Fault-Tolerant Offloading Framework for Real-Time Applications in Mobile Edge Computing

Fault-Tolerant Offloading Framework for Real-Time Applications in Mobile Edge Computing Chuanchao Gao1,2 , Yiyang Gao1 , Michael Yuhas1,2 Arvind Easwaran1,2 1 College of Computing and Data Science 2 Energy Research Institute @ NTU, Interdisciplinary Graduate Programme

arXiv:2610.26142v1 [cs.DC] 19 Oct 2026

Nanyang Technological University, Singapore gaoc0008@e.ntu.edu.sg, yiyang009@e.ntu.edu.sg, michaelj004@e.ntu.edu.sg, arvinde@ntu.edu.sg

Abstract—This paper studies a Deadline-constrained task Offloading and resource Allocation Problem (DOAP) in a backhaulnetwork-enabled Mobile Edge Computing (MEC) system with both bandwidth and computational resource constraints. The goal is to maximize the total inference accuracy improvement across all tasks. We formulate this problem, denoted as P, as an Integer Linear Programming (ILP) problem and show it is NP-hard via a reduction from the maximum-weight three-dimensional matching 1 problem. To address P, we develop FastSA, a linear-time 10 approximation algorithm based on the local-ratio technique. To the best of our knowledge, FastSA provides the first constantfactor performance guarantee for backhaul-network-enabled DOAPs. In addition, we introduce a fault detection and recovery framework that enables robust MEC operation under backhaul link and edge server failures. Experiments using profiled image classification workloads and real-world taxi traces show that FastSA achieves an average accuracy improvement of 25.6% over benchmark algorithms under fault-free conditions while maintaining the lowest runtime. Under fault-injected scenarios, our framework reduces performance degradation by an average of 12.8%, demonstrating its effectiveness in fault handling. Index Terms—mobile edge computing, real-time offloading, fault-tolerance, approximation algorithm

I. I NTRODUCTION Internet of Things (IoT) has emerged as a forefront technology (e.g., Cisco predicts 500 billion IoT devices by 2030 [1]), driven by continuous advancements in hardware, software, and communication technologies (e.g., ultra-reliable low-latency communication features of 5G) [2]. Meanwhile, the development of Artificial Intelligence (AI) has spurred growing interest in deploying AI services on IoT devices, enabling applications such as path planning and object detection in autonomous vehicles [3]. These applications are typically computationintensive and subject to strict latency requirements, posing significant challenges for resource-constrained IoT devices. To achieve reasonable execution time and energy efficiency, model compression techniques such as quantization [4] are often applied when deploying AI services on IoT devices, albeit at the cost of reduced inference accuracy. To obtain high-quality inference results while satisfying the latency requirements of End Devices (EDs), Mobile Edge This work was supported by the MoE Tier-2 grant MOE-T2EP20224-0007. The work was also supported by DesCartes, National Research Foundation, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore under its Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE) programme.

Computing (MEC) has emerged as a promising paradigm. In MEC, Edge Servers (ESs) are deployed at the network edge to provide wireless bandwidth for task offloading and computational resources for task processing. A task generated by an ED can be offloaded to a nearby ES (termed offload-ES), which is then processed on the offload-ES or further forwarded to another ES for processing (termed process-ES) via the wired backhaul network. By leveraging ESs, MEC enables the use of full-scale AI models for high-quality inference while keeping computation close to EDs. This proximity substantially reduces communication latency compared to cloud computing, making MEC well-suited for latency-sensitive applications. Despite the advantages of MEC, the bandwidth and computational capacity of ESs can become bottlenecks as the number of tasks increases, necessitating efficient strategies for task offloading (i.e., determining the offload-ES and processES for each task) and resource allocation (i.e., deciding the amount of bandwidth and computational resource to allocate for each task). Jointly optimizing task offloading and resource allocation enables adaptive resource management based on both ES resource availability and the wireless channel quality. Numerous studies have explored Deadline-constrained task Offloading and resource Allocation Problems (DOAP), which can be broadly categorized into two groups. The first group (e.g., [5]–[22]) assumes that each offloaded task is processed on its selected offload-ES. The second group (e.g., [23]–[29]) considers a more flexible setting where tasks being offloaded can be further forwarded to another ES for processing via the backhaul network; we term this group as forwardingenabled DOAP. While the first group simplifies system design, the second offers enhanced load-balancing capability by leveraging inter-ES cooperation. The limited coverage of 5G signals further emphasizes the value of backhaul-assisted task forwarding. When requests crowd around a single ES, resource congestion may occur, whereas other ESs with available capacity remain underutilized due to wireless network coverage constraints. Despite its advantage, the forwardingenabled DOAP remains underexplored, and most existing studies rely on heuristic approaches without theoretical performance guarantees [23]–[28]. This gap motivates the design of efficient algorithms that can achieve both computational efficiency and solution quality. Recently, a 1−α 2 -approximation algorithm was proposed for

the forwarding-enabled DOAP [29], ensuring that the achieved utility value is at least 1−α 2 of the optimal. Here, α represents the maximum fraction of an ES’s capacity that can be allocated to a single task. Although this algorithm provides a theoretical bound, its performance guarantee depends on α, leading to large variation under practical scenarios with different α requirements. Furthermore, most existing studies assume a faultfree MEC environment, overlooking the potential impact of backhaul network or ES failures. In real deployments, failures in backhaul links or ESs are inevitable and may cause severe service disruptions in the absence of effective fault-handling mechanisms. To the best of our knowledge, no prior work on DOAP has explicitly investigated fault detection and recovery in MEC systems. In this paper, we investigate a forwarding-enabled DOAP in MEC, considering both bandwidth and computational resource constraints, i.e., the total resource that each ES can allocate to tasks is bounded by its resource capacity for any resource type. The objective is to maximize the total accuracy improvement across all tasks. We denote this problem as P and formulate it as an Integer Linear Programming (ILP) problem. The maximum weight three-dimensional matching problem [30], which is NP-hard, can be reduced to a special case of P where at most one task can be offloaded to or processed on each ES. Hence, P is also NP-hard. 1 -approximation To address P, we propose a linear-time 10 algorithm, FastSA, based on a local-ratio technique [31]. To the best of our knowledge, it is the first constant-factor approximation algorithm developed for forwarding-enabled DOAPs. In addition, we design a distributed network synchronization framework similar to the Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Protocol [32], where each ES periodically monitors its connections with neighboring ESs and broadcasts any detected changes. This framework enables the system to promptly detect and recover from failures in backhaul links and ESs, thereby ensuring service continuity in MEC systems. The main contributions of this paper are summarized as follows: • We address a forwarding-enabled DOAP, P, for real-time task offloading in MEC with both bandwidth and computational resource constraints. To maximize the total accuracy improvement across all tasks, we propose a linear1 time 10 -approximation algorithm, FastSA, based on the local-ratio technique, providing the first constant-factor theoretical guarantee for forwarding-enabled DOAPs. • We design a distributed backhaul network synchronization framework to detect and recover from failures in backhaul links and ESs. To validate its effectiveness, we extend the open-source simulator mecRT [33] with this framework, creating the first MEC simulator that supports fault-detection and recovery for real-time task offloading. • We evaluate FastSA using profiled image classification workloads and a real-world taxi trace dataset [34] under fault-free and fault-injected MEC simulations. Results show that the average accuracy improvement of FastSA surpasses benchmark algorithms by 25.6% in fault-free scenarios while maintaining the lowest scheduling over-

TABLE I C ATEGORY OF STUDIES ON DEADLINE - CONSTRAINED TASK OFFLOADING AND RESOURCE ALLOCATION

Decide where to offload

Decide where to offload and process

Allocation for B or C Unspecified Contention on B or C

[5]–[13]♢♡ , [14]♦♠

[23], [24]♢♡

Allocation for B or C Unspecified Contention on B and C

[15], [16]♢

[25]♦

Allocation for B and C Unspecified Contention on B and C

[17]–[22]

[26]–[29]

B ← bandwidth; ♦ ← unspecified allocation for B; ♠ ← contention on B; C ← comp. res.; ♢ ← unspecified allocation for C; ♡ ← contention on C;

head. Under fault conditions, the algorithm performance degradation reduces 12.8% on average when the proposed framework is enabled, showing its effectiveness in maintaining service robustness when a fault occurs. II. R ELATED W ORKS Due to the promising potential of MEC, problems on task offloading and resource allocation in MEC have been extensively investigated [35]–[37]. These problems are typically categorized into two types: deadline-constrained and deadlinefree (e.g., response-time minimization). Depending on whether resource allocation is pre-specified, they can be further divided into (i) problems determining task offloading under fixed resource allocation and (ii) problems jointly optimizing task offloading and resource allocation. This section focuses on studies addressing deadline-constrained task offloading and resource allocation problems (DOAP). The rows of Table I classify existing DOAP studies based on resource contention and unspecified resource types. Studies considering single-resource contention mainly focused on computational resources with unspecified computational resource allocation [5]–[13], [23], [24], whereas others examined bandwidth contention with unspecified bandwidth allocation [14]. Among studies addressing joint bandwidth and computational resource contention, some assumed one unspecified resource type [15], [16], [25], while others considered both unspecified [17]–[22], [26]–[29]. The columns of Table I further classify DOAP studies by offloading type. In the first column [5]–[22], each task can be offloaded to at most one nearby ES (multiple tasks can be offloaded to the same ES under bandwidth constraints) and is processed on the offload-ES. Thus, the decision only involves selecting the offload-ES. The second column [23]–[29] represents forwarding-enabled MEC, where ESs are interconnected via a wired backhaul network and an offloaded task can be further forwarded to another ES for processing. Hence, both the offload-ES and process-ES must be jointly determined. This paper addresses the DOAP under the most general setting (i.e., the blue category in Table I). A few studies have investigated this setting [26]–[29]. Among them, some [26], [28] assumed each task has a fixed offload-ES, whereas others [27], [29] allowed multiple offloading candidates per task.

