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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice BMC Public Health . 2026 Mar 3;26:1175. doi: 10.1186/s12889-026-26802-w Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Understanding and promoting the global well-being of temporary migrant workers over time: a mixed longitudinal study Simon Coulombe Simon Coulombe 1 Department of Industrial Relations, Faculty of Social Sciences, Université Laval, Pavillon J.-A.-DeSève, 1025, Avenue des Sciences-Humaines, Room 3115, Québec, QC G1V 0A6 Canada 4 Relief Research Chair in Mental Health, Self-management and Work, Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada 9 Center for the Study of Democratic Citizenship, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada 10 Department of Psychology, Faculty of Human Sciences, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada 12 VITAM, Research Center for Sustainable Health, Québec, QC Canada 13 CERVO, Brain Research Center, Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada Find articles by Simon Coulombe 1, 4, 9, 10, 12, 13, ✉ , Aline Lechaume Aline Lechaume 1 Department of Industrial Relations, Faculty of Social Sciences, Université Laval, Pavillon J.-A.-DeSève, 1025, Avenue des Sciences-Humaines, Room 3115, Québec, QC G1V 0A6 Canada 4 Relief Research Chair in Mental Health, Self-management and Work, Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada 5 Canada Research Chair in Global Migration Dynamics, Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada 7 Équipe de recherche en partenariat sur la diversité culturelle et l’immigration dans la région de Québec (ÉDIQ) , Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada Find articles by Aline Lechaume 1, 4, 5, 7 , Fredrick Vokey Fredrick Vokey 4 Relief Research Chair in Mental Health, Self-management and Work, Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada 12 VITAM, Research Center for Sustainable Health, Québec, QC Canada Find articles by Fredrick Vokey 4, 12 , Stéphanie Atkin Stéphanie Atkin 16 Institut national de la recherche scientifique, Québec, QC Canada Find articles by Stéphanie Atkin 16 , Johanna Cardona Campuzano Johanna Cardona Campuzano 7 Équipe de recherche en partenariat sur la diversité culturelle et l’immigration dans la région de Québec (ÉDIQ) , Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada 16 Institut national de la recherche scientifique, Québec, QC Canada Find articles by Johanna Cardona Campuzano 7, 16 , Marina Doucerain Marina Doucerain 9 Center for the Study of Democratic Citizenship, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada 10 Department of Psychology, Faculty of Human Sciences, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada 11 Institut santé et société, Université du Quebec à Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada 15 Équipe de recherche sur l’immigration dans le Québec actuel (ERIQA), Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada Find articles by Marina Doucerain 9, 10, 11, 15 , Caroline Biron Caroline Biron 2 Department of Management, Faculty of Administration Sciences, Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada 6 Centre d’expertise en gestion de la santé et de la sécurité du travail, Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada 12 VITAM, Research Center for Sustainable Health, Québec, QC Canada Find articles by Caroline Biron 2, 6, 12 , Émilie Dionne Émilie Dionne 3 Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada 12 VITAM, Research Center for Sustainable Health, Québec, QC Canada Find articles by Émilie Dionne 3, 12 , Daniel Côté Daniel Côté 8 Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada 14 Institut de recherche Robert-Sauvé en santé et en sécurité du travail (IRSST), Québec, QC Canada Find articles by Daniel Côté 8, 14 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Department of Industrial Relations, Faculty of Social Sciences, Université Laval, Pavillon J.-A.-DeSève, 1025, Avenue des Sciences-Humaines, Room 3115, Québec, QC G1V 0A6 Canada 2 Department of Management, Faculty of Administration Sciences, Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada 3 Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada 4 Relief Research Chair in Mental Health, Self-management and Work, Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada 5 Canada Research Chair in Global Migration Dynamics, Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada 6 Centre d’expertise en gestion de la santé et de la sécurité du travail, Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada 7 Équipe de recherche en partenariat sur la diversité culturelle et l’immigration dans la région de Québec (ÉDIQ) , Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada 8 Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada 9 Center for the Study of Democratic Citizenship, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada 10 Department of Psychology, Faculty of Human Sciences, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada 11 Institut santé et société, Université du Quebec à Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada 12 