Role of nanobionics to improve the photosynthetic productivity in plants and algae: an emerging approach.

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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice 3 Biotech . 2025 Mar 6;15(4):74. doi: 10.1007/s13205-025-04244-2 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Role of nanobionics to improve the photosynthetic productivity in plants and algae: an emerging approach Komal Pandey Komal Pandey 1 Research Cell, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow Campus, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226028 India Find articles by Komal Pandey 1 , Chitralekha Nag Dasgupta Chitralekha Nag Dasgupta 1 Research Cell, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow Campus, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226028 India Find articles by Chitralekha Nag Dasgupta 1, ✉ Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Research Cell, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow Campus, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226028 India ✉ Corresponding author. Received 2024 Jul 30; Accepted 2025 Feb 16; Issue date 2025 Apr. © King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology 2025. Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law. PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC11885746  PMID: 40060293 Abstract The domain of nanobionics has gained attention since its inception due to its potential applicability in plant, microalgal treatments, productivity enhancement. This review compares the intake and mobilization of nanoparticles (NPs) in plant and algal cell. In plants, NPs enter from root or other openings, and then carried by apoplastic or symplastic transport and accumulated in various parts, whereas in algae, NPs enter via endocytosis, passive transmission pathways, traverse the algal cell cytoplasm. This study demonstrated the mechanisms of metal-based NPs such as zinc (Zn), silver (Ag), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), titanium (Ti), and silica (Si) for seed priming or plant treatments to improve productivity. These metal NPs are used as nano-fertilizer for plant growths. It has also been observed that these NPs can reduce pathogenic infection and help to cope up with environmental stresses including heavy metals contamination such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), and lead (Pb). Overall, the photosynthetic productivity increases through NPs as it increases ability to enhance light capture, improve electron transport, and optimize carbon fixation pathways and withstand stresses. These advancements not only elevate biomass production in plant improving agricultural output but also support the sustainable generation of biofuels and bioproducts from algae. Keywords: Nanobionics, Metal-based nanoparticles, Plant, Microalgae, Photosynthesis, Seed priming, Stress defense Introduction Nanobionics refers to the utilization of nanoparticles (NPs) and their interactions with photosynthesis to augment or control specific metabolic and physiological processes, leading to significant enhancements in productivity (Guardiola-Márquez et al. 2023 ). This cutting-edge technology offers various applications in agriculture, including the development of nanoformulations for agrochemicals like pesticides and fertilizers, utilizing plants as nanobiosensors for disease detection in crops, protecting from various biotic and abiotic stresses, employing nanodevices for plant genetic manipulation, and more (Sardar et al. 2022 ). NPs composed of diverse elements and compounds, including pure metals such as silver (Ag), gold (Au), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), titanium (Ti), lead (Pb), platinum (Pt), metal oxides, carbides, nitrides, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and chitosan complexes with zinc (Zn) or copper (Cu) (Jampílek and Kráľová 2019a , b ; Hossain et al. 2020 ). The most popular NPs for seed or plant treatments are based on Zn, Ag, Fe, Cu, Ti, and Si. Historical use and ease of preparation may influence the popularity of Ag-based NPs (Nowack et al. 2011 ). Most applications are oriented towards NPs containing microelements or macroelements, majorly due to the assumption that they induce a synergistic effect, positively impacting nutrition and overall plant properties. NPs with expensive inputs, such as Au-based or Pt-based, are rarely used in experiments, possibly due to cost considerations despite their potential antimicrobial and growth-promoting effects. Metal oxides are used widely in agriculture which encompass nitric oxide (Wodala et al. 2005 ; Lopes-Oliveira et al. 2019 ), copper oxide (Perreault et al. 2014 ; Moustakas et al. 2017 ), manganese-calcium oxide (Najafpour et al. 2013 , 2015 ), iron oxide (Sebastian et al. 2017 ; Bhat et al. 2022a ; Mounier et al. 2024 ; Ullah et al. 2024 ), zinc oxide (Yoshihara et al. 2019 ; Bhat et al. 2022b ; Komatsu et al. 2022 ; Banerjee et al. 2024 ; Sun et al. 2025 ), nickel oxide (Oukarroum et al. 2015 ; Sharma et al. 2023 ; Zhou et al. 2023 ), titanium dioxide (Tumburu et al. 2015 , 2017 ), cerium oxide (Majumdar et al. 2016 ; Yang et al. 2017 ; Abbas et al. 2020 ), mercuric oxide (AbdElgawad et al. 2020 ; Saleh et al. 2021 ), magnesium oxide (Abdelfattah et al. 2023 ; Gautam et al. 2023 ; Ali et al. 2024 ), aluminum oxide (Jin et al. 2017 ; Chandra and Keshavkant 2021 ). NPs manifest in different dimensional forms: 0D (all dimensions on the nanometer scale), 1D (with one dimension exceeding 100 nm), 2D (planar shapes with two dimensions larger than 100 nm), and 3D crystals (where all dimensions approach the 100 nm limit) (Syu et al. 2014 ; Najafpour et al. 2015 ; Li et al. 2022 ). Varied shapes such as flat, spherical, cylindrical, hollow core, conical, spiral, irregular, etc., along with uniform or irregular surfaces, add to the diversity of NPs. Their substantial reactivity, attributed to a high surface area to volume ratio, renders NPs excellent candidates for application across diverse industrial sectors (Syu et al. 2014 ; Najafpour et al. 2015 ; Li et al. 2022 ). Nanobionics aims to tap into the hidden capabilities of photosynthetic organisms like plants and algae using NPs. For instance, the limited ability of chloroplasts to absorb visible light results in a 50% reduction in the utilization of solar energy (Lei et al. 2007 ). The combination of microalgae and nanotechnology has garnered significant interest owing to their diminutive size, immense potential, and promising applications for humanity. By engineering molecular machinery through the manipulation and redesign of biochemical processes within algae organelles, and enhancing photosynthesis using NP techniques, microalgae species stand poised to emerge as crucial sources of a diverse array of bioenergy (Dasgupta et al. 2010 , 2015 ; Kumar et al. 2011 , 2014 ; Dasgupta 2015 ; Dasgupta et al. 2018 ; Velazquez et al. 2023 ) and exceptionally valuable active compounds (Dasgupta et al. 2018 ; Olabi et al. 2023 ; Rana and Prajapati 2023 ). NPs represent a fundamental model for the