ED

ED ES wireless communication

wired communication

Fig. 1. An Example of the mobile edge computing system.

To solve these problems, heuristic approaches without theoretical guarantees were commonly adopted [26]–[28], while only a few works [29] provided theoretical performance bounds. Specifically, Gao et al. [29] developed a graph-matching-based algorithm achieving a theoretical bound of 1−α 2 , where α denotes the maximum fraction of an ES’s capacity that can be allocated to a single task. However, this bound depends on α, resulting in variation in the performance guarantee. In contrast, this paper considers a setting where each task has multiple offloading candidates and proposes a lineartime approximation algorithm with a constant performance guarantee of 1/10. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first constant-factor approximation algorithm for forwardingenabled DOAPs. Moreover, none of the existing studies in Table I address fault-tolerant task offloading. To fill this gap, we design a detection and recovery framework that handles failures in both ESs and the backhaul network. III. S YSTEM M ODEL AND P ROBLEM F ORMULATION The MEC consists of a set of logical Edge Servers (ESs) and End Devices (EDs), as illustrated in Fig. 1. Each ES is logically associated with a 5G base station (gNB) that manages wireless bandwidth allocation during data offloading and a server that provides computational resources to host services for ED tasks. EDs and ESs communicate through the 5G network, while the ESs are interconnected via a wired backhaul network. A task can be offloaded by its ED to a nearby ES, where it is either processed locally at the associated server or forwarded to another ES through the backhaul network for processing. For ease of reading, a notation summary is provided in Table II. Let M be the set of M ESs in the MEC, where mk ∈ M denotes the k-th ES. The computational resources of each ES are measured in computing units (CUs), which abstract the execution capacity available on the underlying server hardware. For instance, with NVIDIA’s Green Contexts feature [38], the execution capacity of a GPU server can be partitioned into multiple resource units, each comprising a predefined allocation of streaming multiprocessors and memory. Let Ck be the total CUs available at mk , and C=max{Ck |mk ∈ M} be the maximum number of CUs that any ES can provide. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access, a core technology in 5G networks, divides a wireless channel into multiple orthogonal subcarriers, with every 12 subcarriers forming a resource block, the smallest unit of bandwidth that can be allocated to users. Since PHY/MAC-layer resource

block scheduling is performed by the gNB, we define a bandwidth unit (BU) as an abstraction of the PHY/MAC-layer resource block exposed to high-level control. Let Bk be the total BUs available at ES mk , and B=max{Bk |mk ∈ M} be the maximum number of BUs that any ES can offer. In this work, we focus on high-level offloading, forwarding, and processing decisions. Accordingly, we abstract the wireless transmission capacity available at gNBs as BUs, while direct control of PHY/MAC-layer resource block scheduling remains internal to the gNB. Similar abstraction is applied to computational resources at servers, which are represented at a higher level without exposing low-level execution scheduling. Let N denote the set of N tasks pending to offload, where ni ∈ N represents the i-th task. Let Mi denote the set of ESs accessible by task ni ’s ED, i.e., the ESs where task ni can be offloaded. Since these tasks typically operate periodically, task ni has a period Ti , measured in seconds, which also serves as its implicit deadline. We focus on discriminative inference tasks (e.g., classification and detection), for which the output size is negligible compared to the input size. For many computation-intensive tasks, local processing performance is often constrained by the hardware limitations of EDs. For example, deploying AI applications on resourceconstrained EDs often requires model compression techniques to reduce computational and memory demands, usually at the cost of reduced model accuracy. In such cases, EDs can offload tasks to ESs to achieve more accurate inference results. However, the potential unavailability of ES resources due to faults or uncertainty in the wireless network necessitates the ability to process tasks locally to ensure operation safety. Let dloc denote the local execution time of task ni ; besides, we i assume dloc i ≤ Ti to ensure feasible local processing. We consider two task offloading modes. In the first mode ψ1 , a task supports multiple execution stop points, where earlier termination yields lower-quality results (e.g., the anytime YOLO for object detection [39]). Task ni first executes locally for dloc i after its release, and the intermediate data are then offloaded to the ES for continued execution to improve accuracy. The ES result is adopted if it is returned before Ti ; otherwise, the locally obtained result is used. In the second mode ψ2 , the task is offloaded immediately after its release while also being executed locally in parallel. The ES result is adopted if it arrives before Ti ; otherwise, the locally computed result is used. Let θi1 denote the size of the intermediate data offloaded in mode ψ1 , and let θi2 denote the size of the input data offloaded in mode ψ2 . Let Ψi ⊆ {ψ1 , ψ2 } be the set of offloading modes that task ni can choose. For a given task (e.g., image classification), multiple AI models may be available that perform the same function but differ in inference accuracy and execution time. Each ED is assumed to adopt an offline strategy to select a fixed local model for each task. Let Ai denote the set of Ai candidate models available on ESs that can improve the inference accuracy of task ni , and let A=max{Ai | ni ∈ N }. When task ni is granted to offload, an appropriate model is selected according to its latency requirement and the available resources. For a

selected model a ∈ Ai deployed on an ES to serve ni , let uia denote the accuracy improvement (gain), defined as the difference in accuracy between the model a and the local model used by ni . Specifically, when a job instance of ni is offloaded to an ES and processed using model a, and its result is returned before the deadline, the obtained accuracy improvement for that job instance equals uia . In 5G networks, each ED periodically transmits Sounding Reference Signals (SRSs) to nearby gNBs. Each gNB utilizes the received SRS to estimate the wireless channel quality between the ED and the gNB [40]. The channel quality can be affected by various factors, including physical distance, transmission power, ED mobility, obstacles, and interference caused by other ED transmissions [41]. Based on the estimated channel quality, each gNB selects an appropriate Modulation and Coding Scheme (MCS) to ensure reliable data transmission. The chosen MCS determines the number of bytes that a resource block can carry within a fixed time interval, thereby defining the achievable data offloading rate between an ED and the gNB, which is exposed to the high-level control plane. Let µik denote the data offloading rate (in bytes per BU per second) when task ni is offloaded to the gNB associated with ES mk , as determined by the latest SRS feedback. Mid-band 5G gNB typically covers 500–1000 meters in urban areas. An ED moving at 60 km/h (the average vehicle speed in urban areas) travels about 1.67 meters in 100 ms, which is negligible compared to the gNB coverage range. Thus, consistent with prior studies [42], [43], we assume that the wireless channel quality (and hence µik ), as estimated from uplink SRS, remains constant for the duration in which a task’s data is offloaded (typically, of the order of 10ms). In this MEC, we consider a wired backhaul network interconnecting the ESs. To support predictable and parallel data transmission across the backhaul network, we assume that deterministic Ethernet technologies, such as Time-Sensitive Networking (TSN), are available to provide bounded latency on wired links [44]. In addition, Software-Defined Networking (SDN) [45] can be employed to configure routing paths and to provision virtual links with predefined bandwidth allocations for forwarding a task’s data. Wired backhaul links typically offer significantly higher bandwidth than wireless channels. For example, a 5G channel operating in the sub-6GHz band provides a bandwidth capacity of approximately 100MHz [46], whereas a commercial optical transmission system can offer bandwidths up to 4.5THz [47]. Given the substantial bandwidth available in wired networks, we ignore communication contention within the backhaul network, and each virtual link can be abstracted as providing a constant data transmission rate, denoted as β. Let hjk denote the minimum number of link hops between ESs mj and mk . Timing Model. Suppose task ni is offloaded to ES mj ∈ Mi with BU allocation bij ∈ {1, ..., Bj }, and is forwarded to ES mk for processing with CU allocation cik ∈ {1, ..., Ck } and candidate model a ∈ Ai . In offloading mode ψ1 , task ni first executes locally for dloc after its job instance is released. The intermediate data i

TABLE II N OTATION (PARAMETERS AND VARIABLES )

symb.

definition

M Ck Bk N Ti Mi dloc i Ψi θi1 θi2 Ai uia µik β hjk ℓ u(ℓ) L Ltask i Loff j pro Lk zℓ

set of ESs, where |M| = M total CUs of ES mk ; C = max{Ck |mk ∈ M} total BUs of ES mk ; B = max{Bk |mk ∈ M} set of tasks, where |N | = N period (deadline) of task ni ∈ N set of ESs accessible by vehicle vi local execution time of task ni ∈ N set of offloading modes of task ni , Ψi ⊆ {ψ1 , ψ2 } intermediate data size of ni (for offloading mode ψ1 ) input data size of ni (for offloading mode ψ2 ) set of candidate models for task ni if offloaded improved accuracy for ni if choosing model a ∈ Ai offloading rate per BU per second from ni to mk data rate in the virtual link of the backhaul network hop count in shortest path between ESs mj and mk ℓ ≜ ⟨ni , mj , mk , bℓ , cℓ , ψ, a⟩, a service instance improved accuracy by serving a task following ℓ set of all feasible service instances Ltask ⊆ L, set of service instances for task ni i Loff j ⊆ L, set of service instances offloaded to ES mj pro Lk ⊆ L, set of service instances processed on ES mk binary selection variable for service instance ℓ

θi1 is then offloaded to ES mj . Let doff ij denote the offloading 1 time, where doff = θ /(µ · b ). The forwarding time from ij ij i ij ES mj to ES mk is given as dfwd = hjk · θi1 /β. Let dpro ijk ik denote the processing time of task ni on ES mk , which is a function of the allocated CUs cik , the hardware type of the server associated with ES mk , and the selected candidate model a. Since the result data size is much smaller than the input for discriminative inference tasks, the result forwarding time from mk to mj is negligible. Besides, the result can be downloaded from mj using one BU within one time unit. Since the downlink bandwidth in 5G is generally larger than the uplink capacity and each offloaded task is guaranteed at least one BU in the uplink, we omit bandwidth contention for result downloading and define the result return time as a fixed constant drr . The deadline constraint in mode ψ1 is given as pro off fwd rr dloc i + dij + dijk + dik + d ≤ Ti .