VITAM, Research Center for Sustainable Health, Québec, QC Canada 13 CERVO, Brain Research Center, Université Laval, Québec, QC Canada 14 Institut de recherche Robert-Sauvé en santé et en sécurité du travail (IRSST), Québec, QC Canada 15 Équipe de recherche sur l’immigration dans le Québec actuel (ERIQA), Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada 16 Institut national de la recherche scientifique, Québec, QC Canada ✉ Corresponding author. Received 2025 Oct 7; Accepted 2026 Feb 20; Collection date 2026. © The Author(s) 2026 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ . PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC13067689 PMID: 41772498 Abstract Background To meet the demands of Canada’s economy, the number of temporary migrant workers (TMWs) has significantly increased since 2000. However, TMWs are disproportionately represented in jobs characterized by poor working and living conditions. Such exploitation severely impacts their well-being. Addressing this critical issue requires a deeper understanding of the specific effects of employment and immigration status precariousness on the evolution of different dimensions of TMWs’ wellbeing. There is currently a significant lack of robust empirical data on well-being determinants that consider the diverse trajectories of this heterogeneous and vulnerable population. This limits the identification of specific intervention points for various subgroups of TMWs, particularly those experiencing intersectional discrimination. Methods This study addresses these gaps by adopting an intersectional and life-course perspective to examine well-being trajectories among TMWs in Québec. The quantitative component involves a diverse cohort of 1,000 adult TMWs employed in Québec, Canada, who will complete comprehensive questionnaires at three key measurement points over a 24-month period. These questionnaires will capture detailed measures of well-being and factors related to personal, employment/work and social resource losses or gains influencing well-being trajectories. Latent trajectories analysis will be conducted. Additionally, 40 participants who best represent the various identified latent trajectories will engage in qualitative interviews. Thematic analysis of these qualitative data will be integrated with the quantitative findings to provide an in-depth understanding of how social and structural forces shape TMWs’ well-being trajectories. An advisory committee comprising representatives from community organizations, employers, and TMWs will regularly meet to provide professional and personal insights to enhance study methods, materials, and result interpretation. Discussion This study will generate novel data to address employment, working, and living condition issues among TMWs, ultimately aiming to enhance their well-being. By integrating theoretical perspectives from many disciplines, the project will significantly contribute to the scientific literature at the intersection of well-being, employment, immigration, and precariousness. Study findings will inform the development of practical tools for employers and for professionals in migration- and well-being-related fields to mitigate risk factors affecting TMWs. A policy brief will also be prepared to communicate findings to policymakers for improving social policies. Keywords: Well-being, Temporary migrant workers, Precariousness, Positive psychology, Mixed estimates, Latent trajectories, Life courses, Intersectionality Background Context The situation facing temporary migrant workers In Canada, the number of temporary migrant workers (TMWs) has increased dramatically in recent years. Between 2000 and 2021, it rose from 111,000 to 777,000 [ 1 ]. In the province of Québec alone, the Temporary Foreign Worker Program (TFWP) grew from 12,205 to 38,505 permit holders between 2016 and 2022. According to the Institut de la statistique du Québec (ISQ), as of early 2023, the total number of temporary residents in Québec was estimated at 346,000, the vast majority of whom hold work permits [ 2 ]. This study aims to better understand, from an intersectional and trajectory-based perspective, the well-being of TMWs in Québec, Canada. In this project, TMWs are defined as individuals holding a temporary work permit, whether closed or open, regardless of the program (e.g., temporary foreign workers, asylum seekers, international students, individuals with expired status) [ 3 ]. Although TMWs play a vital role in the economy and significantly contribute to the growth and development of society in Québec and Canada [ 4 ], they are overrepresented in so-called “3D” jobs—dirty, dangerous, and demanding [ 5 ]—which very likely affect their physical, mental, and social well-being [ 5 – 12 ]. The United Nations has recently denounced the conditions of TMWs, urging Canada to “combat modern slavery by protecting workers’ rights and addressing the discrimination that fosters exploitation” [ 13 ]. Literature review Dual precarity The physical and mental well-being of immigrants arriving in Canada tends to deteriorate over time due to adverse factors such as poor living and working conditions, lack of access