development of artificial photosynthesis due to their remarkable ability to harness light energy (Najafpour 2013 ). According to Carfagna et al., the introduction of Pb into Chlorella sorokiniana cultures resulted in the formation of Chlorella cell colonies characterized by cytoplasmic lipid droplets and distorted chloroplasts. Moreover, NPs play a crucial role as cofactors for enzymes participating in various biochemical processes such as CO 2 fixation, phosphorus acquisition, nitrogen assimilation, DNA transcription, and nitrate reduction (Carfagna et al. 2013 ; Kumar et al. 2014 ). Several NPs, including Ag, Pt, titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ), zinc oxide (ZnO), cerium (IV) oxide (CeO 2 ), nickel oxide (NiO), barium titanate (BaTiO 3 ), yttrium (III) oxide (Y 2 O 3 ), and aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ), have recently garnered attention for their potential in energy-efficient bio-nano manufacturing using microalgae. These factories could significantly contribute to synthesizing value-added compounds for various environmental and industrial applications due to enhanced yield, nutrient availability, and resistance to abiotic stresses (Shankar et al. 2016 ; Olabi et al. 2023 ). Metal-based NPs have garnered significant attention for their remarkable efficacy in enhancing crop growth and shielding crops from various biotic and abiotic stresses (Brestic and Allakhverdiev 2022 ; Wang et al. 2022 ). Moreover, they offer protection against abiotic stressors like drought, salinity, temperature fluctuations, and humidity. The advent of nanotechnologies has generated significant interest and exploration. The integration of nanotechnology into plant disease management represents a pioneering approach to tackling plant diseases (Ahmed et al. 2022 ). NPs, commonly employed as nanofertilizers, stand out as a prevalent application in this context. In the pursuit of enhancing crop production, the utilization of NPs in agriculture has become a crucial part of research (Al-Hadede et al. 2020 ). Liu and Lal proposed a classification based on the composition of NPs, categorizing them into macronutrient nanofertilizers (N, P, K, Mg, and Ca), micronutrient nanofertilizers (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, or Mo), nutrient-loaded nanofertilizers (e.g., nutrient-augmented nanozeolites), and plant-growth-enhancing nanomaterials (e.g., TiO 2 , carbon nanotubes, and graphene oxide) (Liu and Lal 2015 ). The stability of NPs, distinguishing between relatively stable ones like TiO 2 , Au, graphite, and fullerene-related compounds, and less stable ones like ZnO, CuO, and Fe 2 O 3 -based, is a crucial parameter for practical applications (Tao et al. 2015 ; Yallappa et al. 2015 ). Another significant application is nanopesticides, where NPs, particularly Ag NPs, exhibit strong antimicrobial effects. Various NPs based on Ti, Zn, Cu, chitosan, and graphene oxide are also effective in this regard. Their antimicrobial properties are influenced by factors such as shape, size, and concentration, with smaller NPs demonstrating enhanced transport into plant tissues. Mechanisms of action include changes in osmotic pressure and pH, disruption of cell membranes and enzymatic functions, and accelerated DNA fragmentation (Shahid et al. 2023 ). Nano-priming, a relatively new application, involves treating seeds with NPs to influence basic plant properties before development, presenting a promising method in seed treatment. Understanding the interaction of NPs in terms of mobility, reactivity, biological availability, and potential toxicity is crucial, with consideration of colloidal chemistry. Photocatalytic properties of certain NPs, such as TiO 2 , ZnO, SnO 2 , and CeO 2 , can be harnessed for increased efficiency (Mahakham et al. 2017 ; Shelar et al. 2021 ; Sheikhalipour et al. 2023 ). Despite the evident benefits of NPs in agriculture, potential risks such as environmental contamination and misuse should be acknowledged. Regulatory measures, particularly in the EU, involve chemical legislation (REACH EC 1907/2006) with nano-specific information requirements and provisions for safety assessment. The second regulatory level pertains to applications in agriculture, falling under rules for food production and safety, with the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) playing a crucial role in the EU context. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has played a pivotal role in establishing a scientific network for the risk in assessment of nanotechnologies in food and feed (Wang et al. 2012 ; Nandini et al. 2023 ). Allan et al. provided a comprehensive global review specifically focusing on this issue. A challenge associated with applying NPs to plants is the synthesis process, which may involve the use of toxic compounds such as formaldehyde (Allan et al. 2021 ). To address potential phytotoxicity, “green synthesis” methods involving plants, algae, fungi, and other microorganisms are recommended, reducing the environmental impact. While nanobionics holds immense promise for enhancing photosynthetic productivity, several critical research gaps must be addressed to realize its full potential. The mechanisms by which nanomaterials interact with photosynthetic machinery, including light-harvesting complexes and electron transport pathways, remain insufficiently understood (Pandey et al. 2022a , b ). Optimizing nanomaterials for targeted photosynthetic improvements, along with ensuring their biocompatibility and stability across diverse plant and algal systems, require deeper exploration. Furthermore, the scalability and effectiveness of nanobionics applications under field conditions remain largely untested, as most studies have been confined to controlled settings. This review would discuss the uptake, transport, and accumulation process of NPs in plant and algae. It also critically evaluates the use of NPs across different phases of plant growth, spanning from seed to mature plant. By comparing numerous articles, the study aims to identify commonly observed effects on treated plants and microalgae with frequently used NPs. The article presents how nanoparticles (NPs) can be used to enhance photosynthetic performance in both plants and algae. It would discuss the strengths and weaknesses of various approaches, offering insights into potential future applications. The review aims to serve as a valuable resource for plant scientists entering the field of NP utilization in Agricultural Sciences, aiding in the efficient planning and execution of experiments. Mobilization of NPs in plants and algae The uptake, transport, and accumulation of NPs in plants depend on various factors. NPs can enter mature plants through roots or shoots via various natural physiological transport mechanisms (Farooq et al. 2024 ). The shoot part is naturally exposed to atmospheric NPs, with artificial exposure occurring during spraying or direct injection into leaves. NPs can enter the plant cell through various surface openings, hair, trichomes, hydathodes, necrosis spots, stomata, (Xiong et