(1)

In offloading mode ψ2 , the job instance of task ni is 2 offloaded immediately after release. Thus, doff ij = θi /(µij · bij ) pro fwd 2 and dijk = hjk · θi /β. The processing time dik and result return time drr remain the same as in mode ψ1 . The deadline constraint in ψ2 is expressed as pro fwd rr doff ij + dijk + dik + d ≤ Ti .

(2)

This paper aims to determine the offloading strategy for each task ni (including offloading mode ψ, offload-ES mj , BU allocation bij , process-ES mk , CU allocation cik , and candidate model a) to maximize the total accuracy improvement per second. The optimization must satisfy the offloading constraints (i.e., ψ ∈ Ψi , mj ∈ Mi , and bij ≤ Bj ), the processing constraints (i.e., cik ≤ Ck , a ∈ Ai ), the task

deadline constraints (Eq. (1) or Eq. (2)), and the ES resource constraints (i.e., the total allocated resources on each ES cannot exceed its available capacity for any resource type). We denote this optimization problem as P. The direct formulation of P is nonlinear due to deadline constraints (1) and (2), making it difficult to solve directly. Here, we introduce a more concise ILP formulation for P based on service instances (defined in Definition 1) of all tasks. Definition 1 (Service Instance). A service instance of task ni is defined as ℓ ≜ ⟨ni , mj , mk , bℓ , cℓ , ψ, a⟩, representing that task ni selects offloading mode ψ, and it is offloaded to ES mj with BU allocation bℓ ; besides, it is forwarded to ES mk for processing with CU allocation cℓ and candidate model a. Moreover, ℓ needs to satisfy (i) the offloading constraints (i.e., ψ ∈ Ψi , mj ∈ Mi , and bℓ ≤ Bj ), (ii) the processing constraints (i.e., cℓ ≤ Ck , a ∈ Ai ), and (iii) the deadline constraints (i.e., Eq. (1) for ψ = ψ1 or Eq. (2) for ψ = ψ2 ). Let ℓ ≜ ⟨ni , mj , mk , bℓ , cℓ , ψ, a⟩ denote a service instance of task ni . Given task ni and the selected model a, the resulting accuracy improvement per second is uia /Ti (if all job instances of ni can be successfully offloaded and meet deadlines); we denote this utility value as u(ℓ), where u(ℓ) = uia /Ti . Since both bandwidth and computational resource allocations are discrete, we can enumerate all feasible service instances for each task. Let L denote the set of all feasible service instances for all tasks in N . We define Ltask ⊆ L i as the subset of service instances corresponding to task ni , Loff j ⊆ L as the subset of service instances in which the task is offloaded to ES mj , and Lpro k ⊆ L as the subset of service instances in which the task is processed on ES mk . The MEC comprises N tasks and M ESs, where each ES provides up to B BUs and C CUs. Each task can adopt up to two offloading modes and select from A candidate models. For each bandwidth allocation, only the minimum required computational allocation needs to be determined to satisfy the task deadline (and vice versa). Consequently, the total number of service instances in L is at most (2N M 2 A · min{B, C}). For each service instance ℓ ∈ L, let zℓ ∈ {0, 1} be its selection variable, where zℓ = 1 indicates that ℓ is chosen as the service instance assigned to the corresponding task in the final solution. Then, we formulate P as follows. P (P) max ℓ∈L u(ℓ) · zℓ (3a) P subject to: bℓ · zℓ ≤ Bj , ∀mj ∈ M (3b) ℓ∈Loff j P cℓ · zℓ ≤ Ck , ∀mk ∈ M (3c) ℓ∈Lpro k P (3d) ℓ∈Ltask zℓ ≤ 1, ∀ni ∈ N i

zℓ ∈ {0, 1}, ∀ℓ ∈ L

(3e)

Eqs. (3b) and (3c) are the ES resource constraints, while Eq. (3d) ensures that at most one service instance is selected for each task. The offloading constraints, processing constraints, and task deadline constraints are implicitly enforced through the definition of service instances (Definition 1); thus, only ES resource constraints need to be explicitly enforced in

the ILP formulation. As a result, an offloaded task contributes to the total accuracy improvement only if its deadline is met. Problem Complexity. Given a solution to P, we can efficiently verify whether it satisfies all the constraints in polynomial time, which indicates that the decision version of P belongs to the NP class. Furthermore, a well-known NP-Hard problem, the maximum weight three-dimensional matching problem [30], can be reduced to a special case of P, where each task has only one offloading mode and one candidate model, and each ES allocates its entire bandwidth to the tasks offloaded to it and all its computational resources to the tasks processed on it. Since this simplified instance of P is NP-Hard, the original problem P is also NP-Hard. IV. FAST S EPARATE A SSIGNMENT A LGORITHM In this section, we present the Fast Separate Assignment Algorithm (FastSA) for problem P (Eqs. (3a)∼(3e)). Due to task forwarding, a service instance may compete with different sets of service instances for bandwidth and computational resources, which complicates the enforcement of ES resource constraints. FastSA addresses this challenge by exploiting the structure of service instances and separating them into two disjoint groups, which are scheduled independently to simplify resource contention. The algorithm then returns the schedule with the higher total accuracy improvement. 1 -approximation We then show that FastSA achieves a 10 guarantee for P in Subsection IV-A, and present a linear-time implementation with respect to the size of L (i.e., O(|L|)) in Subsection IV-B. To the best of our knowledge, FastSA is the first constant-factor approximation algorithm for P. A. Fast Separate Assignment Algorithm (FastSA) Based on the allocated resource, we divide all service instances in L into four categories, LL, LH, HL, and HH, and denote the set of service instances in L that belong to each category as LLL , LLH , LHL , and LHH , respectively. For a service instance ℓ ≜ ⟨ni , mj , mk , bℓ , cℓ , ψ, a⟩, • ℓ is in category LL if bℓ ≤ 1/2 · Bj and cℓ ≤ 1/2 · Ck ; • ℓ is in category LH if bℓ ≤ 1/2 · Bj and cℓ > 1/2 · Ck ; • ℓ is in category HL if bℓ > 1/2 · Bj and cℓ ≤ 1/2 · Ck ; • ℓ is in category HH if bℓ > 1/2 · Bj and cℓ > 1/2 · Ck . FastSA (Algorithm 1) divides L into two sets: LLL ∪ LHL ∪ LHH and LLH . Let L1 be the vector of LLL ∪ LHL ∪ LHH that is sorted in the order of LL, HL, and HH categories. Let L2 be the vector of LLH . FastSA first calls function Assign(u, L1 ) to obtain a scheduling solution S1 for the combined set LLL ∪ LHL ∪ LHH (line 2), where u denotes the vector of u(ℓ) for all ℓ ∈ L. It then invokes Assign(u, L2 ) to derive a scheduling solution S2 for the remaining set LLH (line 3). Finally, FastSA outputs the solution with the higher total accuracy improvement. Assign is a recursive function (invoked recursively in line 10). At each recursion level, FastSA updates the accuracy values of the remaining service instances (line 9). For clarity, we denote the updated accuracy value of service instance ℓ in the r-th level as wr (ℓ), while u(ℓ) represents the original accuracy value. Let wr denote

Algorithm 1: Fast Separate Assignment (FastSA) Let L1 be the vector of LLL ∪ LHL ∪ LHH and is sorted in the order of LL, HL, and HH categories. Let L2 be the vector of LLH ; 2 S1 ← Assign(u, L1 ); 3 S2 ← Assign(u, L2 ); 4 if u(S1 ) ≥ u(S2 ) then return S1 else return S2 ; 1

Assign(wr , F): 6 Remove all instances ℓ from F with wr (ℓ) ≤ 0; 7 if F = ∅ then return S r = ∅; 8 Suppose ℓr ≜ ⟨ni , mj , mk , bℓr , cℓr , ψ, a⟩ is the leftmost service instance in F; 9 Decompose wr into w1r and w2r (i.e., wr =w1r +w2r ) such that ∀ℓ ∈ F, w1r (ℓ) =  1 if ℓ ∈ Ltask  i    cℓ bℓ off task  + ) if ℓ ∈ L ∩ Lpro 2(  j k \ Li Ck  Bj

5

wr (ℓr ) ·

2 Bbℓj     2 Ccℓk    0

pro task if ℓ ∈ Loff j \ (Lk ∪ Li ) pro task if ℓ ∈ Lk \ (Loff j ∪ Li )

otherwise (4)

