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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice BMC Psychol . 2026 Mar 7;14:531. doi: 10.1186/s40359-026-04185-2 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Enhancing psychological well-being through embodied bilingual teaching: the mediating role of basic psychological needs and learning motivation Lan Li Lan Li 1 Physical Education Department, Woosuk University, Jeonju, South Korea Find articles by Lan Li 1, # , Seo Yeonhee Seo Yeonhee 1 Physical Education Department, Woosuk University, Jeonju, South Korea Find articles by Seo Yeonhee 1, ✉ , Qianqian Fan Qianqian Fan 2 Education Department, Woosuk University, Jeonju, South Korea Find articles by Qianqian Fan 2, # Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Physical Education Department, Woosuk University, Jeonju, South Korea 2 Education Department, Woosuk University, Jeonju, South Korea ✉ Corresponding author. # Contributed equally. Received 2025 Jul 30; Accepted 2026 Feb 10; Collection date 2026. © The Author(s) 2026 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ . PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC13081253 PMID: 41792834 Abstract Background Based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Embodied Cognition Theory (ECT), this study explores how teacher support influences the generation mechanism of psychological well-being in 'language + body' dual-channel teaching through basic psychological needs and learning motivation as a chain mediator. Method The present study adopted an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design, with a quantitative phase as the primary component and a qualitative phase as the supplementary component. The quantitative phase involved a questionnaire survey with 518 university students, analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling ( SEM ). The qualitative phase consisted of semi-structured interviews with 16 teachers, with the transcripts analyzed via three-level coding. Result (1) Teacher support has a significant positive impact on basic psychological needs ( β = 0.416), learning motivation ( β = 0.235), and psychological well-being ( β = 0.317); (2) Chain mediation: teacher support indirectly and positively affects psychological well-being through basic psychological needs and learning motivation ( β = 0.028), with a total mediation effect of 15.47%; (3) Chain effect of embodied interaction: the physical dimension effectively reduces the cognitive load, while the symbolic dimension reinforces the fulfillment of the needs with cultural translations. Conclusion This study extends the SDT-based chain mediation framework by specifying embodied interaction as a contextual instructional condition, and provides an empirically grounded dual-channel pathway for interdisciplinary instructional design. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40359-026-04185-2. Keywords: Teacher support, Basic psychological needs, Learning motivation, Embodied interaction, Dual-channel teaching, Cultural metaphor translation Introduction Within the expanding university student population worldwide, issues related to mental health and well-being have become increasingly prominent [ 3 , 25 , 40 ]. Studies have shown that a substantial proportion of students experience psychological distress, and a considerable share exhibit symptoms consistent with mental disorders [ 5 , 30 ]. Amid the pressures of intensive academic demands and group collaboration, the traditional educational model is facing challenges such as declining motivation, unmet needs, and emotional exhaustion. Furthermore, psychological well-being cannot be improved simply by increasing the number of courses [ 2 ]. Against this backdrop, "language + embodied interaction" teaching, as one of the innovative educational models, has garnered attention for its potential to enhance dual-channel instructional design by integrating both language and perceptual experience [ 7 ]. In this study, this appoach refers to a pedagogical practice that integrates bodily movement with bilingual (Chinese–English) language use. Empirical findings show that when students express "雲手" in English, drawing the Tai Chi Yin-Yang diagram with the hand as the initiating point and the elbow as the supporting point, a cross-modal effect emerges between language and embodied interaction, and both movement continuity and cultural understanding of culture significantly enhancing [ 27 , 34 ]. However, the mechanism by which teacher support is associated with psychological well-being through the chain mediating effects of basic psychological needs and learning motivation in embodied bilingual teaching contexts remains unclear. The present study not only integrates SDT and ECT, but more importantly theorizes how embodied interaction operates as an instructional condition, rendering teacher support more processable and internalizable within bilingual learning contexts. Accordingly, this study articulates a dual-channel mechanism through which teacher support is transformed into basic psychological need satisfaction and the internalization of learning motivation via physical load reduction and symbolic cultural meaning construction. Building upon existing SDT-based chain mediation research, this study extends the analytical scope by introducing an embodied instructional explanation, rather than incorporating additional psychological variables. It is worth noting that, in the present study, teaching processes and learning experiences are not treated as independent research variables; rather, they are reflected and operationalized through the core instructional variable of “teacher support” within the embodied bilingual teaching context. Theoretical framework and literature review Embodied metaphor and cross-cultural pedagogy Building on Lakoff & Johnson's [ 22 ] metaphor theory, Smith [ 41 ] and [ 51 , 52 ] extended its application to cross-cultural educational psychology. Their studies demonstrate that culturally adapted embodied action terms can enhance metaphor comprehension while reducing cognitive dissonance in learning contexts. For instance, the "White Crane Spreads Its Wings" movement in Tai Chi is interpreted as elegant rather than aggressive. Incorporating symbolic connotations into culturally adapted translation facilitates resonance with practitioners’ own cultural schemas, thereby facilitating cognitive processing and boosting learning motivation. Meaningful choices (supporting autonomy), reduced cognitive load (enhancing competence), and shared cultural understanding (fostering relatedness) can directly support the fundamental psychological needs outlined