al. 2017 ; Rizwan et al. 2021 ; Zhang et al. 2021 ). Only NPs with diameters smaller than cell wall pore diameters could easily pass through to reach the plasma membrane (Kim et al. 2015 ; Faizan et al. 2021a ). The stability of applied NPs is a crucial factor influencing uptake. Less stable NPs, like ZnO-based ones, may not enter the plant directly; instead, soluble forms resulting from their breakdown may be absorbed (Malea et al. 2019 ). Small-sized ZnO NPs were mainly localized at the edges of leaves; however, large-sized ZnO NP were primarily observed in the primary veins of leaves indicating a limitation to translocate from roots to leaves (Luciano-Velázquez et al. 2024 ). NPs can effectively influence the uptake of ions by plant roots. Possible mechanisms include the formation of apoplastic barriers, binding with metallic ions, rendering them unavailable, and inducing the production of structural protective exopolysaccharides (EPS), phenolic compounds, metallothioneins, and phytochelatins or activating the oxidation defense system of plants (Zhou et al. 2020 ). The cellulosic envelope, or cell wall, is a distinctive feature of plant cells, acting as a barrier against the intrusion of external substances, including NPs. Unlike plant cell walls, the algal cell wall possesses pores with sizes ranging from 5 to 20 nm, facilitating the movement of NPs while impeding larger molecules (Jeon et al. 2023 ). Moreover, specific negatively charged functional groups on microalgae cell surfaces may exhibit electrostatic attraction to positively charged NPs. Interactions between NPs and microalgae cells involve a complex process of NP adsorption, absorption, and dispersion on algal cell walls, membranes, and organelles, with various factors influencing NP adsorption capacity, including morphology, concentration, suspension rate, and exposure time (Jeon et al. 2023 ). NPs are primarily internalized into algal cells via endocytosis and passive transmission pathways. Interestingly, certain microalgae produce extracellular polymeric substances as a defense barrier, incorporating nanomaterials. NPs encounter various cellular organelles, including the Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and vacuoles, as they traverse the algal cell cytoplasm, influencing metabolic processes and reproductive mechanisms (Qiu et al. 2022 ). By enhancing the production of ROS-scavenging enzymes, NPs can support algal system internal structures, developmental phases, and carbon–nitrogen metabolism. These enzymes are essential for pathways involved in primary and secondary metabolite synthesis, such as pigment synthesis, carbon–nitrogen biosynthesis, and detoxification (Rana and Prajapati 2023 ). Encapsulation of a less acceptable element by a more easily received substance, such as copper core and carbon shell NPs, showed increased compared copper uptake by plant roots ( Taxodium distichum L.) to copper ions alone (Wohlmuth et al. 2022 ). Copper NPs were found to bioaccumulate in plant and animal bodies. Increased intake of copper NPs caused phytotoxic reactions, leading to growth retardation in wheat and bean plants (Ameh and Sayes 2019 ). After the uptake, transport of NPs in plant took place by two processes: apoplastic and symplastic transport (Shukla et al. 2016 ). NPs enter through epidermal and cortical cells by apoplastic transport to reach the endodermis. Sometimes NPs aggregated and accumulated during apoplastic movement due to the presence of Casparian strips in the endodermis. Symplastic transport is vital for NPs’ transport to reach neighboring cells. It enters the cell by ion channels, aquaporins, endocytosis or binding to transport proteins or by changing the electrochemical potential of the membrane (Azim et al. 2023 ; Schwab et al. 2016 ). Application of nano-priming to seeds Nano-priming is a seed treatment method using NPs to enhance seed properties, especially during germination. Nano-priming applications aim to deter seed contamination, increase tolerance to abiotic stress, and improve the production properties of plants grown from treated seeds (Imtiaz et al. 2023 ). Short exposure durations are effective for treating surface pathogen infestations, but for internal seed infections, nanomaterials may need to be incorporated into the inner part of the seed. NPs can enter seeds through aquaporins, membrane proteins involved in water and solute transport. NPs are typically applied as water solutions, requiring very short-exposure-duration hot water treatment (HWT) for eliminating pathogenic bacteria. In a study on wheat seeds ( Triticum aestivum L.), the application of 25 ppm of Fe- and Cu-NPs-activated numerous proteins involved in seed germination. This activation led to increased production of substances supporting germination and resistance to stress factors (Yasmeen et al. 2017a ) (Fig. 1 , Table 1 ). Fig. 1. Open in a new tab The figure illustrates the multifaceted role of nanoparticles in enhancing molecular defense mechanisms in biological systems under various stress conditions. It depicts how nanoparticles interact with cellular pathways to mitigate stress Table 1. Characteristics of nanoparticles and their specific impacts (plant growth, physiology, and stress tolerance) on plant are categorized to provide an integrative understanding of their roles in agriculture and plant biotechnology S. no. NP forms Plant species Effect on plant References 1 ZnO Triticum aestivum Increase in chlorophyll content, carotenoids, carbohydrate, and protein contents (Nazir et al. 2024b ) (Nazir et al. 2024b ) 2 ZnO Secale cereale L Increase in plant growth and biomass, gas exchange characteristics, enzymatic and non-enzymatic compounds, and their gene expression and also decreased oxidative stress (Okla et al. 2024 ) 3 Chitosan/ZnO Sorghum bicolor L Stimulate plant growth, nutrient uptake, chlorophyll and starch contents, while reducing MDA content and superoxide dismutase activity (Rani et al. 2024 ) 4 BC@ZnO Lolium perenne Biochar-modified Zn NP (BC@ZnO) treatments increased shoots and roots dry weight of ryegrass ( Lolium perenne) (Ghandali et al. 2024 ) 5 ZnS QDs Ocimum basilicum Increase in total chlorophyll content by 11% in plants exposed to 250 ppm of ZnS QDs (quantum dots) and 12% in plants exposed to 500 and 1000 ppm (Luciano-Velázquez et al. 2024 ) 6 SiO 2 Brassica napus L Enhance plant growth, photosynthetic performance, and antioxidants defense machinery through suppressing chromium uptake (Huang et al. 2024 ) 7 TiO 2 Hordeum vulgare Protect barley plants against B. sorokiniana via enhancement of chlorophyll content, improvement of plant health, and induction of the barley innate defense system (Metwally et al. 2024 ) 8 TiO 2 Oryza sativa Tetraploid rice plants were able to withstand and mitigate the lethal effects of lead toxicity by enhancing the activity of antioxidant enzymes and lowering ROS production during Pb stress (Ghouri et al. 2024 ) 9 Mn Vigna radiata L Enhanced nitrate intake leads to heightened activity levels of both nitrate reductase and nitrite reductase in both roots and leaves. In addition, experiments