to quality housing, racism, integration stress, lack of social networks, and limited access to services [ 3 , 9 , 14 , 15 ]. However, existing research on immigrant well-being often overlooks the heterogeneity within immigrant populations, particularly those facing more vulnerabilities [ 16 ]. As such, TMWs deserve particular attention, as they face precariousness due to (i) their temporary immigration status and (ii) the precarious nature of their employment [ 3 , 17 ]. Depending on their immigration status and its evolution, their access to services—especially healthcare—remains limited[ 3 ]. Moreover, many TMWs refrain from using these services due to fear of losing their status and/or employment [ 18 ]. For TMWs, overexposure to risks [ 10 ], lack of control over working conditions, limited ability to exercise legal rights [ 19 – 22 ], low-paying jobs that don’t meet the cost of living [ 23 ], all factors stemming from employment and work policies, constitute forms of structural discrimination. This also aligns with the four dimensions of employment precariousness defined by Rodgers [ 24 ]: job insecurity, lack of control over work, lack of regulatory protection, and low income. Studies on general populations have linked employment precariousness to negative well-being indicators such as depression, anxiety, burnout, and poorer physical health [ 25 – 28 ]. However, the intersection between employment precariousness and temporary immigration status remains underexplored as a potentially unique social determinant of well-being [ 28 ]. A broader conception of well-being According to the World Health Organization (WHO) constitution, well-being is not merely the absence of disease [ 29 ]. Contemporary research in positive psychology and related fields suggests that well-being includes positive indicators of personal functioning, beyond the absence of difficulties such as mental health disorders [ 30 , 31 ]. Policymakers around the world are increasingly targeting these positive aspects of well-being in public policy [ 32 , 33 ]. However, in the case of TMWs, the few existing studies have mainly highlighted the problems they face [ 4 , 6 , 11 , 17 , 34 ] neglecting the impact of precariousness on the positive aspects of well-being, which are central to human flourishing and optimal societal functioning [ 30 , 31 ]. To operationalize well-being from a positive perspective, our study will use the I COPPE model developed by Prilleltensky, which defines well-being as “a positive state achieved through the simultaneous and balanced satisfaction of various objective and subjective needs” [ 35 ]. This model identifies six dimensions through which positive well-being is experienced, each corresponding to a life domain: Interpersonal, Community, Occupational, Physical, Psychological, and Economic [ 35 ]. From a social justice perspective, well-being involves equitable access to opportunities that foster capabilities—what a person, regardless of background or class, can freely choose to do and be [ 36 ]. As described below, for each I COPPE dimension, access to well-being-enhancing opportunities appears to be compromised for TMWs. Potential challenges faced by TMWs in relation to the I COPPE dimensions Interpersonal: The concept of interpersonal well-being reflects a person’s satisfaction with the quality of their relationships with significant others (family, friends, colleagues) [ 37 ]. A significant portion of TMWs (e.g., some foreign workers under closed permits 1 , including the 45,000 seasonal agricultural workers) are not allowed to obtain visitor visas or work permits for their family members. As a result, many do not see their families for up to eight months per year, sometimes for decades [ 38 – 41 ]. TMWs are therefore often deprived of in-person contact with key members of their social networks [ 3 ]. Community: Well-being also depends on satisfying relationships with the broader community [ 37 ]. TMWs are separated from their home communities and must overcome acculturation challenges in the host society (e.g., discrimination and xenophobia based on immigration status, skin color, or country of origin)[ 6 ]. Studies have shown that temporary workers and immigrant workers experience higher levels of discrimination and harassment than permanent and non-immigrant workers [ 11 , 42 , 43 ]. Occupational: According to Prilleltensky et al. [ 37 ], occupational well-being reflects satisfaction with one’s work. Much of the work performed by TMWs is often alienating and degrading [ 10 ], placing them at risk of multiple psychosocial work hazards [ 44 ], such as: excessive workload [ 45 , 46 ]; low job autonomy [ 9 , 47 ]; lack of recognition, including lower wages than other workers [ 48 , 49 ]; lack of social support from supervisors and colleagues [ 6 , 50 – 55 ]; risk of psychological harassment [ 50 , 52 , 53 ]; and lack of adequate (i.e., in a language that they understand) information and communication regarding organizational decisions [ 9 , 45 ]. Physical: In addition to the effects of inadequate housing and food insecurity [ 14 ], overexposure to occupational hazards [ 10 ] can negatively impact TMWs’ physical well-being. The WHO reports that immigrant workers, including TMWs, in Europe have workplace accident rates nearly twice as high as non-immigrant workers [ 56 – 58 ]. Many TMWs, both in Canada and Europe, are exposed to risks of musculoskeletal disorders, crush injuries, and eye and skin problems [ 14 , 59 , 60 ]. When injured at work, migrant workers are less likely to report injuries for fear of losing their job or immigration status; even when they do report, they rarely receive compensation [ 45 ]. Psychological: Individuals with precarious legal status often report unmet mental health needs [ 3 ], which undermines their satisfaction with emotional life—identified by Prilleltensky et al. as essential to well-being [ 37 ]. The migration process, including family separation and acculturation difficulties, often leads to feelings of isolation [ 14 ]. This needs to be considered in the context of findings suggesting that TMWs may place greater importance on social relationships than their native-born colleagues [ 54 , 61 ]. Further, discrimination and marginalization, which exacerbate isolation and negative emotions, may expose TMWs to higher risks of depression, anxiety, suicide, and substance abuse than the general population [ 62 ]. This is why Ronda-Pérez et al. [ 47 ] identify lack of social support as a major risk factor for TMWs. Economic: Due to the factors listed above, TMWs face multiple forms of economic precariousness [ 63 , 64 ] and lower wages [ 9 , 48 , 49 , 65 , 66 ], which are likely to affect their well-being. TMWs under closed permits are more vulnerable to unfair wage practices [ 45 ]. Furthermore, unfamiliarity with financial practices and institutions in the host country exposes TMWs to precarious financial behaviors (e.g., payday loans), which result in additional costs [ 67 – 70 ]. Gaps in previous studies and proposed approaches to address them The need for mixed-methods research Building on the fragmented body of empirical data described above regarding the many potential challenges to TMWs’ well-being, researchers have identified a need for further research on the health and well-being of TMWs [ 3 , 4 , 71 , 72 ]. According to a 2018 systematic review by Sweileh [ 73 ], only 5% of the scientific literature on immigrants focused on their well-being and health. Moreover, few studies have addressed migrants in precarious situations, and most research on TMWs’ well-being has been qualitative in nature [ 34 , 74 ]. There is thus an urgent need for more quantitative and mixed-methods research [ 75 , 76 ]. This is essential to better understand the nuanced difficulties and experiences faced by TMWs in Québec and Canada, while also providing large-scale quantitative data to help paint a more complete picture and inform policymakers about the urgency of the situation and potential avenues for intervention. The need for an integrated, multifactorial, and life-course perspective In general, previous quantitative research on TMWs’ well-being has focused on only one or a few dimensions and related risk factors [ 45 , 50 , 62 ]. To address this limitation, the recently developed integrative theoretical framework by Shirmohammadi et al. [ 77 ], which is based on the Conservation of Resources Theory [ 78 , 79 ], offers an innovative perspective by combining personal and social resources lost and gained by migrant workers. Building on this model, we argue that job insecurity, psychosocial work risks, discrimination, and immigration-related stressors (e.g., language barriers) can be considered factors that lead to resource loss. Conversely, we hypothesize that social support (at work, in the community, and from formal service providers) and individual strategies (e.g., self-care behaviors such as spiritual practices, leisure activities) are associated with resource gains that may mitigate the negative impacts of resource loss. Although this model addresses many of the potential challenges to TMWs’ well-being discussed above, it has never been empirically tested in its entirety and has never been applied specifically to temporary workers. Furthermore, given the dynamic nature of well-being, Shirmohammadi et al. [ 77 ] suggest that factors associated with resource loss and gain should be considered over time. Indeed, the time elapsed since arrival in Canada may significantly impact TMWs’ professional and general experiences [ 80 ]. To recognize individuals’ agency and the diversity of possible trajectories they navigate [ 81 ] in relation to the changing opportunities and constraints of their environment across many life domains, alongside the succession of different jobs they may hold over time in the host country, it would be useful to adopt a life-course approach [ 82 – 86 ]. Examining TMWs’ well-being trajectories in relation to varying levels of precariousness (and associated resource losses and gains) over time is essential to determine whether there is a “springboard effect” across time toward greater well-being, or conversely, if initial precariousness traps individuals in a cycle of insecure work associated with lower well-being [ 87 ]. The need for an intersectional analysis