in Self-Determination Theory (SDT). Although this study models basic psychological needs as a unified latent construct, autonomy, competence, and relatedness are theoretically distinct and may function as differentiated instructional mechanisms within embodied bilingual instruction, each corresponding to a specific type of pedagogical support. Integrating SDT and Embodied Cognition Theory (ECT) reveals two key synergies: (1) SDT provides a motivational framework by fulfilling basic psychological needs, while ECT explains how physical experiences and environmental interactions unload working memory and activate embodied schemata to accelerate this process; (2) In cross-cultural contexts, this synergy highlights the unique value of "embodied interaction." Notably, teacher-led cultural mediation serves as a core mechanism to bridge cultural differences while optimizing cognitive and motivational outcomes. Self-determination theory and psychological well-being SDT is a comprehensive theory of motivation that systematically explains human psychological needs, motivation, goal-directed behavior, and the attainment of well-being. It posits that the satisfaction of psychological needs is a necessary condition for maintaining the internalization of motivation [ 11 ]. The degree of psychological need satisfaction and the level of motivational self-determination can directly predict an individual's well-being [ 12 ], and the theory also describes how motivation develops and influences behavior. However, existing research has primarily focused on the parallel mediation pathway (basic psychological needs → psychological well-being), with insufficient exploration of the chained mediation pathway (basic psychological needs → learning motivation) [ 18 ]. In addition, SDT emphasizes that the satisfaction of basic psychological needs facilitates the internalization of motivation [ 36 ]. Accordingly, learning motivation is viewed as an internalization mechanism through which the satisfaction of basic psychological needs sequentially connects to psychological well-being, thus underpinning the serial mediation model proposed in the present study. However, SDT does not elaborate on how this internalization process can be accelerated through body movement. In the teaching context involving "embodied interaction," Tai Chi movements (e.g., the stretching movement such as "White Crane Spreads Its Wings") activate the embodied system through kinesthetic pathways, while the English expression of movement names containing cultural metaphors (such as "White Crane Spreads Its Wings") generates a dual embodiment effect—spatial localization and motor regulation are effectively enhanced through physical activity (physical dimension), and cultural memory schemas are activated through the metaphorical expression of movement names (symbolic dimension), thereby enhancing students’ sense of cultural belonging and perceived autonomy. This dual-dimensional embodiment mechanism synergistically satisfies the need for competence, yet it has not been incorporated into the existing SDT framework. Embodied cognition theory and its cultural limitations This theoretical perspective is increasingly gaining empirical evidence support in the field of education. Recent studies have confirmed this view: "Embodied learning" from language contexts to physical activities in school education can accelerate the body adaptation to kinesthetic tasks, enhance body engagement, shape cognitive patterns, and reinforce the motivational and cross-cultural significance of embodied congnition in educational practice [ 14 , 19 , 23 , 47 ]. Whereas, ECT still faces two major challenges in cross-cultural practice. ECT emphasizes the dependence of cognitive processes on real-time interactions between the body and the environment. For example, in bilingual Tai Chi instruction, the movement "野馬分鬃" translated into English as "Wild Horse Shakes Its Mane" also reflects the implied meaning of Tai Chi's offensive and defensive techniques, and the activation effect of metaphorical meanings expressed in English is more effective than teaching solely in Chinese [ 7 ]. However, in practice, ECT faces two major challenges: cultural differences and a disconnect in teacher support. (1) Cultural differences: the literal translation of "野馬分鬃" as "Wild Horse Shakes Its Mane" may be interpreted by Western learners as an cruel action of a horse [ 41 ], thereby reducing the level of understanding, (2 Disconnect in teacher support: existing studies have not clarified how teachers use cultural translation to meet basic psychological needs, such as the dual translation strategy (movement + cultural symbol, which can mitigate violent associations in expressions like "Grasp Sparrow's Tail," improve communication efficiency, and promote the internalization mechanism of needs and motivation. Integrating SDT and ECT: a dual-channel chain mediation model Existing research grounded in SDT generally indicates that teacher support is associated with students’ basic psychological need satisfaction and well-being, and this association is predominantly demonstrated through parallel mediation models (basic psychological needs → psychological well-being), rather than chain mediation pathways (basic psychological needs → learning motivation → psychological well-being) [ 2 , 16 , 46 ]. In addition, studies based on embodied cognition theory and embodied learning emphasize that bodily engagement and multimodal instruction can reduce cognitive load and enhance meaning construction [ 4 , 51 , 52 ],however, these findings have often failed to explicitly connect embodied processes with the internalization mechanism proposed in SDT. Based on this gap, the present study examines the SDT pathway (teacher support → basic psychological needs → learning motivation → psychological well-being and tests whether embodied interaction functions as a contextual condition that strengthens the internalization process in bilingual Tai Chi learning, thereby extending existing research. Although SDT and ECT each have their own strengths, they share integrative potential for mutual reinforcement in “language + embodied interaction” instruction. (1) Physical dimension: when drawing the “Tai Chi Yin-Yang symbol” with the hand as the point of motion and the elbow as the supporting point, nonverbal demonstration can significantly reduce students’ linguistic cognitive load, allowing them to focus more on kinesthetic imitation [ 4 , 6 ], which directly enhances spatial regulation ability and thus satisfies students’ need for competence, (2) Symbolic dimension: cultural memory schemas are activated through metaphorical expressions in movement