involving NPs tested on mice have not indicated any risk of manganism to mammals (Ghouri et al. 2024 ) 10 Ag Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Augmented germination was observed alongside confirmed enhancements in carbohydrate metabolism due to nano-priming. This method also resulted in elevated levels of photosynthetic pigments, increased stem diameter, extended shoot length, and elevated fruit yield. In addition, silver (Ag) was detected in the seeds of the fruit (Sarraf et al. 2022 ) 11 CuO/spherical; CuO coated with APTES Coriandrum sativum L An increase in the quantity of absorbed NPs correlates with a positive impact on germination (Sarkar et al. 2022 ) 12 CuO Zea mays L Reducing the physiological impacts of drought involves increasing chlorophyll and carotenoid levels, as well as enhancing the activity of antioxidant enzymes (Van Nguyen et al. 2022 ) 13 AgNPs spherical Brassica oleracea L Elimination of Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris was more efficient with NPs compared to the traditional hot water treatment method (Pečenka et al. 2021 ) 14 ZnO Triticum aestivum L Alleviating drought stress resulted in a rise in chlorophyll percentage and an increase in carotenoid content, enhancing the photoprotection of plants (Gomes et al. 2021 )(Rai-Kalal et al. 2021 ) 15 SiO 2 Triticum aestivum L Mitigating drought stress leads to an increase in the number of active reaction centers, elevated absorbance, enhanced trapping, and improved electron transport efficiency (Rai-Kalal et al. 2021 ) 16 ZnO/spherical and hexagonal shapes; Se/spherical Brassica napus L Mitigation of soil salinity effects involves reducing germination time, boosting metabolite activity, and enhancing antioxidant enzyme activity (El-Badri et al. 2021 ) 17 FeO/irregular surfaces Oryza sativa L Enhanced germination is characterized by accelerated water absorption, a higher percentage of germination, reduced germination duration, and notable stimulation of both amylase and antioxidant enzymes (Afzal et al. 2021 ) 18 CuO/6.6 nm Lactuca sativa L Lower concentrations (up to 40 µg/ml) modestly enhance plant germination (Pelegrino et al. 2020 ) 19 ZnO/rod morphology; TiO 2 /spherical; Ag/needle morphology Capsicum annum L Elimination of Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Colletotrichum capsici, coupled with enhanced germination, is achieved by elevating nitrate reductase activity, boosting antioxidant activity, and enhancing phytohormone reactivity (Dileep Kumar et al. 2020 ) 20 Chitosan-guar Oryza sativa L Elimination of Pyricularia grisea and Xanthomonas oryzae , coupled with support for germination and plant growth, results in accelerated germination, enhanced root growth, and a notable increase in chlorophyll levels (Sathiyabama and Muthukumar 2020 ) 21 Pt/Ag/Au Pisum sativum L The hindrance of rhizobial colonization and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, coupled with reduced germination, leads to a substantial increase in yield, including the number of fruits and seeds. However, it is important to note the detrimental toxic impact of platinum (Pt) on Peperomia pellucida L . (Rahman et al. 2020 ) 22 Mn/spherical Capsicum annuum L Reduction in the effect of soil salinity—specific redistribution of elements in the plant body, higher roots elongation, regulation of manganese superoxide dismutase production (Ye et al. 2020 ) 23 MgO/Face Centered Cubic structure Vigna radiata L Mitigation of soil salinity effects involves the specific redistribution of elements within the plant, promoting greater root elongation, and regulating the production of manganese superoxide dismutase (Vijai Anand et al. 2020 ) 24 SiO 2 /Pd/Au/Cu Lactuca sativa L The antimicrobial impact on soil microorganisms results in reduced root length but increased stem length (Acharya et al. 2020 ) 25 Ag 2 S/ ZnS spherical, Glycine max L., Triticum aestivum L While germination rates increase, plant growth is hindered, leading to longer root and shoot lengths. Prolonged soaking time and higher concentrations result in inhibition of both germination and growth (Afsheen et al. 2020 ) 26 FeS agglomeration Oryza sativa L The elimination of Fusarium verticillioides affects the integrity of the pathogen’s cell membrane and negatively impacts its reproductive capabilities (Ahuja et al. 2019 ) 27 Zn-chitosan Zea mays L Elimination of Curvularia lunata has a beneficial impact on plant growth, resulting in a higher percentage of chlorophyll, accelerated root and plant growth rates, earlier maturity, and increased spike length (Choudhary et al. 2019 ) 28 Fe 2 O 3 spherical Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Affecting phytohormone production results in heightened synthesis of 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid (cis-OPDA) and jasmonic acid (Kasote et al. 2019 ) 29 ZnO/ Fe Triticum aestivum L The elongation of plants and roots has led to a decrease in the uptake of Cd from the soil. In addition, there has been a notable increase in the dry weight of shoots, roots, cobs, and grains. Furthermore, the photosynthetic parameters, including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids, have been significantly affected (Hussain et al. 2019 ) 30 Si Triticum aestivum L Decrease in cadmium absorption from the soil resulted in enhanced growth parameters such as shoot and root dry weight, shoot length, grain weight, and ear length. In addition, there was an improvement in ear dry weight, photosynthesis, and chlorophyll content, along with a decrease in reactive oxygen species levels (Hussain et al. 2019 ) 31 Ag spherical Vicia faba L The decrease in genotoxic effects showed no significant changes in plumule fresh and dry weight and water content, but there was a significant increase in root elongation and vitality index (Younis et al. 2019 ) 32 Fe 2 O 3 Triticum aestivum L Enhanced germination led to a notable increase in shoot growth, elevated chlorophyll formation, and a significant accumulation of Fe in the harvested seeds (Sundaria et al. 2019 ) 33 Cinnamaldehyde encapsulated in alginate Pisum sativum L The eradication of Pseudomonas syringae pv. pisi, accelerated seed germination, enhancement of plant structures, and the production of elongated pods with a higher seed count have been achieved (Bravo Cadena et al. 2018 ) 34 Fe 2 O 3 Sorghum bicolor L Reduction in the effect of soil salinity—the highest increase in stomatal conductance and transpiration rate, increased chlorophyll a, b, carotenoids and relative water content (Maswada et al. 2018 ) 35 ZnO Chili pepper The impact on seed germination growth is noteworthy, as higher concentrations contribute to the support of germination, root elongation, length of the aerial part, and overall plant growth (Afrayeem Syed Mohmad and Chaurasia 2017 ) 36 Fe/Cu Triticum aestivum L Increased germination of three varieties—activated proteins involved in the process of seed germination were detected (Yasmeen et al. 2017b ) 37 Ag/spherical and ellipsoidal; Oryza sativa L Enhancement of germination and starch metabolism in older rice seeds through