10 11

S r+1 ← Assign(w2r , F); if S r+1 ∪ {ℓr } is feasible then return S r ← S r+1 ∪ {ℓr } else return S r ← S r+1 ;

the vectorP of wr (ℓ). For any serviceP instance set S, we define r w (S) = ℓ∈S wr (ℓ) and u(S) = ℓ∈S u(ℓ). In line 9, the accuracy value wr (ℓ) for each remaining ℓ is decomposed into w1r (ℓ) and w2r (ℓ) based on Eq. (4) and the chosen ℓr in line 8. The first four conditions in Eq. (4) correspond to service instances that (i) belong to the same task as ℓr , (ii) are offloaded to and processed on the same ESs as ℓr , (iii) are only offloaded to the same ES as ℓr , and (iv) are only processed on the same ES as ℓr . The intuition is selecting ℓr reduces the opportunity for other service instances to be selected. Specifically, w1r (ℓ) estimates the impact on ℓ if ℓr is selected, whereas w2r (ℓ) measures the marginal gain with respect to considered service instances in previous recursive levels. w2r is then used as the input accuracy vector wr+1 for the next recursive level (line 10). Based on the solution S r+1 returned from the (r+1)-th level, ℓr is included in the solution S r if it satisfies the feasibility constraints (3b)–(3d) (line 11). In the following, we first show that FastSA achieves a 51 approximation for P when only the set LLL ∪ LHL ∪ LHH is considered. We then prove that FastSA also achieves a 15 approximation for P when considering only LLH . Finally, we 1 show that FastSA is a 10 -approximation algorithm for P. Theorem 1. Let Q1 be an optimal solution of P when only considering the set LLL ∪ LHL ∪ LHH . Let S1 be the solution returned in line 2 of FastSA. Then, we have u(S1 ) ≥ 51 u(Q1 ). Proof. Let the deepest recursive level of Assign be level δ (i.e., when F = ∅ in line 7), and the initial call be level 1. We use simple induction to prove that wr (S r ) ≥ 15 wr (Q1 )

for r = δ, δ − 1, ..., 1. Since w1 = u and S 1 is the solution returned in line 2 of FastSA, this theorem can thus be proved. Base Case (r = δ): When r = δ, F = ∅ after removing all service instances with non-positive accuracy value (line 6), implying that wr (ℓ) ≤ 0, ∀ℓ ∈ F, before line 6 is executed. The returned S r = ∅, so wr (S r ) ≥ wr (Q1 ) ≥ 15 wr (Q1 ). Inductive Step (r < δ): When r < δ, we show that if wr+1 (S r+1 ) ≥ 51 wr+1 (Q1 ) holds, then wr (S r ) ≥ 15 wr (Q1 ). Here, S r+1 is the solution returned in line 10 from the lower level. Suppose wr+1 (S r+1 ) ≥ 51 wr+1 (Q1 ). Since we assign w2r as the accuracy vector for the lower level in line 10, w2r = wr+1 . Then, we have w2r (S r+1 ) ≥ 51 w2r (Q1 ). Let ℓr ≜ ⟨ni , mj , mk , bℓr , cℓr , ψ, a⟩ (line 8). Based on the first condition in Eq. (4), w1r (ℓr ) = wr (ℓr ), so w2r (ℓr ) = 0; thus, w2r (S r ) = w2r (S r+1 ) ≥ 15 w2r (Q1 ).

(5)

If ℓr can be added to S r in line 11, w1r (S r ) ≥ w1r (ℓr ) = wr (ℓr ). If ℓr cannot be added to S r in line 11 due to constraint (3d) (i.e., at most one instance of the same task can be selected), one ℓ ∈ Ltask must already exist in S r+1 . Based on the first i condition in Eq. (4), w1r (S r ) = w1r (S r+1 ) ≥ wr (ℓr ). If ℓr cannot be added to S r in line 11 due to the ES resource constraints (3b) or (3c), we proceed with the analysis based on the category of ℓr . Given the sorted vector L1 and the “leftmost” selection strategy in line 8, the service instances in line 8 are chosen in the order of LL, HL, and HH categories. Based on lines 10–11, adding ℓr into the solution S r occurs in the reverse category order, i.e., HH, HL, and LL. Thus, we consider the following three cases: r r+1 • Case 1: ℓ ∈ LHH . In this case, S is a subset of LHH . r r+1 Since ℓ cannot be added into S due to ES resource constraint, there must exist one ℓ ∈ S r+1 in which the task is offloaded to ES mj or processed on ES mk (maybe both). By definition, Bbℓj > 12 and Ccℓk > 12 for all ℓ ∈ LHH . Based on the second, third, or fourth condition in Eq. (4), we have w1r (S r ) = w1r (S r+1 ) ≥ wr (ℓr ). r r+1 • Case 2: ℓ ∈ LHL . In this case, S is a subset of bℓ 1 LHL ∪ LHH . By definition, Bj > 2 and Ccℓk ≤ 21 for all ℓ ∈ LHL . If ℓr cannot be added into S r due to the ES bandwidth constraint, there must exist one service instance ℓ ∈ S r+1 in which the task is offloaded to ES mj . As Bbℓj > 12 for all ℓ ∈ LHL ∪ LHH , based on the second or third condition in Eq. (4), w1r (S r ) = w1r (S r+1 ) ≥ wr (ℓr ). If ℓr cannot be added into S r+1 due to the ES computational resource constraint, at least 12 Ck amount of ES mk ’s computational resource have been allocated to service instances in S r+1 . Based on the second or fourth condition in Eq. (4), w1r (S r ) = w1r (S r+1 ) ≥ wr (ℓr ). b c 1 1 r • Case 3: ℓ ∈ LLL . Since Bℓ ≤ 2 and Cℓ ≤ 2 for all j k r r ℓ ∈ LLL , if ℓ cannot be added into S due to ES resource constraints, at least 12 Bj amount of ES mj ’s bandwidth or 12 Ck amount of ES mk ’s computational resource have been allocated to service instances in S r+1 (maybe both); based on the second to forth conditions in Eq. (4), we have w1r (S r ) = w1r (S r+1 ) ≥ wr (ℓr ).

In summary, regardless of whether ℓr can be added to S r+1 in line 11, w1r (S r ) ≥ wr (ℓr ). Meanwhile, based on Eq. (4), the value w1r (Q1 ) can be maximized if the optimal solution Q1 pro contains one service instance in Ltask \ (Loff i j ∪ Lk ), and all bandwidth of ES mj (i.e., Bj ) and all computational resource of ES mk (i.e., Ck ) are allocated to service instances in (Loff j ∪ task r Lpro )\L (only these service instances have non-zero w (ℓ)); 1 i k in this case, w1r (Q1 ) ≤ wr (ℓr ) + 4wr (ℓr ) = 5wr (ℓr ). Hence, w1r (S r ) ≥ 51 · w1r (Q1 ).

(6)

Given Eq. (5), Eq. (6), and wr = w1r + w2r , we have wr (S r ) ≥ 15 wr (Q1 ). Combining the results in the base case and the inductive step, we have wr (S r ) ≥ 15 wr (Q1 ) for r = δ, ..., 1 based on simple induction.

Algorithm 2: Linear-Time Implementation for FastSA /* consider categories LL, HL, and HH in order */ S1 ← Assign([LL, HL, HH]); 2 S2 ← Assign([LH]); // category LH only 3 if u(S1 ) ≥ u(S2 ) then return S1 else return S2 ; 1

4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11 12

Theorem 2. Let Q2 be an optimal solution of P when only considering the set LLH , and S2 be the solution returned in line 3 of FastSA. Then, u(S2 ) ≥ 15 u(Q2 ). Proof. The proof of this theorem follows a similar structure to that of Theorem 1. The key difference is that when ℓr cannot be added to S r in line 11 due to constraints (3b) or (3c) (i.e., the ES resource limitations), only one case (i.e., analogous to the Case 2 analysis in Theorem 1) needs to be considered. The complete proof is omitted here. Combining the results from both Theorem 1 and Theorem 2, we have the following conclusion. 1 Theorem 3. FastSA is a 10 -approximation guarantee for P.

Proof. Let S be the solution returned by FastSA, S1 be the solution returned in line 2 of FastSA, and S2 be the solution returned in line 3 of FastSA. Let Q be the optimal solution of P, Q1 be the optimal solution of P when only considering service instances in LLL ∪ LHL ∪ LHH , and Q2 be the optimal solution of P when only considering service instances in LLH . Any solution of P can be divided into a subset of LLL ∪ LHL ∪ LHH and a subset of LLH . Therefore, u(Q) ≤ u(Q1 ) + u(Q2 ). Besides, u(S) = max{u(S1 ), u(S2 )}. Based on Theorem 1 and Theorem 2, we have u(Q1 ) ≤ 5u(S1 ) and u(Q2 ) ≤ 5u(S2 ). Then, we have u(Q) ≤ u(Q1 ) + u(Q2 ) ≤ 5u(S1 ) + 5u(S2 ) ≤ 10 · max{u(S1 ), u(S2 )} = 10u(S). In FastSA, the function Assign has at most |L| recursive levels (i.e., the size of L), and the accuracy values of at most |L| service instances are updated in each recursive level. Thus, the time complexity of FastSA is O(|L|2 ). In Subsection IV-B, we show how to implement FastSA with a linear runtime complexity with respect to the size of L, i.e., O(|L|). B. Linear-Time Implementation for FastSA Let ℓr ≜ ⟨ni , mj , mk , bℓr , cℓr , ψ, a⟩ denote the service instance considered in the r-th recursive level of the function Assign (line 8). According to Eq. (4), the accuracy value of ℓr pro off is reduced only when service instances in Ltask i ∪Lj ∪Lk are processed in earlier recursive levels s < r. Let ũ(ℓr ) denote the total accuracy value reduction for ℓr when it is considered,