names [ 22 , 31 ]. For example, the arc-shaped defensive movement on both sides in “Grasp the Bird’s Tail” demonstrates the circular trajectory of the yin-yang from initiation to return, and the English expression “Grasp the Bird’s Tail” contains a grasping metaphor that produces a cross-cultural synesthetic effect, thereby enhancing students’ sense of cultural belonging to satisfy basic psychological needs. However, how this synergy can be applied to the chain mediation path of “teacher support → basic psychological needs → learning motivation → psychological well-being” remains to be empirically tested [ 37 , 48 ]. Figure 1 Based on SDT and ECT, this study proposes a dual-channel chain mediation framework to explain how, within the context of bilingual Tai Chi instruction, teacher support is transformed into psychological well-being through basic psychological needs and learning motivation. Within this theoretical framework, embodied interaction is not conceptualized as a psychological variable or a statistical moderating factor, but rather as a contextualized instructional condition embedded in the teaching process. In the present study, embodied interaction refers to a stable instructional characteristic of the “language + body” pedagogical approach, which systematically integrates movement demonstration and practice with bilingual action naming and the explanation of cultural metaphors. This characteristic is neither measured as an individual-difference construct nor modeled as an outcome, nor is it tested as a statistical moderating variable. Instead, it functions as a contextual instructional condition through which the implementation and experiential process of teacher support in classroom practice are enacted and experienced. It represents a stable characteristic of the “language + body” pedagogical approach, through which the implementation and experiential process of teacher support in classroom practice are shaped. Fig. 1. Open in a new tab Dual-modal chained mediationintegrated model. Note: Solid arrows represent the core mediation pathways, and the dashed arrow denotes the theoretical integration of embodied interaction within the dual-modal framework Meanwhile, cultural differences are emphasized and the "dual path" method (cultural symbols + action representations) is adopted for teaching. For example, the Tai Chi movement "野馬分鬃" can be directly translated as "Wild Horse Parts Its Mane", supplemented by the description of "having both strength and agility like a wild horse", providing a specific practical path reference for the innovation and optimization of cross-cultural education. Research questions and objectives Based on the integration of SDT and ECT, this study aims to address the following research questions through an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design. RQ1: In bilingual Tai Chi instruction, does teacher support relate to psychological well-being through the sequential mediation of basic psychological needs and learning motivation? RQ2: How does English expression through bodily engagement and cultural metaphors function as a contextual mechanism for motivational internalization? To address RQ1, a quantitative method was employed, using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to test the chain mediation model. Based on SDT, corresponding research hypotheses (H1–H9) were formulated. To address RQ2, qualitative research methods were used to explore how teachers implement embodied interaction and cultural translation strategies in instructional practice, thereby providing contextualized explanations for the quantitative findings. Accordingly, the objectives of this study are as follows: (1) To verify the chain mediating pathways among teacher support, basic psychological needs, learning motivation, and psychological well-being; (2) To explore how embodied interaction operates through physical and symbolic dimensions in bilingual Tai Chi instruction; and (3) To integrate quantitative and qualitative findings in order to strengthen the explanatory basis and methodological rigor of the proposed dual-channel model. Method Research paradigm and design framework This study adopted an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design [ 10 ]. The quantitative phase served as the primary research component and was used to test the hypothesized chain mediation model based on SDT. The qualitative phase contextualized and explained the quantitative relationships by observing the specific implementation of embodied interaction and cultural metaphor-based English expressions in teaching practice. The research procedures were as follows: (1) SPSS 29.0 and AMOS 26.0 were used for quantitative data analysis to test the hypothesized path effects and demographic differences; and (2) qualitative observations focused on how teachers implemented support strategies through English action names within embodied interaction contexts, thereby helping to explain the quantitative findings. Quantitative research design Sampling method University students enrolled in bilingual Tai Chi elective courses from four comprehensive universities in Liaoning Province (Shenyang, Dalian) and Shandong Province (Tai’an, Yantai), China, were selected using stratified random sampling. The stratification criteria included: (1) academic discipline: humanities and social sciences and natural sciences; (2) grade level: Freshmen, sophomores and juniors; (3) course size: sample proportionally distributed based on the number of students enrolled in Tai Chi elective classes. The final valid sample consisted of N = 518 participants (48.8% male, 51.2% female), with a mean age of 19.7 ± 0.8 years, meeting the commonly recommended sample size for SEM analysis, which is typically at least 5 to 10 times the number of variables [ 28 ]. Measurement instruments and reliability/validity Figure 2 and Table 1 show the structural framework of the Chain-Mediating Variable Model (CVM) using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = "strongly disagree", 5 = "strongly agree"). Fig. 2. Open in a new tab Structural framework of core variable mechanisms. Note: Teacher support enhances psychological well-being via sequential mediation (BPN → LM); action naming (e.g., “Cloud Hands”) represents the embodied cultural pathway supporting motivation internalization Table 1. Operational definitions and psychometric properties of the study variables Variable Measurement tool Sample items Cronbach’s alpha Model fit indices Teacher Support Adapted from Wellborn et al. [ 50 ], Sakiz [ 39 ], and Stornes et al. [ 42 ] Autonomous support (The teachers encourage students to independently create Tai Chi movements.) Emotional support (The teachers patiently listen to students' ideas both in and outside the classroom.) Capacity support (The teachers offer personalized guidance based on students’ individual abilities.) 