accelerated water absorption and heightened amylase activity (Mahakham et al. 2017 ) 38 ZnO agglomerates Triticum aestivum L Enhancement in germination and growth, with a significant increase observed in the length of roots, shoots, and leaves. However, there was no significant impact on the number of roots (Awasthi et al. 2017 ) 39 ZnO crystalline Lupinus albus L Decrease in soil salinity leads to enhanced photosynthesis through elevated levels of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids, as well as heightened activity of antioxidant enzymes (Abdel Latef et al. 2017 ) 40 Fe/ SiO Zea mays L., Hordeum vulgare Enhanced germination results in quicker seed sprouting and plant development (Najafi Disfani et al. 2017 b) 41 Zn Brassica pekinensis L Germination remains unaffected, with a notable hindrance in root growth, a lesser hindrance in shoot growth, and smaller NPs exhibiting higher levels of phytotoxicity (Xiang et al. 2015 b) Open in a new tab Defense against biotic stresses Numerous NPs with diverse chemical compositions have exhibited antibacterial effects. To minimize the treatment duration and avoid inducing undesirable germination, vacuum-assisted methods are employed to enhance the penetration of NPs into the internal structures of seeds. This approach also has the potential to impact microorganisms within the seed. Seeds, being a crucial source of infection, especially for seed-borne pathogens, necessitate effective methods for pathogen elimination. The modes of action for different NPs, such as Zn, Se, Cu, Ag, and chitosan, vary significantly and must be considered when planning seed treatment methods. Metal NPs, like FeS, have demonstrated strong antimicrobial effects on rice seeds, reducing the incidence of Fusarium verticillioides more effectively than common fungicides (Wohlmuth et al. 2022 ; Khepar et al. 2023 ). ZnO, TiO 2 , and Ag NPs have shown antimicrobial activity against various pathogens without causing phytotoxic symptoms during chili seed germination (Tanwar 2021 ; Khepar et al. 2023 ). Seed treatment with CuO and ZnO NPs showed enhanced efficacy in reducing the bacterial load on pea seeds ( Pisum sativum L.) (Song and He 2021 ; Nile et al. 2022 ). Chitosan-guar NPs (CGNP) applied to rice seeds improved germination and protected against rice pathogens (Sathiyabama and Muthukumar 2020 ). Zn-chitosan NPs exhibited antimicrobial activity against Curvularia lunata , providing a sustained antifungal effect and acting as a source of plant nutrition for corn (Tanwar 2021 ). Zn-chitosan-based NPs applied to corn seeds enhance resistance against the fungus Curvularia lunata . The NPs not only exhibit antimicrobial properties but also increase the activity of defense enzymes in treated plants (Wohlmuth et al. 2022 ). Zn-encapsulated chitosan NPs applied to corn seeds ( Zea mays L.) demonstrated positive effects on germination, compensated for Zn deficiency, and exhibited antimicrobial activity against the pathogenic fungus Curvularia lunata (Choudhary et al. 2019 ). Fe 2 O 3 NPs applied to melon seeds do not exert phytotoxic effects but activate defense responses, contributing to increased resistance (Wang et al. 2019 ). In contrast, seed treatment with CuO and ZnO NPs showed enhanced efficacy in reducing bacterial populations on pea seeds, highlighting the potential of nano-priming for seed sanitation (Wohlmuth et al. 2022 ). Cinnamaldehyde-encapsulated alginate NPs, used as a biofertilizer, demonstrated a synergistic effect of growth promotion and antimicrobial activity against Pseudomonas syringae pv. pisi in pea seeds (Wohlmuth et al. 2022 ). Assessing the impact on soil microflora is crucial, as some NPs may exhibit antimicrobial effects in vitro but not in situ due to adsorption by soil substances. The antimicrobial properties of these NPs contributed to a significant decrease in the bacterial population compared to conventional hot water treatment (HWT) (do Espirito Santo Pereira et al. 2021 ). Direct comparisons between nano-priming and conventional HWT revealed the limited effectiveness of HWT in eliminating pathogenic bacteria (do Espirito Santo Pereira et al. 2021 ; Wohlmuth et al. 2022 ; Vega-Fernández et al. 2023 ). Tolerance to abiotic stresses Nano-priming demonstrates significant potential in enhancing plant tolerance to both biotic and abiotic stresses, offering a promising avenue for agricultural applications. ZnO NPs found to be very effective against drought stress during seed germination, protecting chlorophyll from degradation and benefiting antioxidant enzyme activity (Faizan et al. 2021b ). ZnO NPs reduce stress effects in untreated lupine plants ( Lupinus albus L. ) and exposed to increased salinity, leading to healthier growth and lower sodium uptake (Mirza et al. 2023 ). Similarly, in Pisum sativum , lower ZnO concentration (50 ppm) showed positive impacts on pea morphology and biochemical parameters in salinity stress; however, higher concentration found to be detrimental (Mustafa et al. 2024 ). Se and ZnO NPs mitigate hormonal imbalances induced by saline environments during the germination of rapeseed ( Brassica napus L. ), minimizing stress effects (El-Badri et al. 2021 ). SiO 2 NPs similarly show positive effects, balancing reactive oxygen species production and enzymatic activity in treated seeds. Enhanced water uptake is observed when water is available (Soares et al. 2018 ). Cu NPs, when applied to corn seeds ( Zea mays L. ), increase resistance to drought, promote germination, and enhance seedling vitality (Gomes et al. 2021 ; Rai-Kalal et al. 2021 ). Mn NPs reduce the uptake of contaminants lowering salt ion concentrations in the plants (AL-Zuhairi et al. 2020 ). Fe 2 O 3 NPs, protect against increased salinity, alleviate stress effects caused by soil salinity. Improved germination and seedling growth are observed, mitigating the impact of environmental salinity (Maswada et al. 2018 ). The effect of various NPs on plant is tabulated in Table 1 . Improve phytohormone production and plant performance Nano-primed seeds were found to affect phytohormone production, including abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellic acid (GA). The presence of NPs induced the accumulation of reactive oxygen species associated with the end of dormancy, influencing subsequent seedling development and plant defense responses (Wojtyla et al. 2016 ; Guha et al. 2018 ; Chandrasekaran et al. 2020 ). Ag NPs, in combination with turmeric oil nanoemulsions (TNE), enhanced germination rates, metabolic activity, biomass production, and yield in watermelon cultivars, particularly triploid varieties (Acharya et al. 2020 ). A brief exposure of aged rice seeds ( Oryza sativa L. ) to Ag NPs, formed by green synthesis, increased enzyme activity, germination rates, and subsequent seedling development (Guha et al. 2020 ). Ag NPs applied to aged bean seeds ( Vicia faba L.) reduced genotoxic effects associated with seed aging (Falco et al. 2020 ). Advanced MgO NPs increased germination and seedling elongation in mung ( Vigna radiata L. ) seeds (Pradhan et al. 2013 ). CuO NPs