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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice BMC Psychol . 2026 Mar 4;14:520. doi: 10.1186/s40359-026-04277-z Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Negative life events and problematic Internet use among Chinese junior high school students: a mediation model Yaqi Lei Yaqi Lei 1 School of Politics and Public Administration, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China Find articles by Yaqi Lei 1, # , Yuxiao Chen Yuxiao Chen 1 School of Politics and Public Administration, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China 2 Research Center for Contemporary Capitalism, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China Find articles by Yuxiao Chen 1, 2, # , Haiyang Feng Haiyang Feng 3 College of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, 100 Kexue Road, Gaoxin district, Zhengzhou, 450001 China Find articles by Haiyang Feng 3 , Yuxuan Shi Yuxuan Shi 4 Wuhan Foreign Languages School, Wuhan, China Find articles by Yuxuan Shi 4 , Qiurui Yu Qiurui Yu 3 College of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, 100 Kexue Road, Gaoxin district, Zhengzhou, 450001 China Find articles by Qiurui Yu 3 , Clifford Silver Tarimo Clifford Silver Tarimo 3 College of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, 100 Kexue Road, Gaoxin district, Zhengzhou, 450001 China Find articles by Clifford Silver Tarimo 3 , Yinmei Yang Yinmei Yang 3 College of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, 100 Kexue Road, Gaoxin district, Zhengzhou, 450001 China Find articles by Yinmei Yang 3, ✉ Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 School of Politics and Public Administration, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China 2 Research Center for Contemporary Capitalism, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China 3 College of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, 100 Kexue Road, Gaoxin district, Zhengzhou, 450001 China 4 Wuhan Foreign Languages School, Wuhan, China ✉ Corresponding author. # Contributed equally. Received 2025 Oct 28; Accepted 2026 Feb 26; Collection date 2026. © The Author(s) 2026 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ . PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC13077814 PMID: 41782013 Abstract Background Although negative life events have been recognized as a risk factor for Problematic Internet use (PIU), the mechanisms explaining this link remain underexplored. Therefore, this study investigated the association between negative life events and PIU, as well as the underlying mediators. Methods We recruited 8176 (M age = 14.42 years, SD = 0.94) junior high school students using stratified random cluster sampling from Henan Province, China, in 2023. We tested a mediation model that included the negative life events (predictor variable), parent-child cohesion and school connectedness (mediators), and PIU (outcome variable) simultaneously. Results The detection rate of PIU was 19.37%. Negative life events were positively related to PIU among junior high school students (β = 0.385, p < 0.001). Parent-child cohesion (β = 0.036, 95%CI: 0.030 ~ 0.044) and school connectedness (β = 0.051, 95%CI: 0.042 ~ 0.059) mediated the relationship between negative life events and PIU. Moreover, the sequential mediating effect was observed for parent-child cohesion to school connectedness (β = 0.015, 95%CI: 0.012 ~ 0.017). Conclusions Interventions designed to strengthen parent-child cohesion and enhance school connectedness may help mitigate the adverse impact of negative life events on PIU. Keywords: Problematic Internet use, Negative life events , Parent-child cohesion, School connectedness, Junior high school students Introduction By the end of 2022, China had 193 million Internet users aged 6 to 18, with 88.7% of them using the Internet for studying [ 1 ]. While the Internet offers opportunities for self-directed learning [ 2 ], social participation [ 3 ], and stress release [ 4 ], it simultaneously presents challenges linked to potential Internet addiction [ 5 ]. Problematic Internet use (PIU), also known as Internet addiction, characterized by recurrent and excessive internet use leading to mental and behavioral disorders [ 6 ], has emerged as a major concern among Chinese adolescents, affecting approximately 24.9% of this group [ 7 ]. Previous studies have indicated that PIU harms adolescents’ mental health, interpersonal relationships, and physiological function [ 8 – 10 ], often resulting in problematic behaviors including academic difficulties and sleep disturbances [ 11 , 12 ]. Therefore, exploring the influencing factors and underlying mechanisms of PIU remains crucial. Extensive studies have explored potential risk and protective factors for PIU, including personality traits [ 13 ], family contexts [ 14 ], school contexts [ 15 ] and negative life events [ 16 ]. Yet, the combined influence of these multi-level factors remains largely unexplored. Grounded in the social-ecological theory [ 17 ], adolescent behavior is shaped by interactions across multiple nested systems. Therefore, this study examined the mediating roles of parent-child cohesion and school connectedness in the relationship between negative life events and adolescent PIU. The association between negative life events and PIU The Internet compensation theory offers a valuable framework for understanding the link between negative life events and adolescent PIU, which proposes that individuals seek out the Internet to mitigate negative emotions [ 18 ]. Negative life events are defined as various challenges that individuals encounter in their lives, which can give rise to psychological and behavioral issues [ 19 , 20 ]. Song and colleagues [ 21 ] pointed out that negative life events (e.g., family conflict, poor academic performance, and peer rejection) act as stressors that undermine adolescents’ psychological well-being, ultimately diminishing their sense of psychological satisfaction. Adolescents may resort to excessive Internet use as a coping way to alleviate negative emotions, while simultaneously striving to satisfy fundamental psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness [ 22 ]. Empirical studies consistently reveal a positive association between negative life events and PIU [ 16 , 23 , 24 ]. For instance, Li and colleagues [ 23 ] provided cross-sectional evidence linking stressful life events to an increased risk of adolescent PIU. Moreover, Wang and colleagues suggested that adolescents who experience such adversities often extend their online time as a means of escaping real-life setbacks [ 24 ]. Despite this well-documented direct effect, not all exposed individuals develop problematic usage [ 25 , 26 ]. A small body of evidence supports that various family and school factors protect individuals from the psychological disruptions caused by negative life events. The mediating role of parent-child cohesion Parent-child cohesion has emerged as a crucial protective factor against adolescent addictive behaviors [ 27 ], characterized by an intimate connection, positive interactions, and a shared sense of closeness between parents and children [ 28 ]. However, negative life events have the potential to erode parent-child cohesion, as various adverse stimuli (e.g., misunderstandings, blame, verbal abuse, and conflicts) weaken the emotional bond among family members [ 29 ]. Additionally, Jiang and colleagues [ 30 ] pointed out that child maltreatment was associated with diminished parent-child relationship quality. Furthermore, the cumulative effect of recurring negative life events inhibits the development of strong parent-child cohesion, leaving adolescents’ basic psychological needs unmet. To compensate for this deficit, adolescents may engage in excessive Internet use, which increases their risk of PIU. Empirical studies support the hypothesis that strong parent-child cohesion acts as a buffer against escalating PIU [ 31 , 32 ]. For instance, Wang and colleagues [ 31 ] demonstrated that positive parent-child relationships play a significant protective role against adolescent PIU. Conversely, frequent parent-child conflicts have been shown to elevate the risk [ 33 ]. These findings aforementioned align with attachment theory [ 34 ], which emphasizes that a secure, warm, and stable family environment satisfies adolescents’ psychological needs, thereby reducing their propensity for PIU. Some studies found that parent-child cohesion as a mediator between negative life events and adolescent development [ 35 , 36 ]. Hong and colleagues [ 36 ] suggested that the parent-child relationship mediated the association between parents’ phubbing and problematic behaviors among secondary students in China. Therefore, we hypothesize that parent-child cohesion mediates the relationship between negative life events and PIU. The mediating role of school connectedness School, in addition to family, constitutes the most influential microsystem shaping adolescent development [ 37 ]. School connectedness, defined as students’ sense of belonging to school and their perception of receiving support, respect, and acceptance from teachers and peers [ 38 ]. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies have consistently demonstrated that negative life events erode school connectedness [ 39 , 40 ]. A survey suggested that students with poor academic performance tend to disengage from school, reporting increased fatigue and cynicism [ 41 ]. Similarly, adverse childhood experiences are associated with heightened sensations of school detachment in adolescents [ 39 ], consequently fostering the development of PIU. A substantial body of evidence links low school connectedness to higher levels of PIU. For instance, researchers demonstrated that adolescents with high levels of school satisfaction are less inclined to develop Internet gaming addiction [ 42 ]. Furthermore, Peng and colleagues [ 15 ] found that Chinese adolescents who feel disconnected from school may turn to the Internet as an alternative outlet, making them more prone to PIU. Some studies indicated that school connectedness appeared to mediate the relationship between negative life events and adolescent development [ 43 , 44 ]. Liu and colleagues [ 43 ] found that school connectedness mediated the association between inter-parental conflict and adolescent problematic behaviors. Hence, we hypothesize that school connectedness serves as a mediator in the pathway from negative life events to PIU. From the perspective of “School-Family” cooperative education, coordination between family and school significantly impacts adolescent development [ 45 ]. Within the socio-ecological framework, however, the family constitutes the most immediate and foundational microsystem, shaping adolescents’ emotional security, coping styles, and interpersonal expectations. A stable and nurturing family environment fosters adolescents’ internal well-being and emotional resources [ 46 ], which subsequently extend to their social interactions and engagement in broader contexts, including school. Parental support serves as a crucial emotional buffer in the face of stress, enabling adolescents to maintain adaptive functioning and actively involvement in school life [ 47 ]. Conversely, when negative life events undermine parent-child cohesion, adolescents may experience diminished emotional reserves and perceived support, which can spill over into the school context and hinder the development of school connectedness. Thus, disruptions in family relationships may precede and contribute to difficulties in forming school bonds, thereby constraining adolescents’ access to psychological support from both systems. Consistent with this view, Zhu and colleagues [ 48 ] found that school connectedness mediates the association between parent-child relationships and Internet game addiction. Accordingly, we hypothesize that negative life events influence PIU through a sequential mediating process involving parent-child cohesion followed by school connectedness. The present study Extant literature lacks integrated models that analyze how family and school factors interact to influence PIU following exposure to negative life events. Such a multi-level approach is crucial for uncovering the complex interplay of risks and protections. Grounded on existing evidence and theories, the hypothesized model is shown in Fig. 1 . The present study aims to (1) examine the relationship between negative life events and PIU, (2) investigate the mediators of parent-child cohesion and school connectedness in the association between negative life events and PIU, and (3) explore the sequential mediating role of parent-child cohesion and school connectedness in the relationship between negative life events and adolescent PIU. Fig. 1. Open in a new tab The hypothesized model Methods Participants The following formula is used to calculate the sample size. α = 0.05, =1.96, , P is expected detection rate. Based on a previous study, the detection rate of PIU among Chinese adolescents was 24.9% [ 7 ]. The formulae yielded an initial sample size of 1159 students. Taking selection bias of cluster sampling into account, the final sample size was adjusted to 1739 students as follows. Final sample size (n)= 1159*1.5=1739 students. A cross-sectional study was conducted among junior high school students in Zhengzhou (the provincial capital in Central Henan) and Shangqiu (a prefecture-level city in eastern Henan) cities, China, between April and May, 2023. Three junior high schools were randomly selected from each city. At each school site, 8–10 classes were randomly sampled from grades 7 to 9. All students in the selected classes were invited to complete self-administered questionnaires during regular class hours. A total of 8,264 questionnaires were collected. Participants with missing information on key variables ( n = 88) were excluded, and 8,176 respondents were eligible for final analysis, yielding a response rate of 98.9%. The mean age was 14.42 (SD = 0.94), and 4345 (53.14%) were males. 