0.841—0.863 χ 2 /df = 1.560, CFI =.991 Basic Psychological Needs Items measuring basic psychological needs were adopted from the BPN-PE scale [ 45 ] Autonomous demand (The teaching methods of the course support my sense of autonomy) Competent requirements (I feel capable of mastering the key elements of Tai Chi movements) Emotional needs (I feel acknowledged and respected by my classmates in the classroom) 0.853—0.881 χ 2 /df = 1.709, CFI =.986 Learning Motivation The school learning motivation scale developed and validated by Kim Yong-rae [ 21 ] was used Internal motivation (I am highly motivated to learn new techniques and knowledge in Tai Chi class) External motivation (The main reason I enrolled in this course is to earn academic credit) 0.871—0.874 χ 2 /df = 1.910, CFI =.981 Psychological Well-being Based on Ryff [ 38 ] and with reference to Waterman [ 49 ] the scale, a single dimension was adopted The bilingual Tai Chi elective course consistently brings me a sense of happiness 0.850 χ 2 /df = 3.525, CFI =.994 Open in a new tab Data analysis procedure In the preliminary stage, SPSS 29.0 was used for missing value treatment, normality testing (absolute skewness | Skewness |< 2, absolute kurtosis | Kurtosis |< 3.5) [ 20 ], and common method bias detection (the first factor accounted for 25.9% of the variance in Harman's single-factor test, which is well below the critical threshold of 40%), indicating that the data met the requirements for further analysis [ 32 ]. For hypothesis testing: (1) Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships among variables; (2) AMOS 26.0 was used to construct a Structural Equation Model ( SEM ), with fit indices including χ 2 /df , GFI , AGFI , CFI , and RMSEA ; (3) the Bootstrap method (with 5,000 resamples) was applied to test the chained mediation effects (95% CI not containing 0); (4) group differences: One-way ANOVA was performed to examine the effects of demographic variables (gender, major, age, etc.) on each construct, with Scheffé post hoc test for further comparison. Qualitative research design Participants and sampling A total of 16 bilingual Tai Chi instructors were selected from four comprehensive universities in Liaoning Province (Shenyang, Dalian) and Shandong Province (Tai’an, Yantai), China, using purposive sampling. The sampling criteria were: (1) having taught bilingual Tai Chi courses for at least one year; (2) having experience teaching abroad in Confucius Institutes; (3) voluntary participation with a signed informed consent form. The finalized participants were nine male teachers and seven female teachers with an average of 4.3 years of college teaching experience, covering professional backgrounds in physical education ( N = 8), English ( N = 4), and languages ( N = 4). Data collection methods Semi-structured interviews: designing the interview questions based on SDT's autonomy needs, competence needs, affective needs, and embodied interactions, with the core questions: (1) How do you use the English expression of the action name in enhancing students' cultural understanding (“白鶴亮翅” in English); (2) How do you adjust the support methods in stratified task-based teaching to meet the psychological needs of students at different levels? Analysis of teachers' lesson plans: analyzing the English translation of the text on the names of actions in the lesson plans (e.g. 野馬分鬃 is translated into “Wild Horse Shakes Its Mane”) and analyzing the ways of expressing the names of actions in English. The average length of the interviews was about 15 min, and the transcripts of the interviews totaled 30,800 words. Data analysis methods Qualitative data analysis adopted an interpretive thematic analysis approach and, drawing on the open coding and axial coding procedures proposed by Strauss & Corbin [ 43 ], systematically summarized and extracted themes from the interview transcripts to explain and complement the quantitative research results. The initial transcript indicated that “students collaborated actively in groups to choreograph the ‘Cloud Hands’ movement,” which was analyzed through open coding and distilled into the core theme of “collaboration.” The team, through collaborative efforts and using physical movements as a medium, completes the cognitive process of recognizing the sequence and names of movements between language expression and action communication, fully demonstrating the characteristics of embodiment. The “student group collaborative choreography” was then linked to the core theme of “emotional support” during the axial coding phase. In the context of tiered task challenges, teachers met students’ emotional needs (enhancing a sense of belonging), and this was clearly identified in the coding. This empirical evidence echoes the grounded theory proposed by Ryan & Deci [ 36 ], which views needs as the dynamic basis of motivational internalization. In specific situational coding methods, this approach effectively revealed the implicit mechanism effects between behavior and psychological processes [ 8 ].The results of the coded data were validated by faculty representatives to revise deficiencies and ensure that the results of the data analysis were consistent with the original data [ 24 ]. In summary, the quantitative research results provided a basis for the themes of the qualitative research, while the qualitative themes were used to contextualize and interpret the statistically supported relationships identified in the SEM analysis; the integration of the two achieved a complementary effect. Results The research findings reported in this study are closely aligned with the stated research questions. Section 4.1 addresses RQ1 by testing an SDT-based chain mediation model using SEM and bootstrap indirect effect analyses. Section 4.2 employs qualitative thematic analysis to illustrate how embodied interaction—through its physical and symbolic dimensions—provides a contextual basis for the internalization process from BPN to LM. Section 4.3 integrates the findings from Sects. 