coated with APTEX, synthesized using coriander extract, positively affected germination and water uptake in mung seeds (Sarkar et al. 2021 ). Mn NPs were investigated for their potential impact on nitrogen uptake and the metabolism of mung seeds ( Vigna radiata L. ) (Pradhan et al. 2013 ). Metal sulfide NP like silver sulfide (Ag 2 S) and zinc sulfide (ZnS) NPs promoted seed germination in soybean ( Glycine max L. ) and wheat ( Triticum aestivum L. ), positively influencing germination rates and growth parameters (Afsheen et al. 2020 ). Application of polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilized Pt NPs to pea ( Pisum sativum L. ) seeds inhibited rhizobial colonization and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Despite the negative effects, treated plants produced more seeds in a shorter time, increasing productivity (Rahman et al. 2020 ). Fe NPs such as FeO NPs stabilized with Cassia occidentalis L. flower extract enhanced the germination of rice ( Oryza sativa L. ) seeds and vitality of seedlings, showing a more favorable effect compared to iron sulfate (FeSO 4 ) (Afzal et al. 2021 ). Wheat ( Triticum aestivum L. ) seeds nano-primed with Fe 2 O 3 NPs increased seed germination and resulted in higher iron biofortification and accumulation in the produced seeds (Sundaria et al. 2019 ). Fe-based NPs stabilized on a silica substrate shortened germination time, increased growth rate, and biomass formation in maize ( Zea mays ‘Single 704’) and barley ( Hordeum vulgare ‘Valfajr’) seeds (Najafi Disfani et al. 2017 ). Nano-priming with ZnO NPs showed beneficial effects on seed germination but negatively affected the subsequent development of wheat ( Triticum aestivum L. ) plants (Awasthi et al. 2017 ). Four types of Zn-based NPs did not negatively impact the germination rate but inhibited root and shoot elongation in Chinese cabbage ( Brassica pekinensis L .) plants (Xiang et al. 2015 ). Seed nano-priming with various NPs demonstrates its potential to improve plant performance under different conditions, addressing issues such as heavy metal stress, seed aging, and naturally reduced germination rates. The application of NPs contributes to increased germination, vitality, and overall plant health, making it a valuable strategy for sustainable agriculture. Application of polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilized Pt NPs to pea ( Pisum sativum L. ) seeds inhibited rhizobial colonization and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Despite the negative effects, treated plants produced more seeds in a shorter time, increasing productivity (Rahman et al. 2020 ). FeO NPs stabilized with Cassia occidentalis L. flower extract enhanced the germination of rice ( Oryza sativa L. ) seeds and vitality of seedlings, showing a more favorable effect compared to FeSO 4 (Afzal et al. 2021 ). Wheat ( Triticum aestivum L. ) seeds nano-primed with Fe 2 O 3 increased seed germination and resulted in higher Fe biofortification and accumulation in the produced seeds (Sundaria et al. 2019 ). Fe-based NPs stabilized on a silica substrate shortened germination time, increased growth rate, and biomass formation in maize ( Zea mays ‘Single 704’) and barley ( Hordeum vulgare ‘Valfajr’) seeds (Najafi Disfani et al. 2017 ). Nano-priming with ZnO NPs showed beneficial effects on seed germination but negatively affected the subsequent development of wheat ( Triticum aestivum L. ) plants (Awasthi et al. 2017 ). Four types of Zn-based NPs did not negatively impact the germination rate but inhibited root and shoot elongation in Chinese cabbage ( Brassica pekinensis L .) plants (Xiang et al. 2015 ). Bao-shan et al. found that Si NPs stimulate the growth of larch seedlings. Root soaking in a diluted NPs solution led to increased chlorophyll levels in the seedlings (Bao-shan et al. 2004 ). Ashkavand et al. tested silica NPs on hawthorn and mahaleb, observing a decrease in water potential but increased growth of above ground and underground plant parts, higher concentrations showed phytotoxicity (Ashkavand et al. 2018 ). Hormetic effects of NPs for enhancing photosynthetic productivity The hormetic effect of NPs plays a critical role in their application in nanobionics, particularly for enhancing photosynthetic productivity in plants and algae. Hormesis is a biological phenomenon characterized by a biphasic response to a stressor, where low concentrations of NPs stimulate positive physiological and biochemical processes, while higher concentrations can cause toxicity and harmful effects (Erofeeva 2023 ). In the context of photosynthesis, NPs such as carbon-based materials, quantum dots, and metal oxides exhibit unique properties that, at optimal doses, enhance light capture, improve the efficiency of electron transport chains, and optimize carbon fixation pathways (Erofeeva 2023 ). These effects contribute to greater photosynthetic efficiency and biomass accumulation. Moreover, low concentrations of NPs can activate antioxidant defense mechanisms and induce stress-resilient pathways, helping plants and algae better cope with abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, and temperature fluctuations (Pandey et al. 2022a , b ). For instance, ZnO and TiO 2 NPs have been shown to boost chlorophyll content and photoprotective mechanisms, while carbon-based NPs improve water-use efficiency and nutrient uptake. However, when NPs are applied at excessively high concentrations, they can disrupt cellular homeostasis, induce oxidative stress through excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and impair key photosynthetic processes. This duality highlights the importance of precise dosing and careful characterization of NPs, including their size, surface properties, and chemical composition, to harness their beneficial effects while avoiding toxicity (Iavicoli et al. 2018 ). To fully leverage the hormetic effects of NPs for photosynthetic enhancement, a deeper understanding of their interactions with photosynthetic machinery and the metabolic pathways of plants and algae is essential (Agathokleous 2021 ). Furthermore, it is critical to evaluate long-term implications and address potential environmental and ecological risks associated with NP use. It will enable sustainable application of nanobionics to improve photosynthetic productivity, contributing to global efforts in food security, biofuel production, and climate change mitigation. In addition, nanobionics facilitate precise tracking of photosynthetic processes using advanced imaging and biosensing techniques. Enhancement of efficiency of fertilizer Increased demand for food production and profitability has led to higher fertilizer use by farmers. Conventional mineral fertilizers, while effective, have adverse effects on the environment, including nutrient leaching and undesirable mineralization forms. Biofertilizers, consisting of living or latent cells of symbiotic microorganisms, offer an alternative. Examples include species colonizing the rhizosphere or inside the plant. Nanotechnologies present another option to enhance fertilizer