13 14 15

Assign(CategoryList): pro pro off Initialize vectors Un , Uoff m , Unm , Um , Unm , Lcandi , S ;

for category ∈ CategoryList do for r ← 1 to |L| do // ℓr : r-th element in L if ℓr is not in category then continue; Suppose ℓr ≜ ⟨ni , mj , mk , bℓr , cℓr , ψ, ar ⟩; off Let Uitask = Un [i], Ujoff = Uoff m [j] − Unm [i, j], pro pro pro and Uk = Um [k] − Unm [i, k]; ũ(ℓr ) = Uitask +2Ujoff · bBℓkr +2Ukpro · cCℓkr (Eq. (7)); wr (ℓr ) = u(ℓr ) − ũ(ℓr ); if wr (ℓr ) <= 0 then continue; Append ℓr into the end of vector Lcandi ; off r r Un [i]=Un [i]+wr (ℓr ), Uoff m [j]=Um [j]+w (ℓ ), off r r pro pro r r Uoff nm [i, j]=Unm [i, j]+w (ℓ ), Um [k]=Um [k]+w (ℓ ),

pro r r Upro nm [i, k]=Unm [i, k]+w (ℓ );

16 17 18

for r ← |Lcandi | to 1 do // ℓr : r-th element in Lcandi if S ∪ {ℓr } is feasible then S ← S ∪ {ℓr } ; return S;

i.e., wr (ℓr ) = u(ℓr ) − ũ(ℓr ). Based on the decomposition rule in Eq. (4), ũ(ℓr ) can be expressed as ũ(ℓr ) = Uitask + 2 · Ujoff · bBℓrj + 2 · Ukpro · cCℓkr ,

(7)

where Uitask , Ujoff , and Ukpro represent the reduced accuracy caused by service instances processed in earlier recursive levels that belong to the same task ni (first condition in Eq. (4)), are offloaded to the same ES mj (second or third condition in Eq. (4)), and are processed on the same ES mk (second or fourth respectively. Uitask = Pr−1 conditions insEq. (4)), Pr−1 Specifically, off s s w (ℓ ), Uj = task w (ℓ ), and s=1,ℓs ∈Ltask s=1,ℓs ∈Loff i j \Li Pr−1 pro Uk = s=1,ℓs ∈Lpro \Ltask ws (ℓs ). i k Motivated by these observations, we simplify FastSA as shown in Algorithm 2. We introduce five auxiliary vecpro pro off tors, Un , Uoff m , Unm , Um , and Unm , to store accumulated off accuracy reductions. Specifically, Un [i], Uoff m [j], Unm [i, j], pro pro Um [k], and Unm [i, k] store the accuracy decrements for pro pro off task off task service instances in Ltask i , Lj , Li ∩Lj , Lk , and Li ∩Lk , respectively. In addition, the vector Lcandi stores candidate service instances, and the set S stores the final solution. Algorithm 2 first calls the function Assign([LL, HL, HH]) to handle service instances in categories LL, HL, and HH sequentially (line 1). For each category, Assign traverses the entire L and only considers the service instances belonging to the current category (lines 6–8). For each considered service instance ℓr , the updated accuracy value wr (ℓr ) is computed according to Eq. (7) (lines 10–12). If wr (ℓr ) is positive, ℓr is appended to Lcandi , and the auxiliary vectors are updated accordingly (lines 13–15). Then, candidates in Lcandi are added to the solution S in reverse order. Algorithm 2 subsequently calls Assign([LH]) to schedule service instances in category

LH (line 2). Finally, the solution achieving the higher total accuracy improvement is selected as the output of FastSA. The sequence of candidate service instances in Lcandi generated by the Assign function in Algorithm 2 exactly mirrors the sequence produced by the recursive Assign function in FastSA. Moreover, the accuracy reduction applied to each instance remains identical. Therefore, the theoretical guarantee established in Theorem 3 still holds. Algorithm 2 performs four traversals over L, during which the accuracy value of each service instance is only updated once. Thus, the time complexity of Algorithm 2 is O(|L|) = O(2N M 2 A · min{B, C}). V. FAULT-T OLERANT O FFLOADING F RAMEWORK This section presents a fault-tolerant task offloading framework for real-time tasks. We first introduce the fault detection and recovery mechanism to handle both backhaul link and ES failures, and then present the task offloading workflow. A. Link-State Synchronization and Global Scheduler Election To maintain global network awareness, we adopt a floodingbased synchronization protocol (similar to OSPF [32]) to disseminate backhaul connectivity information among all ESs. Each ES is associated with a gNB, a server, a scheduler, and a router. The gNB handles data offloading, and the server hosts services for EDs. The scheduler remains idle unless it is elected as the global scheduler, which then determines service placement and resource allocation for ED requests. The router is responsible for backhaul network synchronization. It maintains a Link State Advertisement (LSA) database that stores both the LSA generated by itself (referred to as the self-LSA) and LSAs received from other ESs (Fig. 2). Each router records the link state of its ES in the self-LSA, which includes the origin ES, a timestamp indicating the freshness of the link state, and a list of neighboring ESs it has detected. When a link state change is detected (e.g., a new neighbor is discovered or an existing one is disconnected), the router updates the timestamp and the list of neighboring ESs in the self-LSA, then broadcasts the updated self-LSA message to all directly connected ESs. Upon receiving an LSA from another ES, the router compares the timestamp of the received LSA with that of the corresponding LSA (with the same origin ES) in its database. If the received LSA is newer, the router updates its database to maintain freshness and forwards the new LSA to all neighboring ESs except the one from which it was received, as that ES already possesses the update; otherwise, the received LSA is discarded. This ensures that each updated LSA traverses every link in each direction at most once, thereby preventing redundant traffic and minimizing backhaul overhead. An example of this process is illustrated in Fig. 2. Through this flooding process, once a link-state change is detected, all ESs within the same backhaul network (e.g., in which every pair of ESs is connected by a path) can be informed within a bounded time, as shown in the following. Proposition 1. Let ∆ denote the longest shortest path between any two ESs in a backhaul network (i.e., the diameter). The

LSA Database LSA • origin LSA𝑚1 timestamp • • origin LSA𝑚1 counter timestamp • • •origin 𝑚1 neighbor1: 𝑚2 counter • • •timestamp • neighbor2: 𝑚 • neighbor1: • neighbor1: 𝑚𝑚 223 neighbor2:𝑚𝑚 • • neighbor2: 33

𝑚1 𝑚4 𝑚3

𝑚5

𝑚6

𝑚2

propagation 1 propagation 2

propagation 3

Fig. 2. An example of ES m1 disseminates its self-LSA to other ESs. When the self-LSA of m1 is updated, m1 broadcasts the self-LSA to its neighboring ESs m2 and m3 (first propagation). In the second propagation, m3 forwards the LSA to m2 , m4 , and m5 , while m2 also forwards the LSA to m3 . During the third propagation, m5 further forwards the LSA to m6 .

updated self-LSA of any ES can be disseminated to all other ESs within at most ∆ hops of LSA message propagation. Global Scheduler Election. Whenever an ES receives an LSA message, it initiates a global scheduler election timer using the timestamp contained in the message. If multiple LSAs are received from different ESs, the timer is set according to the largest timestamp among them, which represents the time when the most recent link-state change is detected. Since any LSA can be disseminated to all ESs within a bounded time (Proposition 1), an appropriate delay can be set for the timer based on the largest timestamp such that, upon expiration, all link-state updates are fully disseminated across the network. Once the backhaul network is synchronized, each ES within the same backhaul holds an identical LSA database, which is used by Dijkstra’s algorithm to determine the shortest paths among ESs in the backhaul network. A deterministic and self-consistent election procedure is then independently executed by all ESs in the same backhaul to select a common global scheduler without additional coordination. The election rule ensures a unique outcome within each backhaul: the ES connected to the largest number of neighboring ESs is selected as the global scheduler, and in case of a tie, the ES with the smallest identifier is chosen. This rule ensures consistency among all ESs in the same backhaul. When a backhaul network is partitioned into multiple disjoint backhaul networks due to backhaul link or ES failures, each backhaul independently elects its own global scheduler. After a new global scheduler is elected, a periodic scheduling timer is initiated to repeatedly invoke the scheduling algorithm, which determines service deployment and resource allocation for pending ED requests by solving P based on the resource in its backhaul. When the backhaul network is partitioned, multiple global schedulers operate concurrently, each making decisions exclusively for its own backhaul. B. Failure Detection and Recovery Each ES connects neighboring ESs via Ethernet interfaces using the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). Each ES can have multiple interfaces (termed pppIf), each of which connects to at most one neighboring ES, while unused interfaces remain unconnected. At the system-design level, these point-topoint links represent dedicated backhaul connections between ESs. To support predictable end-to-end behavior, the wired