4.1 and 4.2 to comprehensively explicate the proposed dual-channel mechanism. Quantitative results The research findings support RQ1. Bootstrap analysis indicates that teacher support has a significant indirect associative effect on psychological well-being through the chain mediation of “basic psychological needs → learning motivation.” In addition, teacher support shows significant direct effects on basic psychological needs, learning motivation, and psychological well-being. Model testing Table 2 Correlation: (1) The composite reliability ( CR ) of all variables was greater than 0.7; (2) The square root of the average variance extracted ( AVE ) for each variable was greater than 0.7 and also greater than 0.375 (the maximum correlation coefficient between variables), indicating satisfactory discriminant validity among the constructs [ 9 ], (3) The KMO values and Cronbach’s α for all variables were ≥ 0.80 [ 17 ]. Table 2. Correlations, reliability, and convergent validity of the constructs Variable Teacher support Basic psychological needs Learning motivation Psychological well-being Teacher Support 0.732 Basic Psychological Needs 0.333** 0.718 Learning Motivation 0.326** 0.375** 0.708 Psychological Well-being 0.346** 0.358** 0.300** 0.765 CR 0.776 0.761 0.651 0.849 KMO 0.919 0.907 0.902 0.816 Cronbach's α 0.906 0.897 0.883 0.849 M(SD) 3.41(0.807) 3.41(0.803) 3.46(0.811) 3.25(0.959) Open in a new tab M Mean, SD Standard deviation ** p < 0.01 Structural equation model and hypothesis testing (Fig. 3 ) Fig. 3. Open in a new tab Structural equation modeling diagram. Note: TS = Teacher Support; BPN = Basic Psychological Needs; LM = Learning Motivation; PW = Psychological Well-being Table 3 The structural equation model fit indices indicated a good result: χ 2 / df = 1.210, CFI = 0.985, GFI = 0.924, RMSEA = 0.020, RMR = 0.044, NFI = 0.922, IFI = 0.985, TLI = 0.984, AGFI = 0.914, with all hypothesized paths statistically significant at p < 0.05. Specifically: (1) Teacher support had a significantly positive effect on basic psychological needs ( β = 0.416, p < 0.001, supporting H1), learning motivation ( β = 0.235, p < 0.001, supporting H2), and psychological well-being ( β = 0.317, p < 0.001, supporting H3); (2) Basic psychological needs had a significant positive effect on learning motivation ( β = 0.350, p < 0.001, supporting H4) and psychological well-being ( β = 0.340, p < 0.001, supporting H5); (3) Learning motivation significantly and positively affected psychological well-being ( β = 0.251, p < 0.05, supporting H6). Table 3. Direct effects of the structural model Hypothesis Hypothesis Path β S.E CR P-value Results H1 Basic Psychological Needs < …Teacher Support 0.416 0.062 6.689 *** Support H2 Learning Motivation < …Teacher Support 0.235 0.059 3.961 *** Support H3 Psychological Well-being < …Teacher Support 0.317 0.082 3.864 *** Support H4 Learning Motivation < …Basic Psychological Needs 0.350 0.068 5.168 *** Support H5 Psychological Well-being < …Basic Psychological Needs 0.340 0.093 3.672 *** Support H6 Psychological Well-being < …Learning Motivation 0.251 0.117 2.145 0.032* Support Open in a new tab *p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001 Mediation effect analysis In Table 4 , The Bootstrap testing method (5,000 resamples) was used to examine the chain mediation effects among variables (Efron & Tibshirani, 1993): (1) Parallel mediation: basic psychological needs ( β = 0.108, 95% CI [0.050, 0.184], P < 0.001, supporting H7) and learning motivation ( β = 0.045, 95% CI [0.005, 0.106], P = 0.032, supporting H8) exerted indirect effects; (2) Chain mediation: teacher support had a positive indirect effect on psychological well-being through basic psychological needs and learning motivation ( β = 0.028, 95% CI [0.004, 0.064], P = 0.029, supporting H9). Table 4. Indirect effects of the structural model Hypothesis Hypothesis Path Mediation Path β Standard Error ( SE ) 95% CI P-value H7 Teacher Support → Basic Psychological Needs → Psychological Well-being Basic Psychological Needs 0.108 0.034 [0.050, 0.184] 0.001*** H8 Teacher Support → Learning Motivation → Psychological Well-being Learning Motivation 0.045 0.025 [0.005, 0.106] 0.032* H9 Teacher Support → Basic Psychological Needs → Learning Motivation → Psychological Well-being Basic Psychological Needs; Learning Motivation 0.028 0.015 [0.004, 0.064] 0.029* Open in a new tab * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001 Bootstrap analysis revealed a statistically significant chain mediating effect with a small effect size. This suggests that the chain pathway may function as a supplementary mechanism rather than the sole explanatory route [ 33 ]. Demographic variable differences Table 5 T-tests, one-way ANOVA , and Scheffé post-hoc tests were conducted to examine differences across demographic variables. The results indicated significant differences in teacher support, basic psychological needs, learning motivation, and psychological well-being across these demographic factors. To ensure completeness, the present study reports these between-group differences, which reached statistical significance and exhibited small-to-moderate effect sizes ( η 2 ), solely as background information. It should be emphasized that the central focus of this study remains the hypothesized chain mediation mechanism. Table 5. Significance test of differences in demographic variables Variable Gender ( η 2 ) Major ( η 2 ) Age ( η 2 ) Grade ( η 2 ) Exercise Level ( η 2 ) Frequency ( η 2 ) Duration ( η 2 ) Teacher Support 0.071** 0.093** 0.039** 0.040** 0.034** 0.014* 0.054** Basic Psychological Needs 0.093** 0.048** 0.053** 0.052** 0.043** 0.011 0.049** Learning Motivation 0.070** 0.040** 0.036** 0.038** 0.013** 0.014* 0.047** Psychological Well-being 0.063** 0.097** 0.044** 0.044** 0.040** 0.019* 0.081** Open in a new tab * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01; η 2 (0–1) represents variance explained, where > 0.01 = small, ≥ 0.06 = moderate, and ≥ 0.14 = large Qualitative research results The findings support RQ2. The qualitative results indicate that “embodied interaction,” as a classroom contextual mechanism, strengthens the “basic psychological needs → learning motivation” pathway through a physical dimension (reducing cognitive load and facilitating motor imitation) and a symbolic dimension (activating cultural schemas and enhancing meaning construction). These qualitative themes provide a contextualized explanation for the quantitative mediation model. (1) TS → BPN is manifested through teachers’ autonomy-, competence-, and relatedness-supportive practices, which are enacted via metaphor-priority translation and emotionally safe classroom interactions; (2) BPN → LM is illustrated through a dual embodied mechanism, whereby physical demonstration reduces cognitive load and enhances perceived competence, while symbolic cultural explanation strengthens autonomy and relatedness, thereby facilitating the internalization process; and (3) LM → PWB is reflected in teachers’ observations that increased levels of practice engagement and perceived meaning co-occur with more positive