Among the limited studies conducted on TMWs in Canada, the vast majority focus on agricultural workers in Ontario [ 4 ]. However, caution is needed before generalizing findings to all TMWs, as they represent a heterogeneous category, and different subgroups are likely exposed to different constellations of risks [ 3 , 14 ]. According to intersectionality theory [ 88 ], individuals at the intersection of multiple marginalized social positions face unique forms of discrimination rooted in structural systems of oppression[ 89 ], which harm their psychological well-being [ 90 , 91 ]. However, intersectional approaches remain underutilized in immigration studies [ 16 ]. We have already discussed the increased vulnerability at the intersection of precarious employment and temporary immigration status. However, various subgroups of TMWs likely face additional challenges based on age, gender, and ethnicity [ 92 , 93 ]. For example, research suggests that racialized TMWs are more likely to experience discrimination and face greater barriers in accessing healthcare [ 94 – 98 ]. Female TMWs are at higher risk for mental health issues, cancer, chronic stress, and workplace injuries than their male counterparts [ 3 , 10 ]. They are also at increased risk of sexual harassment, violence, and exploitation [ 73 ]. Objectives Despite recent media attention, comprehensive studies documenting the well-being challenges of TMWs throughout their trajectories are virtually nonexistent in Québec and Canada. This lack of data hinders the development of policies and programs aimed at protecting and promoting their well-being. From an equity, diversity, and inclusion perspective, it is the responsibility of service providers (psychosocial, immigration, employment integration), researchers, and policymakers to contribute to improving the well-being of these particularly vulnerable members of society. Our proposed study aims to address existing research limitations by mobilizing the theoretical approaches mentioned above to comprehensively examine the well-being of TMWs in Québec, Canada. It will be the first mixed-methods study to include a large-scale quantitative survey on this topic in Canada and will lay the essential groundwork for a future nationwide project. This study aims to better understand, from an intersectional and trajectory-based perspective, the well-being of temporary migrant workers in Québec. Specifically, we aim to: Describe the evolution of multiple dimensions of TMWs’ well-being over a 24-month period and the influence of employment and immigration status precariousness on this evolution; Identify latent trajectories characterizing sociodemographic subgroups of TMWs with differing patterns of well-being evolution; Identify the factors that, over time, are associated with more or less positive well-being trajectories, considering employment and immigration status precariousness and its interaction with sociodemographic variables, psychosocial work risks, discrimination, other immigration-related stressors (e.g., language barriers), social support, and individual strategies; Understand the qualitative experiences of TMWs regarding the factors and life paths that have influenced or are influencing their well-being, contrasting their experiences based on the quantitative trajectories identified in point 2; Formulate recommendations to guide policies and interventions aimed at promoting well-being by targeting the identified factors and trajectories. Methods The study has been reviewed and received funding as part of the Insight Program of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (funding #435–2024-1330). The project has received approval from the Research Ethics Committee of Université Laval. Design This study is grounded in a pragmatic research paradigm [ 99 ], favoring the combination of different approaches tailored to the research questions. It employs a longitudinal mixed-methods design, maximizing the breadth of knowledge developed across a wide range of factors while allowing for depth of analysis to better understand the unique experiences of diverse TMWs. The design includes three main quantitative data collection points: Time 0 (study entry); Time 1 (12 months after entry); Time 2 (24 months after entry). Between Time 0 and Time 1 (i.e., 6 months after Time 0), and between Time 1 and Time 2 (i.e., 6 months after Time 1), participants will be contacted to maintain engagement, update contact information to facilitate retention, and re-administer a well-being measure (see Quantitative section below). After Time 2 data collection, a subsample of the quantitative participants will take part in a qualitative interview (explained in further detail below). Advisory committee The study includes an advisory committee consisting of 10 to 15 members, including TMWs from diverse cultural backgrounds and employment sectors (e.g. manufacturing, agriculture and agrifood, hotels and service industry, and health care), employers of TMWs, advocates from organizations defending TMWs’ rights, and stakeholders in well-being and workplace integration, will meet three times per year (virtually or in hybrid format). The