C. Task Offloading Workflow A detailed task offloading workflow is illustrated in Fig. 3. When an ED decides to offload a task (e.g., ni ), it first transmits a service request to its nearest ES (e.g., mj ) via the 5G wireless network, including its deadline Ti and offload data sizes θi1 , θi2 , etc. Upon receiving the request, ES mj temporarily stores it in a local buffer. Once the global scheduler is elected, all buffered requests are forwarded to it for scheduling. The global scheduler is invoked periodically to continuously serve surrounding EDs. Each invocation defines a scheduling cycle, and its duration is referred to as the scheduling interval. At the beginning of each scheduling cycle, every ED broadcasts an SRS to nearby gNBs. Upon receiving the SRS, each gNB selects an appropriate MCS to ensure reliable wireless transmission, thereby determining the achievable uplink data rate µij between the ED and the ES (e.g., mj ) associated with that gNB. This uplink rate, together with the current abstracted

gNB of ES 𝑚𝑗

ED

service request (𝑛𝑖 , 𝑇𝑖 , 𝜃𝑖1 , 𝜃𝑖2 … )

server of ES 𝑚𝑘

scheduler

Registration

service request (𝑛𝑖 , 𝑇𝑖 , 𝜃𝑖1 , 𝜃𝑖2 … ) Scheduling Cycle

SRS feedback

ES status (𝜇𝑖𝑗 , 𝐶𝑗 , 𝐵𝑗 ) ES grant (𝑐𝑖𝑘 , 𝑏𝑖𝑗 )

offload grant (𝑏𝑖𝑗 )

job instance

offload grant (𝑏𝑖𝑗 )

execute algorithm

initialize service

job instance processing

result

result

…

backhaul is assumed to provide deterministic transmission with fixed data rates, as can be realized using TSN-capable Ethernet or similar technologies. Accordingly, backhaul delay is modeled as a deterministic function of data size and hop count, as defined in Section III. To monitor link availability, every ES periodically broadcasts HELLO messages through all its pppIfs. Upon receiving a HELLO message, the neighboring ES replies with an acknowledgment (ACK). If the ACK is received within a predefined time interval, the corresponding link is marked as active. Conversely, if no ACK is received for two consecutive HELLO message broadcasts (to avoid excessive sensitivity), the link is considered inactive. This framework considers both ES and backhaul link failures. When a link between two ESs fails, both ESs detect the connection loss. Upon confirmation after two consecutive missed ACKs, each ES updates its self-LSA. Similarly, if an ES (whether hosting the global scheduler or not) fails, all its neighboring ESs will detect the loss of connectivity and update their respective self-LSAs after the same confirmation interval. Then, each ES with updated-LSA broadcasts its self-LSA following the synchronization procedure in Subsection V-A. Upon receiving an LSA, an ES (e.g., mk ) forwards the message following the procedure in Subsection V-A and updates its LSA database accordingly. In addition, ES mk terminates all services hosted on its server and sends termination grants to the tasks that have offloaded to it. The ES then releases its occupied bandwidth and computational resources, and reports its updated status to the newly elected global scheduler once it is ready. If ES mk previously hosts a global scheduler, the scheduler state is set to idle. Furthermore, the discovery of a new neighboring ES automatically triggers a link-state update. Consequently, when a previously failed link or ES recovers, it is reintegrated into the existing topology. This failure detection and recovery mechanism provides strong robustness against both ES and backhaul link failures, ensuring continuous MEC service.

ED

gNB of ES 𝑚𝑗

server of ES 𝑚𝑘

scheduler

Fig. 3. Task Offloading Workflow (task ni , ESs mj , mk are used as example).

resource availability at ES mj (i.e., Bj and Cj ), is reported to the global scheduler. Using the latest resource reports from all ESs, the global scheduler invokes the scheduling algorithm (e.g., FastSA) to schedule pending requests by solving problem P (defined in Section III). Once a scheduling decision is obtained, an ES grant is issued to the server associated with each designated process-ES (e.g., mk ) to initialize the corresponding service. After successful service initialization, an offload grant is forwarded to the gNB associated with the designated offloadES (e.g., mj ). The gNB interprets the offload grant to perform PHY/MAC-layer resource block scheduling and to notify the corresponding ED that task ni may begin offloading. When a job instance (i.e., task input data) of ni is generated, it is first offloaded to the gNB associated with offloadES mj , and then forwarded to the server associated with process-ES mk via the backhaul network for processing. After processing completes, the result is returned to ES mj and then delivered to the ED. During offloading, the gNB continuously monitors the wireless channel quality. If channel conditions degrade such that timely offloading cannot be guaranteed, the gNB temporarily suspends the offloading process until channel quality recovers. During this suspension period, the task uses locally computed results to ensure safe operation; however, no utility (e.g., accuracy improvement) is accrued in this case. The scheduling cycle repeats until a link-state change is detected in the backhaul network. After the network is resynchronized and a new global scheduler is elected, a new scheduling cycle begins. Implementation. We implement the proposed framework on top of the open-source MEC simulator for real-time applications, mecRT [48], which provides a basic task offloading framework. However, the original mecRT only supports scenarios where all ESs are directly connected to a fixed centralized global scheduler. It lacks data forwarding, backhaul network synchronization, and fault detection and recovery mechanisms. In this work, we extend mecRT by integrating our fault-tolerant framework1 , thereby enabling general and resilient MEC simulation scenarios. 1 The source code is available at https://github.com/gaochuanchao/mecRT.

VI. E XPERIMENTAL E VALUATION This section evaluates FastSA by comparing it with three state-of-the-art benchmark algorithms from the literature. We first examine FastSA in a fault-free MEC environment and then analyze the impact of backhaul link and ES failures on FastSA. All experiments are conducted on a desktop PC with an Intel(R) Xeon(R) W-2235 CPU and 32 GB of RAM. A. Simulation Setup We evaluate FastSA using the simulator mecRT [48], which provides detailed 5G network modeling and task offloading control logic. The simulation emulates an intelligent transportation scenario, where MEC services are provided to vehicles. Real taxi GPS trajectory data [34] is used to model vehicle mobility. Specifically, we extract all taxi trajectories passing through a 1 km × 1 km urban area in Shanghai over a 15-minute period, during which 80 taxis traverse the area. We deploy 15 ESs evenly along the roads to provide MEC services. Each ES manages a 5G network with 270 BUs (i.e., Bk = 270), delivering a total data rate of 37 MB/s (obtained from profiling) under optimal channel quality. Additionally, each ES is equipped with a GPU server containing 20 CUs (i.e., Ck = 20), where the GPU type is randomly selected from three models (RTX3090, RTX4090, RTX4500). Notably, for the same allocated CUs, the execution time of a given service varies across different GPU types. We consider four image classification services (ResNet-101/152 [49], Convnext-L [50], RegNet-Y-L [51]), and profile their execution on each GPU type. Furthermore, the service initialization time on various ESs is randomly sampled from the range of [10, 50] ms. Each vehicle runs multiple applications (tasks). For each task ni , its input data is randomly sampled from the ImageNet ILSVRC dataset [52], with data sizes ranging from 0.14MB to 0.6MB. The local application model is randomly selected from three lightweight image classification networks: ResNet18 [49], GoogleNet [53], and RegNet-X-S [51]. We profile the Nvidia Jetson Nano, an embedded GPU-based device, to obtain local execution time dloc i and accuracy for each local model. The period is set to 60, 70, or 80ms for tasks using model ResNet-18, GoogleNet, and RegNet-X-S, respectively. Benchmark Algorithms. We compare FastSA with three related algorithms adapted from prior studies: Greedy [27], Game [18], and Graph [29]. Among them, only Graph provides a theoretical guarantee of 1−α 2 , where α denotes the maximum fraction of an ES’s capacity that can be allocated to a single task. In contrast, Greedy and Game offer no such theoretical guarantee for problem P. Since FastSA, Greedy, and Game do not require α, we set α = 21 for Graph in our experiment. • Greedy: For each ℓ ∈ L, Greedy defines resource efficiency as e(ℓ) = u(ℓ)/( Bbℓj × Ccℓk ), where mj and mk are the offload-ES and process-ES of ℓ. It then processes all ℓ ∈ L in non-increasing order of e(ℓ), selecting each service whenever feasibility constraints are met. • Game: Game models P as a non-cooperative game, in which each vehicle acts as a player, and selects the ℓ ∈ L that maximizes total utility in each iteration.

Graph: Graph converts P into a tripartite graph matching problem and solves it with an LP rounding method. Scheduling algorithm performance is assessed using two metrics: predicted and measured accuracy improvement. That is, the improved image classification accuracy as a result of successfully offloading the task and receiving the results within the deadline when compared to executing the task only locally on the ED. The predicted accuracy improvement represents the result estimated by the algorithm itself, assuming static network conditions for the whole scheduling interval and neglecting execution overhead. In contrast, the measured accuracy improvement is obtained from simulation results based on the actual offloaded job instances, capturing the impact of network fluctuations and algorithm execution overhead. Since the simulation lasts 900 seconds, the results are reported as the total accuracy improvement per second for consistency. •

B. Result Discussion Two sets of experiments are conducted. Since the scheduling algorithm is invoked once for each scheduling interval, the first experiment evaluates FastSA in a fault-free MEC under different scheduling intervals. The second experiment introduces backhaul link and ES failures during simulation to assess FastSA under our fault detection and recovery framework. 1) Fault-Free MEC: In the first experiment, we evaluate FastSA in a fault-free MEC under different scheduling intervals: 5s, 10s, and 15s. The average predicted and measured accuracy improvements are presented in Figs. 4(a) and 4(b), respectively. On average, the predicted accuracy improvement of FastSA is 27% lower than that of Greedy, but 34.2% and 38.7% higher than those of Game and Graph, respectively. Besides, the measured accuracy improvement of FastSA surpasses Greedy, Game, and Graph by 15.3%, 31.1%, and 33.3%, respectively. Although FastSA achieves the secondhighest predicted accuracy improvement, its measured performance significantly exceeds that of all benchmark algorithms, demonstrating its superior resource utilization efficiency in realistic, dynamic MEC environments. A comparison between Figs. 4(a) and 4(b) reveals a clear discrepancy between the predicted and measured accuracy improvements. On average, the measured accuracy improvements of FastSA, Greedy, Game, and Graph are 38.1%, 58.7%, 35.2%, and 32.6% lower than their predicted values, respectively. The underlying cause is shown in Fig. 4(c), which illustrates the average fallback ratio in each scheduling interval. The fallback ratio is defined as the proportion of jobs successfully served (i.e., offloaded and completed within deadlines) relative to the total number of generated jobs for tasks that are granted in each scheduling interval. It consists of two components: “-O” in Fig. 4(c) denotes jobs not offloaded due to scheduling algorithm overhead, while “-N” corresponds to those not offloaded due to network quality fluctuations (the channel quality decides the MCS selection, and hence the data offloading rate). As shown, the average fallback ratios of FastSA, Greedy, Game, and Graph are 38.7%, 59.5%, 34.3%, and 29.9%, respectively. Moreover, the fallback ratios