2486 students (30.41%) came from rural areas, and 5690 students (69.59%) were from urban areas. The proportion of students from grade 7 to grade 9 was 37.32%, 35.78%, and 26.91% respectively. Measures Negative life events Negative life events were measured by the 27-item Adolescent Self-Rating Life Events Check-list [ 19 ], which centers on stressors occurring within family and school environments. Sample items included “I had argued with my classmates” and “I failed in the examination”. Items were evaluated using a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (did not occur or had no effect) to 5 (extremely severe effect). Higher scores on this scale indicate greater stress related to negative life events. In the current study, this scale demonstrated good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.91). Problematic internet use PIU was assessed by the 20-item Internet Addiction Test (e.g., How often do you try to hide how long you’ve been on-line? ) [ 49 ]. Items were assessed by a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). Higher scores indicate greater levels of PIU. Scores over 49 indicate PIU [ 50 ], PIU was treated as categorical only to describe the detection rate. In the current study, this scale demonstrated good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.91). Parent-child cohesion Parent-child cohesion was measured by the 10-item Parent-Adolescent Cohesion Questionnaire [ 28 ], including maternal-child cohesion and paternal-child cohesion (e.g., my mother [father] and I are supportive of each other during difficult times). Items were assessed by a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). Higher scores represent better parent-child cohesion. In the current study, this scale demonstrated good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.87). School connectedness Based on previous studies [ 51 , 52 ], school connectedness was assessed by 10 items to measure 3 subscales, including teacher support (e.g., I dislike teachers at this school), school belonging (e.g., I feel safe and happy in my school), and classmate support (e.g., My classmates can help me) [ 53 ]. This scale has been validated in Chinese senior high school students [ 54 ]. Each item was evaluated by a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). Higher scores indicate high levels of student connection to the school. In the present study, this scale demonstrated good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.85). Control variables Control variables including sex (male, female), residence (rural, urban), and grade (7, 8, 9) were collected. Statistical analysis The categorical variables were expressed as percentages, while continuous variables were presented as means and standard deviations. Pearson correlations among the key study variables were conducted. After all variables were standardized, we tested the mediation effect based on SPSS Macro PROCESS, and all analyses adjusted for potential confounders including sex, living area, and grade [ 55 ]. The bias-corrected bootstrap method (5000 iterations) was employed to investigate indirect effects and calculate the corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI). Indirect effects were considered significant if the 95% CI did not include the value 0 [ 56 ]. Results Descriptive statistics and correlation analyses The proportion of participants that scored above the recommended cut-off of PIU was 19.37% (1584/8176). As shown in Table 1 , PIU exhibited negative associations with parent-child cohesion and school connectedness, whereas it displayed a positive correlation with negative life events. Negative life events were negatively related to parent-child cohesion and school connectedness, while school connectedness was positively associated with parent-child cohesion. Table 1. Pearson correlation matrix of the study variables ( n = 8176) Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 1.Negative life events 41.83 13.83 1 2.Problematic Internet use 38.89 13.64 0.487 *** 1 3.Parent-child cohesion 35.36 8.55 -0.305 *** -0.300 *** 1 4.School connectedness 37.01 7.19 -0.405 *** -0.368 *** 0.394 *** 1 Open in a new tab M Mean, SD Standard deviation, *** p < 0.001 Mediation model After adjusting for sex, living areas, and grade, negative life events were positively related to PIU (β = 0.385, p < 0.001), negative life events were negatively related to parent-child cohesion (β=-0.305, p < 0.001), and school connectedness (β=-0.314, p < 0.001). Parent-child cohesion was positively related to school connectedness (β = 0.298, p < 0.001), while parent-child cohesion (β=-0.119, p < 0.001) and school connectedness (β=-0.163, p < 0.001) were negatively related to PIU (See Fig. 2 ). Compared to urban adolescents, participants living in rural areas were more likely to report PIU (β = 0.030, p = 0.001). Adolescents in Grade 8 or 9 reported higher levels of PIU than those in Grade 7 (β = 0.056, p < 0.001; β = 0.044, p < 0.001). No sex difference was observed (β = 0.014, p = 0.131). Fig. 2. Open in a new tab The effects of negative life events on Problematic Internet use via parent-child cohesion and school connectedness. To simplify the model, the