efficiency in agriculture. Treatment of coffee plants with ZnO NPs resulted in significantly higher zinc content, increased fresh and dry weights of roots and leaves (Abel et al. 2021 ). Cluster bean plants treated with ZnO NPs exhibited increased growth, biomass production, enzymatic activity, chlorophyll levels, and rhizospheric microbial population (Raliya and Tarafdar 2013 ). ZnO NPs were also applied on wheat to increase growth, yield, and Zn biofortification (Nazir et al. 2024a ). ZnO NPs, when compared to normal-sized particles, showed positive effects on chickpea plants, including enhanced biomass production and enzyme activity without phytotoxicity (Burman et al. 2013 ). Jatav and De Nirmal discussed nanofertilizers with controlled release using various nanocomposites as adsorption matrices. Superadsorbent polymers like polylactide, polyglycolide copolymers, polycaprolactones, polyacrylates, and natural polymers such as alginate, albumin, and chitosan were explored (Jatav and De Nirmal 2013 ). Preetha and Balakrishnan used nanoclays and zeolites as adsorption matrices for the controlled release of phosphate fertilizer. Zeolites were found to be more promising for phosphate release (Preetha and Balakrishnan 2017 ). Foliar spraying of ZnO NPs on foxtail millet and lentil plants had grains with higher oil and total nitrogen contents, along with a lower crop water stress index (Kolenčík et al. 2019 ). Lentil plants also showed increased growth and a lower crop water stress index when foliar sprayed with ZnO NPs (Kolenčík et al. 2022 ). Bean plants treated with Zn, Fe, and Mn NPs resulted in increased growth properties and biomass production. The most favorable outcomes were observed with Zn treatment (Marzouk et al. 2019 ). Raliya et al. compared the effects of TiO 2 and ZnO NPs on tomato growth. Critical concentration limits were identified, beyond which plant growth and development did not show further improvement (Raliya et al. 2015 ). These findings suggest that the application of NPs, particularly ZnO, can positively impact plant growth, biomass production, and nutrient content. However, careful consideration of concentration limits is essential to avoid potential adverse effects. A study comparing TiO 2 and ZnO NPs on sunflowers revealed that ZnO NP treatment induced generally better physiological responses, while TiO 2 treatment significantly affected quantitative parameters such as early maturation and oil content (Kolenčík et al. 2020 ). Foliar application of silver NPs (Ag) on wheat, mung bean, and mustard plants showed predominantly positive effects on growth parameters. The study also investigated the impact of treatments on soil bacterial diversity (Pallavi et al. 2016 ). Chitosan-based nanofertilizers containing nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) were applied via foliar spraying on wheat plants. The treated plants exhibited faster growth, earlier harvest maturity, and higher yields (Abdel-Aziz et al. 2016 ). Graphene oxide was found to have a negligible effect on bacterial microflora ( Rhizobium sp. E20-8) in soil. However, there was a significant improvement in drought stress resistance, leading to increased corn plant yields (Lopes et al. 2021 ). Iron oxide NPs (Fe 2 O 3 ) and chelated-Fe fertilizer (EDTA-Fe) were applied to peanuts. The study observed regulation of phytohormone contents and antioxidant enzymatic activities, resulting in improved plant growth and greater biomass recovery (Lopes et al. 2021 ). Fe and Zn NPs applied to the leaves of fodder corn plants had a significant impact on chlorophyll content, biomass formation, growth rate, and substance content (Sharifi 2016 ). Barley plants treated with TiO 2 NPs, chelated ZnO NPs, and Fe 2 O 3 exhibited increased growth properties and greater grain production (Janmohammadi et al. 2016 ). Six-day old plants of Vigna radiata L. when exposed to SiO 2 were shown to have increased plant length and weight (Zaheer et al. 2023 ). Role of NPs in heavy metals uptake Lead toxicity tolerance mechanism of plant was clearly elucidated in Brassica species (Shehzad et al. 2024 ). Pb (II) ions were effectively removed from aqueous solution by the magnetic ZnFe 2 O 4 spinel NPs synthesized from Moringa oleifera (Selvi and Balasubramaniyan 2024 ). TiO 2 NPs with an anatase or rutile structure were found to reduce the uptake of arsenic by rice plants grown in contaminated soil. These NPs limited the accumulation of arsenic (As) in roots, shoots, and seeds (Wu et al. 2021 ). Modified cerium dioxide NPs can interact with cadmium and arsenic, reducing their occurrence and uptake activities by plants. These interactions are pH-dependent and influenced by root exudates (Sharifan et al. 2018 ). Silicon and titanium dioxide NPs applied via foliar spraying on rice plants grown in cadmium (Cd)-contaminated substrate led to a lower phytotoxic effect, increased biomass production, and lower accumulation of cadmium. The beneficial effects were attributed to improved photosynthetic apparatus and the elimination of plant growth inhibition caused by Cd exposure (Rizwan et al. 2019b ). Treatment of wheat seeds ( Triticum aestivum L. ) with ZnO and Fe NPs led to increased concentrations of Zn and Fe in the roots, resulting in reduced Cd uptake and enhanced biomass production (Rizwan et al. 2019a ). It has been also observed that the addition of Fe 2 O 3 NPs under chromium (Cr) stress in T. aestivum greatly improved the morphological characteristics, chlorophyll content, and antioxidant enzyme activities (Zafar et al. 2024 ). Si NPs demonstrated comparable results in reducing Cd content and increasing biomass in wheat seeds (Hussain et al. 2019 ) and reduced graphene oxide lowered the Pb phytotoxicity in wheat (Zhan et al. 2024 ). Green-synthesized cobalt NPs (Co 3 O 4 Nbs) were found to be suitable and supportive for plant growth in Pb-contaminated soil and elimination of heavy metal effects in plants (Mahmood et al. 2023 ). Nanobionics in the algal system Microalgae are known to thrive in diverse habitats such as rivers, lakes, marine, and wastewater. Microalgae are promising sources of many value-added biomolecules like lipids, carotenoids, carbohydrates, etc. (Dasgupta et al. 2015 ; Dasgupta et al. 2018 ). However, algae industries are suffering to attain commercial viability of algae production due to its lower productivity. Nanomaterials are found to be a solution to enhance biomass and other product yields (Sumathi et al. 2024 ). Recent decades, there has been substantial research on the impact of NPs on algae. Because algae are at the base of the aquatic food webs, any adverse effect of NPs on algae has serious repercussions on the entire aquatic food web (Mahana et al. 2021 ). Metallic NPs present in certain effluents can serve to supplement these nutrient deficiencies (Chan et al. 2022 ). By augmenting microbial activities, these nanomaterials can be incorporated into microalgae cultivation media, significantly impacting lipid accumulation. In addition, their inclusion in culture conditions may act as competitors for nutrient uptake, thereby