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 4. In fault-free MEC, for different scheduling intervals, the average (a) predicted and (b) measured accuracy improvements, and (c) fallback ratio.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 5. In fault-free MEC, for different request counts, the results for (a) measured accuracy improvement and (b) algorithm execution time.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 6. Ablation results for FastSA in fault-free MEC. (a) The impact of service-instance division under varying scheduling intervals; (b) the impact of task forwarding under varying effective communication ranges. Measured accuracy improvements are shown.

of FastSA, Greedy, and Game are primarily influenced by network variations, whereas that of Graph is dominated by algorithmic overhead. Besides, the 38.7% fallback ratio of FastSA highlights a promising research direction: incorporating wireless network variation awareness into the problem formulation to enhance robustness against such dynamics. We further examine how the measured accuracy improvement and execution time vary with the number of pending requests, as shown in Figs. 5(a) and 5(b). In Fig. 5(a), the measured accuracy improvement of all algorithms generally increases with the request count, except for Graph, whose

performance degrades due to its scheduling overhead (and hence a higher fallback ratio). FastSA consistently outperforms Greedy, Game, and Graph, with the performance gap widening as the number of requests grows. Meanwhile, the average execution time (Fig. 5(b)) of FastSA is 0.05s, which is 18.4×, 1.4×, and 37.5× faster than Greedy, Game, and Graph, respectively. These results demonstrate the superior practical performance and runtime efficiency of FastSA. 2) Ablation Evaluation in Fault-Free MEC: In the second experiment, we evaluate the impact of service-instance division and task forwarding on FastSA in a fault-free MEC setting. The average measured accuracy improvement under different scheduling intervals is shown in Fig. 6(a). FastSA-ND denotes a variant of FastSA that processes all service instances in a unified category order (LL, LH, HL, HH) without division. As shown, FastSA and FastSA-ND achieve similar measured accuracy improvements across all scheduling intervals, indicating that instance division does not incur noticeable performance loss. Meanwhile, FastSA additionally provides a constant-factor approximation guarantee, improving theoretical robustness without sacrificing practical performance. We next evaluate the impact of task forwarding. Since 5G coverage is spatially limited, enabling forwarding increases the flexibility of task placement and allows the system to better utilize ES resources. Here, we consider different effective gNB communication ranges, where a task may only be offloaded to a gNB if its ED lies within the gNB’s communication range. The measured accuracy improvement

(a)

(b)

Fig. 7. In fault-injected MEC, the normalized average (a) measured and (b) predicted accuracy improvement for different fault types and fault ratios.

under different effective gNB communication ranges is shown in Fig. 6(b), where FastSA-NF disables task forwarding. On average, FastSA achieves 26.2% higher measured accuracy improvements than FastSA-NF, indicating that task forwarding effectively improves performance by enabling more flexible use of ES resources. 3) Fault-Injected MEC: In the third experiment, we evaluate the accuracy improvement of FastSA under the proposed fault detection and recovery framework by manually injecting backhaul link faults (termed link fault) and ES faults (termed node fault). The simulation runs for 900s with a scheduling interval of 10s. Three fault ratios are considered for both link and node faults: 0.1, 0.2, and 0.25. For each ratio, randomly sampled link or node faults are injected into the MEC in the middle of every 100s time interval and are removed at the end of the same interval, e.g., during the time interval [0, 100], a fault is injected at 50s and cleared at 100s. In the simulation, the period of the HELLO message for link state monitoring is set to 100ms. The recovery time is defined as the duration between fault injection and the election of a new global scheduler. During this interval, all tasks are processed locally. Simulation results show that the recovery time does not exceed 108ms, which is negligible compared to the 10s scheduling interval. This demonstrates the superior efficiency of our framework in fault detection and recovery. The average measured accuracy improvement is presented in Fig. 7(a), where all values are normalized to the fault-free baseline. For comparison, results with the fault detection and recovery framework disabled are also included (denoted as “-D” in Fig. 7(a)). When the framework is disabled, the ES hosting the global scheduler is excluded from fault injection; otherwise, offloading would not be possible. As shown in Fig. 7(a), under link faults, the average measured accuracy improvements with and without the framework drop to 92.2% and 78.3% of the fault-free baseline, respectively. With the framework enabled, performance remains close to the faultfree level and only slightly declines as the fault ratio increases. This is because link failures do not reduce the total ES resources in the MEC, and the backhaul network can reroute data through alternative paths after resynchronization. In contrast, disabling the framework leads to a significant drop in accuracy improvement as the fault ratio grows, as the scheduler is not aware of the infeasible backhaul paths, and deadlines

will be missed for job instances routed through those paths. For node faults, as shown in Fig. 7(a), the measured accuracy improvement decreases with higher fault ratios, with a notably greater degradation when the framework is disabled. On average, the measured accuracy improvements with and without the framework are 83.9% and 72.1% of the faultfree baseline, respectively. Node faults result in more severe performance degradation than link faults because they directly reduce the available ES resources in the MEC. These results verify the effectiveness of our framework in maintaining system performance under both link and node faults. The average predicted accuracy improvement is presented in Fig. 7(b), where all results are normalized to the faultfree baseline. On average, the predicted accuracy improvement decreases to 91% and 74.8% of the fault-free baseline under link and node faults, respectively. A comparison between Figs. 7(a) and 7(b) indicates that the reduction in measured accuracy improvement is smaller than that in the predicted values, particularly under node faults. This discrepancy arises because, after a fault is injected, fewer tasks are granted for offloading. Consequently, network interference due to concurrent data offloading is reduced, leading to a smaller fallback ratio caused by network quality fluctuations. VII. C ONCLUSION This paper investigated a forwarding-enabled DOAP in MEC, denoted as P, which jointly optimizes task offloading and resource allocation under wireless bandwidth and computational resource constraints to maximize the total inference accuracy improvement. To solve P, we proposed FastSA, a 1 -approximation algorithm that offers the first linear-time 10 constant-factor guarantee for the forwarding-enabled DOAP. We also designed a fault-tolerant task offloading framework capable of detecting and recovering from backhaul link and ES failures. Experimental results show that FastSA outperforms all benchmark algorithms in fault-free settings while achieving the lowest execution time, and that the proposed fault-handling framework effectively preserves service quality under faultinjected scenarios. Lastly, we observed a gap between the predicted and measured accuracy improvements of FastSA due to wireless network quality fluctuations. As future work, we plan to incorporate wireless variation awareness into the problem formulation to enhance robustness against such dynamics.

R EFERENCES [1] W. Ji, T. Ebrahimi, Z. Li, J. Yuan, D. O. Wu, and Y. Xin, “Guest editorial: Emerging visual iot technologies for future communications and networks,” IEEE Wireless Communications, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 10– 11, 2021. [2] C. Gao, N. Kumar, and A. Easwaran, “Energy-efficient real-time job mapping and resource management in mobile-edge computing,” in 2024 IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium (RTSS), 2024, pp. 15–28. [3] E. Yurtsever, J. Lambert, A. Carballo, and K. Takeda, “A survey of autonomous driving: Common practices and emerging technologies,” IEEE access, vol. 8, pp. 58 443–58 469, 2020. [4] A. Polino, R. Pascanu, and D. Alistarh, “Model compression via distillation and quantization,” 2018. [Online]. Available: https: //arxiv.org/abs/1802.05668 [5] Y. Dai, D. Xu, S. Maharjan, and Y. Zhang, “Joint offloading and resource allocation in vehicular edge computing and networks,” in 2018 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM), 2018, pp. 1–7. [6] C. Zhu, J. Tao, G. Pastor, Y. Xiao, Y. Ji, Q. Zhou, Y. Li, and A. YläJääski, “Folo: Latency and quality optimized task allocation in vehicular fog computing,” IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 4150–4161, 2019. [7] C. Xu, G. Zheng, and X. Zhao, “Energy-minimization task offloading and resource allocation for mobile edge computing in noma heterogeneous networks,” IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 69, no. 12, pp. 16 001–16 016, 2020. [8] Y. Dai, K. Zhang, S. Maharjan, and Y. Zhang, “Edge intelligence for energy-efficient computation offloading and resource allocation in 5g beyond,” IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 69, no. 10, pp. 12 175–12 186, 2020. [9] Z. Xie, X. Song, J. Cao, and W. Qiu, “Providing aerial mec service in areas without infrastructure: A tethered-uav-based energy-efficient task scheduling framework,” IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 9, no. 24, pp. 25 223–25 236, 2022. [10] J. Li, W. Liang, Y. Li, Z. Xu, X. Jia, and S. Guo, “Throughput maximization of delay-aware dnn inference in edge computing by exploring dnn model partitioning and inference parallelism,” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 3017–3030, 2023. [11] Q. Qi, X. Chen, and C. Yuen, “Joint offloading selection and resource allocation for integrated localization and computing in edge-intelligent networks,” IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, pp. 1–15, 2024. [12] X. Song, Q. Chen, S. Wang, and T. Song, “Cross-domain resources optimization for hybrid edge computing networks: federated drl approach,” Digital Communications and Networks, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352864824000361 [13] Z. Liao, C. Yuan, B. Zheng, and X. Tang, “An adaptive deployment scheme of unmanned aerial vehicles in dynamic vehicle networking for complete offloading,” IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 11, no. 13, pp. 23 509–23 520, 2024. [14] Q. He, J. Li, X. Zhu, A. Jolfaei, Z. Feng, A. Tolba, K. Yu, and Y. Fu, “Joint data offloading and energy-efficient secure mec resource allocation method for iot device data in ran communication,” IEEE Transactions on Green Communications and Networking, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 1008–1017, 2024. [15] M. A. Hossain and N. Ansari, “Network slicing for noma-enabled edge computing,” IEEE Transactions on Cloud Computing, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 811–821, 2023. [16] W. Jiang, B. Ai, M. Li, W. Wu, Y. Pei, and X. Shen, “Aerial-irss-assisted energy-efficient task offloading and computing,” IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 11, no. 11, pp. 20 178–20 193, 2024. [17] H. Wang, X. Chen, H. Xu, J. Liu, and L. Huang, “Joint job offloading and resource allocation for distributed deep learning in edge computing,” in 2019 IEEE 21st International Conference on High Performance Computing and Communications; IEEE 17th International Conference on Smart City; IEEE 5th International Conference on Data Science and Systems (HPCC/SmartCity/DSS), 2019, pp. 734–741. [18] Q. Li, J. Zhao, and Y. Gong, “Cooperative computation offloading and resource allocation for mobile edge computing,” in 2019 IEEE International Conference on Communications Workshops (ICC Workshops), 2019, pp. 1–6. [19] T. T. Vu, D. N. Nguyen, D. T. Hoang, E. Dutkiewicz, and T. V. Nguyen, “Optimal energy efficiency with delay constraints for multilayer cooperative fog computing networks,” IEEE Transactions on Communications, vol. 69, no. 6, pp. 3911–3929, 2021.