affective experiences in the course. Taken together, these themes offer an instructional explanation for the significant serial indirect effect observed in the guided analysis. In addition, the qualitative themes were aligned with the SEM pathways. Need-supportive practices enacted by teachers through embodied interaction corresponded to the TS → BPN association, while the dual physical–symbolic channel primarily explained the internalization link from basic psychological needs to learning motivation. Observed increases in engagement and positive affect further substantiated the LM → PWB pathway identified in the quantitative analysis. Thematic analysis of teacher support practices Figure 4 illustrates the core themes identified during the analysis process, while Table 6 presents the corresponding representative excerpts and coding examples. Fig. 4. Open in a new tab Theoretical coding framework derived from open coding. Note: Based on 142 codes, three chains (cultural translation, task stratification, embodied synergy) converge into a dual physical–symbolic mechanism linking teacher support to need satisfaction, motivation internalization, and well-being Table 6. Integration of qualitative coding and theoretical framework Theoretical chain Core theme Teacher support strategy example Corresponding needs/motivations Cultural Transference → Need Satisfaction Metaphor-Priority Translation “野馬分鬃 → Wild Horse + Symbol of Free Spirit” Belonging Need ↑ Task Differentiation → Motivation Internalization Cognitive Load Stratification Beginners draw circles with one hand vs. advanced learners apply complex techniques Belonging Need ↑ Embodied Collaboration → Well-being Physical Synchrony and Emotional Resonance Partnered “Cloud Hands”practice enhances peer trust Emotional Need → Well-being↑ Open in a new tab Note: “→” denotes conceptual linkage; “↑” denotes enhancement Core theme: the dual mechanism of teacher support Theme 1: Basic psychological needs are reinforced via cultural translation Table 7 Teachers’ culturally metaphorical English expressions of movement names (e.g.,“野馬分鬃 → Wild Horse Shakes Its Mane”) activate dual dimensions: (1) Physical dimension: Teacher 9 noted that students more easily develop an understanding of spatial regulation abilities through motor imitation (e.g., students understand the Tai Chi yin–yang diagram by drawing circular trajectories through the “Cloud Hands” movement); and (2) Symbolic dimension: Teacher 12 described that when students understand the cultural metaphors embedded in movement names, they may be more willing to engage in practice and experience Tai Chi as a culturally meaningful learning process rather than mere mechanical execution (e.g., the movement symbolism of “White Crane Spreads Its Wings” enhances a sense of cultural belonging). 45% of the movements are expressed using culturally metaphorical English, and their level of comprehension is significantly higher than that of direct translations of movement names. Table 7. Distribution of English translation approaches for Tai Chi action names Type Overall(%) Example (Chinese) Example (English) Culturally Metaphorical English Expression 45% 左右野馬分鬃 Parting the Wild Horse's Mane (Left and Right) Free Translation 30% 左右摟膝拗步 Brush Knee and Twist Step (Left and Right) Literal Translation 25% 左右攬雀尾 Grasp the Bird’s Tail (Left and Right) Open in a new tab This table summarizes the proportion of three translation approaches used in rendering 24 Tai Chi action names from Chinese into English, with representative examples for each category Theme 2: stratified support facilitates motivation internalization Autonomy Support: Teacher 5 pointed out that encouraging students to independently design movement sequences and terminology during instruction helps enhance their participatory experience in class. For example, students were guided to independently complete the sequencing and trajectory design of the “Cloud Hands” movement, and the teacher observed that this process promoted students’ active engagement during practice. Competence Support: Teacher 13 described that, to address the learning needs of students at different proficiency levels, a differentiated instructional strategy was adopted to support competence development. For students with a weaker professional foundation, simplified instructional approaches were first used; for instance, in teaching “Cloud Hands,” students were initially guided to practice single-hand opening-and-closing yin–yang circular movements, before gradually transitioning to the complete movement sequence. Relatedness Support: Teacher 15 reported that collective group choreography and cooperative practice can promote interaction and collaboration among students. According to the teacher’s classroom observations, paired cooperative exercises such as “Push Hands” help students develop better coordination experiences during practice and strengthen emotional connections among peers. Integrated findings: contextualized chain mediation mechanism The qualitative findings indicate that teachers provide contextualized support for the process of motivational internalization in instructional practice through a teaching approach centered on “embodied interaction.” This is manifested in two main aspects: (1) Somatic embodiment: Teacher 8 noted that, during instruction, priority is given to movement demonstration while consciously reducing verbal explanations. After students engage in direct observation through bodily movement, they are more likely to grasp key movement elements and spatial structures, thereby deepening their understanding of the movements. Based on the teacher’s instructional experience, this process is typically manifested as “non-verbal demonstration → reduced cognitive load → focused kinesthetic imitation → satisfied need for competence → internalization of motivation”; and (2) Symbolic embodiment: Teacher 16 described that, after the symbolic meanings of movement names are explicated, students often display a more active state of classroom participation and demonstrate higher levels of engagement during practice, rather than perceiving the movements as abstract or confusing concepts. According to the teacher’s observations, this instructional process is typically reflected as “cultural metaphor expression in English → cultural schema activation → satisfying autonomy and emotional needs → internalizing cultural identity and belonging.” Integrated model: the chain effects of embodied interaction The integration of quantitative and qualitative findings supports the proposed SDT-based sequential mediation pathway (teacher support → basic psychological needs → learning motivation → psychological well-being) and provides a contextual explanation of how embodied interaction strengthens the internalization process within bilingual Tai Chi instructional settings (Fig. 5 ). Fig. 5. Open in a new tab Integrated theoretical model of embodied interaction. Note: Integrating quantitative and qualitative findings, the model depicts a dual-pathway process (body experience → need satisfaction → motivation internalization → well-being) within SDT Key findings: (1) Teacher support is significantly and positively associated with basic psychological needs and learning motivation, both of which exhibit significant indirect associations with psychological well-being; and (2) The chain mediation effect was activated in the context of "embodied interaction," with its mechanism relying on two major dimensions—physical and symbolic. The physical dimension manifested in the ability of bodily movements to effectively reduce cognitive load [ 6 ], This study found that the "physical dimension" can reduce cognitive load, which is consistent with recent studies on how embodied cognition can alleviate memory load and optimize knowledge storage through "physical actions" [ 26 , 51 , 52 ], (3 Demographic group differences showed that female students, students in the humanities and social sciences, and those in higher grade showed higher levels, indicating the need for targeted optimization in instructional design and pedagogical approaches. Discussion The dual-pathway theoretical mechanism This section elucidates the hypothesized mechanism by integrating the SEM results with the qualitative themes. The findings indicate significant TS → BPN, TS → LM, and TS → PWB pathways, while the qualitative evidence clarifies how teacher support is enacted through embodied interaction, thereby making the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and the internalization of motivation more attainable in instructional practice (Figs. 6 and 7 ). The physical dimension of embodied interaction reduces cognitive load through movement-based engagement, whereas the symbolic dimension reinforces psychological need satisfaction through culturally grounded meaning construction [ 51 , 52 ]. The synergistic functioning of these two dimensions enhances motivational internalization within bilingual embodied learning contexts [ 4 ]. Rather than restating the principles of SDT or ECT, the present study specifies a contextualized instructional mechanism in which physical engagement and symbolic interpretation operate jointly, with the symbolic dimension playing a particularly salient role in supporting interdisciplinary and cross-cultural instructional design [ 14 , 47 ]. Fig. 6. Open in a new tab Dual-pathway mechanism of embodied interaction (Physical + Symbolic Dimensions). Note: Physical and symbolic dimensions jointly explain how embodied interaction links teacher support to BPN, learning motivation, and psychological well-being Fig. 7. Open in a new tab Embodied dual-pathway chain effect model. Note: Physical and symbolic dimensions jointly enhance psychological well-being through serial mediation (BPN → LM) Complementarity and context-dependence of the chain mediation effect Although the serial mediating effect of teacher support on psychological well-being through basic psychological needs and learning motivation was modest in magnitude, it reached statistical significance, indicating that the satisfaction of basic psychological needs constitutes a necessary but not sufficient condition for motivational internalization [ 37 ]. The total indirect effect accounted for 15.47% of the overall effect, suggesting that basic psychological needs and learning motivation primarily function as parallel mediators, whereas their chained mediation pathway represents a supplementary internalization route rather than a dominant mechanism [ 48 ]. Importantly, this serial mediation effect emerged within the specific instructional context of embodied bilingual teaching, in which embodied interaction provides the conditions under which basic psychological need satisfaction can be transformed into sustained motivation [ 36 ]. Qualitative findings further indicate that culturally translated embodied practices—such as the collaborative choreography of the “Cloud Hands” movement—strengthen this transformation by intensifying the experiential link between emotional need satisfaction and motivational engagement [ 51 , 52 ]. Practical implications of demographic differences Demographic differences were included as background checks and, given the cross-sectional design of the present study, should be interpreted as observations based on empirical associations rather than as theoretical extensions. The results indicated statistically significant but varying subgroup differences across gender, academic background, grade/age, and participation patterns, suggesting that teacher support and its associated motivational mechanisms may be experienced differently across learner characteristics [ 13 , 35 , 40 ]. From a practical perspective, these findings imply that instructional support in embodied bilingual Tai Chi courses may benefit from flexible task stratification and culturally responsive translation strategies. Existing research suggests that sensitivity to emotional support, cultural meaning interpretation, and autonomy provision may vary across learner groups, underscoring the importance of adaptive instructional design rather than uniform pedagogical approaches [ 15 , 23 , 26 , 29 ]. Specifically, demographic results are reported not as core theoretical contributions of the present study but to preserve the focus on the central chain mediation model. Accordingly, these subgroup differences are interpreted as contextual considerations that inform pedagogical practice, rather than as extensions of the SDT-based dual-channel mediation framework [ 12 , 22 , 41 , 44 , 51 , 52 ]. Limitations and future research directions This study has the following limitations that provide clear directions for future research: (1) Cross-sectional studies cannot determine causal relationships between variables, therefore, the mediating effects observed in this study should be interpreted as associative rather than causal; (2) The sample size only included undergraduates studying Tai Chi courses in Chinese universities, which limits the promotion of mind–body integration exercises such as dance and yoga, and the universality of learning groups; (3) The unique cultural context of bilingual Tai Chi courses in Chinese universities may limit the universality of the research results; and (4) Lack of instructional behavior–level interventions: This study primarily examined the