promoting rapid nutrient assimilation and lipid production (Xu et al. 2018 ). FeO NPs were found to enhance the Chlorella sp. biomass growth and lipid content (Ramprakash et al. 2024 ). Furthermore, growth and lipids yield of Chlorella vulgaris also increased when CaO NPs were supplement to algal growth media (Hamouda et al. 2024 ). SiO NPs (SNPs) also improved algal growth as well as bioremediation capacity (Tomar et al. 2024 ). Carbohydrate content increased when Fe 2 O 3 NPs were added in Chlorella spp. cultures (Vargas-Estrada et al. 2024 ).TiO 2 NPs enhance the lipid content and cell diameter of microalgae (Shanmuganathan et al. 2023 ). Moreover, they can be harnessed to mitigate the proliferation of co-existing microbial and fungal populations, which compete with microalgae for nutrients, thus fostering an optimal growth environment (Fig. 2 ). Fig. 2. Open in a new tab Nanoparticles improve photosynthetic efficiency and lipid biosynthesis in microalgae, thereby optimizing their potential for biofuel production and other industrial applications Adsorption of metal-based NPs involves cell wall functional groups (Nguyen et al. 2020 ). However, it has not yet been cleared that intracellular uptake of NPs involves the formation of pores in the membrane, endocytosis, protein-coupled transport, carrier-mediated transport, ion channels, and ionophore (Lammel et al. 2019 ). The majority of the research has shown that intracellular metal NPs reduce the algal growth (Mohana et al.). The intrinsic mechanisms of metal NPs accumulation and toxicity in algae are not fully elucidated (Hou et al. 2018 ). Limitations and challenges The increasing application of NPs in agriculture poses potential threats to both the environment and human health. Deliberate application may lead to the accumulation of NPs in the soil, affecting its physicochemical characteristics and fertility (Siddiqui et al. 2022 ). Such accumulation can also harm plant health by inducing oxidative stress, cell death, and genotoxicity, thereby reducing biomass and yield. Moreover, beneficial soil microbes and organisms like nematodes and earthworms, essential for nutrient cycling and soil health, may be adversely affected (López–Luna et al. 2018 ). In aquatic systems, NPs can bioaccumulate and biomagnify, leading to toxic effects across trophic levels. The effectiveness of NPs in enhancing photosynthesis is highly dose dependent. While certain concentrations can improve chlorophyll content and photosynthetic rates, higher doses have been reported to damage the photosynthetic apparatus, reduce photosystem efficiency, and decrease overall photosynthesis (Domingo et al. 2018 ). For instance, specific concentrations of Ag NPs have been beneficial, but exceeding these concentrations led to a significant decline in chlorophyll content. Although laboratory studies have shown that higher doses of certain NPs, like TiO₂, can enhance photosynthesis by improving electron transfer rates in photosystems, their practical application in field conditions remains uncertain (Skiba et al. 2024 ; Trela-Makowej et al. 2024 ). Factors such as environmental variability, NPs stability, and delivery methods need thorough investigation before large-scale implementation. The environmental and ecological implications, including nanomaterial toxicity and accumulation, also demand thorough investigation (Farooq et al. 2024 ). Integrating nanobionics into existing agricultural and aquaculture systems presents challenges related to practicality and cost-effectiveness on a large scale. In addition, data on the long-term impacts and trade-offs of nanobionics, particularly concerning biomass yield, nutrient cycling, and ecosystem sustainability, are still insufficient (Pandey et al. 2023 ). Resolving these challenges is imperative to establish nanobionics as a viable and transformative approach for enhancing photosynthesis and contributing to sustainable Global Food and Energy Security. Conclusion The use of nanomaterials in plant production has led to significant breakthroughs, leveraging various properties such as antimicrobial effects, induction of stress response pathways, reduced dosage requirements, and controlled nutrient release. Nano-priming, including seed treatment, offers potential benefits such as improved seed germination, reduced pathogen contamination, and enhanced stress tolerance. The application of NPs directly on plants frequently results in improved growth and the elimination of plant pathogens. NPs contribute to higher profitability in production, reducing the need for conventional agrochemicals. Replacement of environmentally problematic copper-based plant protection products with Cu NPs could significantly decrease contamination with heavy metals. Despite evident benefits, there is incomplete knowledge regarding the environmental impact of NPs, especially on soil properties and the microbiome. Fundamental questions arise about the classification of NPs use in crop production, whether it aligns with precise agriculture, sustainable agriculture, or other practices. Reluctance towards NP use is attributed to unclear properties and a lack of comprehensive legislation. Establishing clear legislative frameworks at the local government level is crucial to facilitate wider NPs use. Continued research should focus on developing NPs with innovative compositions, aiming for properties similar to naturally occurring substances. Bio-nano-fertilizers prepared by biosynthesis are promising, offering potential solutions with a deeper understanding of the natural cycle of NPs. Overall, the successful integration of NPs into agricultural practices hinges on addressing environmental concerns, advancing research, and establishing clear regulatory guidelines to ensure responsible and sustainable NP use in crop production system. Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) (Project No. SPG/2021/001796), New Delhi for financial support. Authors are grateful to Prof. (Dr.) K. K. Ray, Director, Amity School of Languages, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow Campus for English editing. Authors are grateful to Amity University Uttar Pradesh for providing facilities. Abbreviations NP NP CNT Carbon nanotubes Zn Zinc Ag Silver Au Gold Fe Iron Cu Copper Ti Titanium Si Silica Mn Manganese Mg Magnesium EFSA European Food Safety Authority ABA Abscisic acid GA Gibberellic acid REACH Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals EU European Union EPS Extracellular polymeric substances HWT Hot water treatment CGNP Chitosan-guar NPs TNE Turmeric oil nanoemulsions APTEX 3-Aminopropyl triethoxysilane Author contributions CND contributed to writing and reviewing the final version of this manuscript. KP developed the concept, prepared table and figures, and wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript. Availability of data and materials All the data supporting our review is contained within the manuscript. Declarations Conflict of interest All authors agreed to publish, and authors declared no conflict of interest. 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