[20] W. Fan, Y. Su, J. Liu, S. Li, W. Huang, F. Wu, and Y. Liu, “Joint task offloading and resource allocation for vehicular edge computing based on v2i and v2v modes,” IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 4277–4292, 2023. [21] J. Lin, S. Huang, H. Zhang, X. Yang, and P. Zhao, “A deepreinforcement-learning-based computation offloading with mobile vehicles in vehicular edge computing,” IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 10, no. 17, pp. 15 501–15 514, 2023. [22] C. Gao and A. Easwaran, “Local ratio based real-time job offloading and resource allocation in mobile edge computing,” in Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Real-Time and IntelliGent Edge Computing, ser. RAGE ’25. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1145/3722567.3727843 [23] S. Hu and G. Li, “Dynamic request scheduling optimization in mobile edge computing for iot applications,” IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 1426–1437, 2020. [24] L. Zhong, Y. Li, M.-F. Ge, M. Feng, and S. Mao, “Joint task offloading and resource allocation for leo satellite-based mobile edge computing systems with heterogeneous task demands,” IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, pp. 1–15, 2025. [25] L. Li, Q. Qiu, Z. Xiao, Q. Lin, J. Gu, and Z. Ming, “A two-stage hybrid multi-objective optimization evolutionary algorithm for computing offloading in sustainable edge computing,” IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics, vol. 70, no. 1, pp. 735–746, 2024. [26] J. Du, L. Zhao, J. Feng, and X. Chu, “Computation offloading and resource allocation in mixed fog/cloud computing systems with min-max fairness guarantee,” IEEE Transactions on Communications, vol. 66, no. 4, pp. 1594–1608, 2018. [27] C. Gao, A. Shaan, and A. Easwaran, “Deadline-constrained multiresource task mapping and allocation for edge-cloud systems,” in GLOBECOM 2022 - 2022 IEEE Global Communications Conference, 2022, pp. 5037–5043. [28] Z. Wang, B. Lin, Q. Ye, Y. Fang, and X. Han, “Joint computation offloading and resource allocation for maritime mec with energy harvesting,” IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 11, no. 11, pp. 19 898–19 913, 2024. [29] C. Gao and A. Easwaran, “Energy-efficient joint offloading and resource allocation for deadline-constrained tasks in multi-access edge computing,” in 2025 IEEE 31st International Conference on Embedded and Real-Time Computing Systems and Applications (RTCSA), 2025, pp. 55– 67. [30] R. E. Burkard, M. Dell’Amico, and S. Martello, Assignment Problems. Philadelphia, PA: SIAM, 2009, chapter 7: Multi-dimensional Assignment Problems. [31] R. Bar-Yehuda, K. Bendel, A. Freund, and D. Rawitz, “Local ratio: A unified framework for approximation algorithms. in memoriam: Shimon even 1935-2004,” ACM Comput. Surv., vol. 36, no. 4, p. 422–463, dec 2004. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1145/1041680.1041683 [32] J. Moy, “Rfc2328: Ospf version 2,” USA, 1998. [33] G. Chuanchao, “mecrt: an mec simulator for real-time applications,” Oct. 2025. [Online]. Available: https://github.com/gaochuanchao/mecRT [34] SODA, “Shanghai qiangsheng taxi gps data trace (2018-04-01),” 2018. [Online]. Available: https://github.com/hetianzhang/Edge-DataSet?tab= readme-ov-file#taxi-trajectory-data [35] B. Jamil, H. Ijaz, M. Shojafar, K. Munir, and R. Buyya, “Resource allocation and task scheduling in fog computing and internet of everything environments: A taxonomy, review, and future directions,” ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR), vol. 54, no. 11s, pp. 1–38, 2022. [36] Q. Luo, S. Hu, C. Li, G. Li, and W. Shi, “Resource scheduling in edge computing: A survey,” IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 2131–2165, 2021. [37] S. Ramanathan, N. Shivaraman, S. Suryasekaran, A. Easwaran, E. Borde, and S. Steinhorst, “A survey on time-sensitive resource allocation in the cloud continuum,” it-Information Technology, vol. 62, no. 5-6, pp. 241– 255, 2020. [38] NVIDIA Corporation, CUDA Toolkit Documentation, 2025, green Contexts. [Online]. Available: https://docs.nvidia.com/cuda/ cuda-driver-api/group CUDA GREEN CONTEXTS.html [39] L. Yang, Z. Zheng, J. Wang, S. Song, G. Huang, and F. Li, “Adadet: An adaptive object detection system based on early-exit neural networks,” IEEE Transactions on Cognitive and Developmental Systems, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 332–345, 2024.

[40] 3GPP, “Physical channels and modulation (Release 16),” 3GPP, Tech. Rep. TS 38.211 V16.2.0, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi ts/138200 138299/138211/ 16.02.00 60/ts 138211v160200p.pdf [41] M. Kutila, K. Kauvo, P. Aalto, V. G. Martinez, M. Niemi, and Y. Zheng, “5g network performance experiments for automated car functions,” in 2020 IEEE 3rd 5G World Forum (5GWF), 2020, pp. 366–371. [42] W. Zhan, C. Luo, G. Min, C. Wang, Q. Zhu, and H. Duan, “Mobilityaware multi-user offloading optimization for mobile edge computing,” IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 69, no. 3, pp. 3341– 3356, 2020. [43] S. Raza, S. Wang, M. Ahmed, M. R. Anwar, M. A. Mirza, and W. U. Khan, “Task offloading and resource allocation for iov using 5g nr-v2x communication,” IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 9, no. 13, pp. 10 397–10 410, 2022. [44] M. Szalay, P. Mátray, and L. Toka, “Real-time faas: Towards a latency bounded serverless cloud,” IEEE Transactions on Cloud Computing, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 1636–1650, 2023. [45] H. A. Alameddine, S. Sharafeddine, S. Sebbah, S. Ayoubi, and C. Assi, “Dynamic task offloading and scheduling for low-latency iot services in multi-access edge computing,” IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 668–682, 2019. [46] ShareTechnote, “5g/nr - fr/operating bandwidth,” 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.sharetechnote.com/html/5G/5G FR Bandwidth. html [47] T. J. Xia and G. A. Wellbrock, “Commercial 100-gbit/s coherent transmission systems,” Optical Fiber Telecommunications, pp. 45–82, 2013. [48] C. Gao and A. Easwaran, “Real-time service subscription and adaptive offloading control in vehicular edge computing,” in 2025 IEEE RealTime Systems Symposium (RTSS), 2025, pp. 175–188. [49] K. He, X. Zhang, S. Ren, and J. Sun, “Identity mappings in deep residual networks,” in European conference on computer vision. Springer, 2016, pp. 630–645. [50] A. Trockman and J. Z. Kolter, “Patches are all you need?” arXiv preprint arXiv:2201.09792, 2022. [51] I. Radosavovic, R. P. Kosaraju, R. Girshick, K. He, and P. Dollár, “Designing network design spaces,” in Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, 2020, pp. 10 428–10 436. [52] O. Russakovsky, J. Deng, H. Su, J. Krause, S. Satheesh, S. Ma, Z. Huang, A. Karpathy, A. Khosla, M. Bernstein, A. C. Berg, and L. Fei-Fei, “ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge,” International Journal of Computer Vision (IJCV), vol. 115, no. 3, pp. 211–252, 2015. [53] C. Szegedy, W. Liu, Y. Jia, P. Sermanet, S. Reed, D. Anguelov, D. Erhan, V. Vanhoucke, and A. Rabinovich, “Going deeper with convolutions,” in Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, 2015, pp. 1–9.

Related documents

• Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning for EDGE Computing#10787
• AEGIS: Risk-Budgeted Online Scheduling for Resilient Continuous Edge Inference#925148
• AEGIS: Risk-Budgeted Online Scheduling for Resilient Continuous Edge Inference#920914
• To Train or Not to Train: Balancing Efficiency and Training Cost in Deep Reinforcement Learning for Mobile Edge Computing#792607
• To Train or Not to Train: Balancing Efficiency and Training Cost in Deep Reinforcement Learning for Mobile Edge Computing#788607