overall associations between teacher support and basic psychological needs, learning motivation, and psychological well-being, without conducting differentiated manipulations or intervention-based tests of specific types of teachers’ motivational support behaviors. Therefore, it remains unclear which concrete instructional behaviors in bilingual embodied courses are most critical for promoting motivational internalization and psychological well-being. Future research should build upon this study to address the aforementioned limitations: (1) To overcome the inherent limitations of cross-sectional research designs, longitudinal tracking or experimental designs are recommended to comprehensively observe the dynamic trajectory changes and causal mechanisms of teacher support, psychological needs, motivational internalization, and psychological well-being; (2) To enhance the universality of this research model, future studies should expand the sample scope by incorporating embodied exercise courses such as yoga, dance, and aerobics into cross-cultural learning groups, while controlling for covariates including English proficiency, cultural background, and embodied engagement to improve model robustness; (3) Integrating multimodal objective measures (e.g., EEG/fNIRS) will further reveal neural coupling effects underlying the dual-channel integration of language and bodily experience; and (4) Future intervention-oriented research may draw on the SDT-based classification system of teachers’ motivational behaviors proposed by Ahmadi et al. [ 1 ], which provides a structured framework for designing and testing need-supportive instructional interventions. Conclusion In this study, a mixed-method approach combining quantitative and qualitative research methods was adopted, and “SDT + ECT” was innovatively integrated to explore how teacher support in “verbal + embodied interaction” teaching affects college students' psychological well-being through the dual-channel chain mediation mechanism. The following are the main results of the study: Theoretical innovations This study proposes and empirically supports an embodied dual-channel mechanism (physical and symbolic dimensions), through which “language + embodied interaction” may facilitate need satisfaction and motivational internalization in bilingual Tai Chi instruction. Cognitive fit can reduce cognitive load through the physical dimension (physical experience), thereby meeting students' competency needs. Moreover, students' sense of belonging to culture and other aspects is based on the symbolic dimension as the prerequisite and activated through multimodal coding. The regulating role of movement somatosensory in motivation internalization has been confirmed, supplementing the framework of "basic psychological needs-centered theory" in SDT, providing a specific path empirical basis for interdisciplinary teaching design. Practical application level (1) Emphasize the development of teachers' professional capabilities: Enhance the theoretical and practical learning of "emotional expression and metaphorical translation" (such as the "binary translation" strategy to avoid cultural differences); (2) In terms of optimizing the course teaching design: Implement task stratified teaching, such as simplifying the teaching of the one-handed "雲手" circle drawing action for beginners. And enhance teachers' teaching ability in cultural translation; and (3) Stratified ability support: For lower level students, simplified movement teaching is adopted; for those with higher level, autonomy in movement creation is granted; and for those with similar abilities, two-person group exercises are designed to enhance emotional needs. When the learning frequency is 3 to 4 times a week, psychological well-being shows an "inverted U-shaped peak". Synthesis and future directions Through an integrated mixed-methods approach, the present study demonstrates that, in bilingual Tai Chi instruction, teacher support is positively associated with psychological well-being through the sequential associations of basic psychological needs and learning motivation. Beyond integrating SDT and ECT, the core contribution of this study lies in clearly defining embodied interaction as an instructional condition and demonstrating how its physical and symbolic dimensions provide a contextualized basis for motivational internalization without reifying it as an independent psychological construct. As this study adopts a cross-sectional design, the reported associations should be interpreted as correlational rather than causal. Future research is encouraged to employ longitudinal or intervention-based designs, extend the proposed model to other embodied bilingual learning contexts (e.g., dance or yoga), and incorporate multimodal measures to further examine the robustness and generalizability of the proposed mechanism. Supplementary Information Supplementary Material 1. (156.3KB, xlsx) Acknowledgements We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all participants who contributed to the writing and revision processes of this work. Authors’ contributions Qianqian Fan: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Lan Li: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Yeonhee Seo: Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. Funding No funding was received for this study. Data availability All data supporting the findings of this study have been included in the supplementary files submitted with the manuscript. These materials are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request, if access to the journal submission system is restricted. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate All participants provided informed consent prior to enrollment in the study. Written informed consent was obtained from all individuals included in the research. For participants under the age of 18, written consent was obtained from their parents or legal guardians. The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Woosuk University and was conducted in strict accordance with the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Footnotes Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Lan Li and Qianqian Fan contributed equally to this study and share first authorship. 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(156.3KB, xlsx) Data Availability Statement All data supporting the findings of this study have been included in the supplementary files submitted with the manuscript. These materials are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request, if access to the journal submission system is restricted. 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