coefficients of the control variables were omitted. *** p < 0.001 As shown in Table 2 , negative life events were related to PIU through 3 different pathways: the mediating role of parent-child cohesion (β = 0.036, 95%CI: 0.030 ~ 0.044), the mediating role of school connectedness (β = 0.051, 95%CI: 0.042 ~ 0.059), and the chain mediating role of both parent-child cohesion and school connectedness (β = 0.015, 95%CI: 0.012 ~ 0.017). The total effect and indirect effect were 0.487 and 0.102 respectively, with indirect effect accounting for 20.9% (0.102/0.487). Table 2. The mediation model Total mediation effect Estimate Bootstrap SE Bootstrap 95% CI 0.102 0.005 0.093, 0.113 Parent-child cohesion 0.036 0.004 0.030, 0.044 School connectedness 0.051 0.004 0.042, 0.059 Parent-child cohesion → School connectedness 0.015 0.001 0.012, 0.017 Open in a new tab SE Standard error, CI Confidence interval Discussion Given the significant harm of PIU to adolescents [ 57 ], identifying its risk and protective factors is imperative. Although current research has established an association between negative life events and PIU [ 24 ], the critical mediating mechanisms within this relationship remain poorly understood. To address this gap, the present study constructed a comprehensive model to elucidate these underlying processes among junior high school students. Our findings indicate that negative life events are positively associated with higher levels of PIU. Moreover, this relationship was significantly mediated by both parent-child cohesion and school connectedness. Meanwhile, parent-child cohesion was positively related to school connectedness, representing a sequential mediation mechanism. Consistent with previous studies [ 16 ], this study confirms a positive association between negative life events and PIU among adolescents. The inherent characteristics of the Internet—its anonymity, virtuality, and entertaining nature—make it an attractive venue for expressing or escaping from negative emotions, thereby facilitating emotional compensation and social connection [ 58 ]. When adolescents excessively resort to the Internet for emotional compensation and social support, they are more likely to develop PIU. These findings underscore the critical need for parents, educators, and other mental health professionals to be vigilant and provide targeted support for adolescents experiencing negative life events. This study further extended previous literature by illustrating that parent-child cohesion and school connectedness mediated the relationship between negative life events and PIU, aligning with attachment theory [ 34 , 59 ]. Negative life events disrupt adolescents’ foundational relationships within families and schools, increasing the risk of parent-child detachment and school alienation [ 30 , 39 ]. During adolescence, a period marked by intense psychophysical readjustment, sensitivity to such disruptions is amplified [ 60 ]. Families and schools function as essential providers of emotional belonging and social support [ 61 ]; consequently, diminished relationship quality within these domains reduces accessible warmth and validation, prompting adolescents to use the Internet in ways that may develop into PIU. Furthermore, perceptions of low parent-child cohesion and school connectedness may foster nonconformity, elevating addiction risk [ 31 , 62 ]. Previous evidence has suggested that parent-child cohesion, characterized by satisfactory living conditions, conforming to norms, and positive relationships with caregivers, teachers, and peers, as well as strong school connectedness, protect against adolescent PIU [ 48 , 63 ]. Notably, we identified a significant association between parent-child cohesion and school connectedness, which can be interpreted within the “School-Family” cooperative education framework [ 45 ] and the broader socio-ecological perspective. High-quality parent-child relationships cultivate emotional warmth, trust, and open communication [ 46 ], endowing adolescents with essential psychological resources such as emotional security, self-worth, and adaptive coping capacities. These internalized resources facilitate adolescents’ engagement with teachers, peers, and school activities, thereby strengthening their sense of belonging and connectedness within the school context [ 64 , 65 ]. In contrast, weakened parent-child cohesion may deplete adolescents’ emotional resources and undermine their capacity to establish and maintain positive school relationships. Accordingly, secure parental attachment is likely to indirectly support school connectedness and engagement, which in turn may reduce adolescents’ vulnerability to PIU. Importantly, by empirically demonstrating this sequential mediation pathway from parent-child cohesion to school connectedness, the present