic achievement 48 . Ecological systems theory demonstrates that the growth and development of people are influenced by their environments 49 . Effective teaching methods increase self-confidence, competence, and subject mastery among outdoor sports students, leading to intellectual progress 50 . Self-determination theory states that people engage in activities that satisfy their psychological needs for relatedness, competence, and autonomy 51 . Active learning and a feeling of control, competence, and belonging in the classroom guide to increased intellectual progress. This outcome aligns with theories of cognitive development, such as Piaget’s 52 , which emphasize the dynamic relationship between learning experiences and intellectual development. Since learning is a continuous process, academic achievement is seen as a result of intellectual progress rather than a pathway to a destination. Bandura’s social cognitive theory states that characteristic experience influences distinctive present ideas, behaviors, and knowledge. This concept holds that past outdoor experience and unique talents, knowledge, and opinions may influence people’s responses to environmental stimuli and educational initiatives 53 . According to the significant interaction term, students’ prior outdoor experience may modify the impact that teaching space quality, the effectiveness of techniques, student engagement, and learning outcomes have on intellectual development. The moderating effect favors ecological systems theory, which focuses on human attributes and life events in educational outcomes 54 . The interaction effect of past outdoor experience and independent factors in outdoor sports education highlights the dynamic relationship between individual qualities and situational conditions in the intellectual development process. Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation claims that the quality of the teaching space and the effectiveness of teaching methods influence students’ intrinsic motivation and overall satisfaction in learning settings 55 . A friendly classroom with encouraging teachers, engaging education, and relevant learning experiences enhances students’ emotional well-being and intellectual development. Additionally, socioemotional theories of learning posit that student satisfaction mediates the relationship between educational outcomes and affective factors 56 . Positive emotional experiences, such as pleasure and satisfaction, enhance learning outcomes and intellectual development by increasing motivation, participation, and mental processing 57 . These findings contribute to the current understanding by clarifying the role of prior experience as a contextual moderator and satisfaction as a mediating variable. Conclusions and policy recommendations The study revealed the dynamic mechanism underlying the effect of outdoor sports education on intellectual development. The finding points to the need for a supportive learning environment, effective teaching methods, student engagement, and quantifiable learning outcomes for supporting intellectual growth. A strong learning environment, practical education, active student participation, and positive learning outcomes are needed to improve the intellectual development progress of outdoor sports students in cognitive and academic areas. The study also demonstrated the effects of past outdoor exposure and student satisfaction, and how they moderate the effects of these factors on intellectual advancement. These results may help educators and policymakers increase students’ access to and success in outdoor sports education. It highlights the value of creating appropriate learning contexts in outdoor sports education, which well-resourced, safe, and flexible classrooms can provide. Professional development programs can play an important role in enhancing teachers’ skills. Moreover, policies that encourage outdoor sports among students may use a collaborative learning atmosphere. Regular tracking and assessment of student progress can help ensure that educational interventions are aligned with academic objectives. While the study has its limitations, it has also produced some significant results. The study is cross-sectional, indicating it cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships. Additionally, most sample participants are Chinese, which may limit the generalizability of the results to other cultures. Furthermore, the study focused on a specific aspect of the outdoor sports education subject so that future researchers can investigate other types of outdoor learning experience and their effects on intellectual development. Based on this research finding, cross-sequential research can investigate the impacts of outdoor sports education on intellectual development over the period, in terms of the effectiveness of teaching methods, student involvement, learning outcomes, and the teaching environment. Such a study might also be used to explain cross-cultural studies of educational practices and cognitive development. Qualitative research methods, such as focus groups and interviews, may help uncover students’ and instructors’ individual perspectives and experiences in outdoor sports education programs. Creative teaching methods, technology, and interdisciplinary work may also help develop outdoor sports education. Acknowledgements This research was supported by the Guangdong Provincial Philosophy and Social Science Planning Special Group (GD24YTY07). Author contributions Fei Tan (F.T.) was primarily responsible for the conceptualization of the study, methodology development, data collection, statistical analysis, and preparation of the original draft of the manuscript. Guibing You (G.Y.) supervised the overall project, provided methodological and editorial guidance, administered the research activities, and served as the corresponding author. Yuanchang Li (Y.L.) contributed to the data validation, statistical modeling, and visualization of results, as well as reviewing and editing the manuscript. Jie Gao (J.G.) assisted in the design of the questionnaire, conducted the literature review, supported data organization, and contributed to the manuscript revision process. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript for submission. Data availability Data will be made available upon request to the corresponding author. Declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Ethics declaration This study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Fujian Normal University Research Ethical Committee (FNUREC) (Reference Code: FNUREC-08052303). The research was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its subsequent amendments or comparable ethical standards. As the study involved an anonymous survey design and did not collect any personally identifiable information, the Fujian Normal University Research Ethical Committee (FNUREC) approved a waiver of written (signed) informed consent documentation due to the minimal-risk nature of the research. 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