study contributes to the literature by elucidating a developmentally grounded mechanism linking negative life events, family relationships, school adjustment, and PIU risk. These insights carry significant practical implications, advocating for multi-faceted interventions rather than isolated approaches. Future prevention efforts should not only target reducing adolescents’ exposure to negative life events, but also focus on strengthening parent-child cohesion and school connectedness, even in the face of adverse circumstances. For example, parents can establish structured daily routines for their children and engage in brief yet consistent emotional check-ins to maintain supportive relationships; educators can implement peer mentoring programs and structured social activities (i.e., group projects, extracurricular clubs) to foster a positive school climate; and coordinated family-school initiatives, such as joint workshops focusing on problem-solving and stress management, can equip adolescents with coping skills. These collaborative efforts can help reinforce protective networks around adolescents, enabling them to navigate challenges more effectively despite ongoing difficulties. Conclusions Our findings confirm that adolescent PIU occurs within complex contextual relationships, including negative life events, parent-child cohesion, and school connectedness. Higher levels of both parent-child cohesion and school connectedness serve as significant protective factors, directly reducing the risk of addiction. In particular, parent-child cohesion positively influences school connectedness, highlighting a sequential mediation mechanism. These results underscore the urgent necessity for targeted preventive policies and programs within families and schools that strengthen parent-child relationships and school engagement, helping buffer adolescents against the mental health consequences of adversity. Limitations Several limitations in this study should be noted. Firstly, its cross-sectional design precludes the determination of causal relationships among the variables. Future studies should consider designing longitudinal or experimental studies to establish causality. Secondly, the current study recruited participants only from junior high schools in two cities within one province, which may compromise the generalizability of our findings. Given the variations in PIU prevalence and educational contexts across different regions, extrapolating these results to broader populations requires caution. Future studies should seek to diversify the participant pool and gather data from multiple provinces. Authors’ contributions Yinmei Yang: Conceptualization, Data curation, Writing - Original draft, Writing - review & editing, Funding acquisition. Yaqi Lei: Writing - Original draft, Writing - review & editing. Yuxiao Chen: Writing - review & editing, Methodology, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition. Clifford Silver Tarimo: Writing - review & editing. Haiyang Feng: Investigation, Writing - review & editing. Yuxuan Shi: Investigation, Writing - review & editing. Qiurui Yu: Investigation, Writing - review & editing. Funding This study was funded by National Social Science Fund of China (25CSH070), the Humanities and Social Science Youth Foundation, Ministry of Education, China (24YJCZH385, 23YJC790010), the Humanities and Social Science Research in Henan Province (2024CJY081), the Soft Science Research Program Project in Henan Province (252400410582), the Social Science Federation in Henan Province (SKL-2025-286), and the Undergraduate Innovation Training Project of Zhengzhou University (202510459066). Data availability Data and material are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Institutional Review Board of Zhengzhou University approved the study procedure (ZZUIRB2023-218). All procedures conducted in this work involving human participants adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from all participants and their legal guardians. Prior to data collection, guardians received a comprehensive study information sheet detailing the research objectives, procedures, potential risks and benefits, and confidentiality assurances. They were required to return a signed consent form to indicate their permission for their child’s participation. On the day of the survey, students were briefed on the study’s purpose, their right to withdraw at any time, and the voluntary nature of their involvement. Written assent was obtained from each student prior to questionnaire completion. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Footnotes Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Yaqi Lei and Yuxiao Chen were the joint first authors, who contributed equally to the manuscript. References 1. 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