committee will validate instruments, materials, and recruitment strategies, and contribute to interpretation and knowledge mobilization. Participants and Recruitment Quantitative component A total of 1,000 adult TMWs will be recruited at Time 0. Eligible participants will: (a) be 18 years of age or older; (b) not have permanent resident status (regardless of immigration category or status), and (c) be employed full-time or part-time (or have been so employed in the 12 months prior to participation) in Québec, Canada. Participants will be followed for 24 months to track their evolution and compare trajectories across individuals. Therefore, there is no restriction on the time elapsed since arrival in Canada at the time of study entry. Based on the research team experience with working with similar populations, it is estimated that approximately 20% of the sample will be lost between each measurement point, resulting in a final sample of 640 participants at Time 2. This sample size is sufficient according to recommendations (> 500[ 100 ]) for conducting latent trajectory analyses, which are central to this study on well-being pathways. It will also provide adequate statistical power to detect moderate effect sizes (with 0.80 power) in cross-lagged analyses examining the relationships between precariousness, other resource loss/gain factors, and well-being over time (power analysis conducted using the powRICLPM package)[ 101 ]. Recruitment will be conducted through web advertisements, flyers, and social media posts (e.g., Facebook groups for TMWs, WhatsApp groups). WhatsApp has proven to be one of the most effective tools for reaching this population in previous studies conducted by several team members. Partner organizations (whose representatives are members of the advisory committee) will share the invitation with other organizations (e.g., one of the partner organizations is connected directly with 152 other organizations) and with the thousands of TMWs they reach. All recruitment materials will be available in multiple languages (French, English, Spanish, Arabic) [ 102 ]. In addition, research team members will attend community events to distribute information about the study directly to TMWs. Qualitative component Following Time 2 of the quantitative component, analyses will be conducted (see below) to identify different well-being trajectories found in the longitudinal data. For the qualitative component, participants who are most representative (based on the “most likely latent class membership” statistic) [ 103 , 104 ] of each trajectory will be invited to participate in an interview, for a total of 40 participants across all trajectories (the exact number of trajectories will be determined through statistical analysis). For each trajectory, a maximum variation sampling strategy[ 105 ] will be used to ensure diversity in terms of gender, ethnicity, immigration status, and type/sector of employment. Data collection Quantitative component Upon receiving the invitation to participate, interested persons will contact the research coordinator by an email address dedicated to this project. The coordinator will confirm their interest and invite participants to provide consent in one of three modalities: (i) completing an electronic consent form hosted on a secure survey platform; (ii) providing verbal consent during a telephone call or videoconference meeting; or (iii) signing a paper copy. After the consent form is signed, the questionnaire will be self-administered online by participants via a secure survey platform (Qualtrics), accessible through a QR code, text message, or WhatsApp link. The questionnaire will be optimized for completion on a smartphone or computer. For those participants who require assistance completing the questionnaire, research assistants will be available and, if necessary, will administer the questionnaire by phone, online (via Teams), WhatsApp, or in person. The ethics committee has already approved these communication methods in several previous projects to reach this population, which is often difficult to engage through conventional means. Based on a co-investigator’s experience in a recent project [ 106 ], it is estimated that one-quarter of the total sample will require assistance to complete the questionnaire (with 5% needing in-person support). The questionnaire (approximately 25 min) will remain largely the same at Time 0, Time 1, and Time 2 to track changes in indicators over time. Table 1 shows the measures—mostly short forms or validated abbreviated versions of longer scales—that will be included at each time point. All scales will be available in multiple languages (French, English, Spanish, Arabic). Some of these scales have already been translated and validated in at least two of these languages. When needed, translated will be conducted using principles from the back translation approach [ 107 ]. These scales have demonstrated adequate psychometric properties (e.g., factorial and construct validity, internal consistency) [ 108 – 115 ]. Based on suggestions from the advisory committee and another ongoing study (led by the co-investigator Lechaume), modifications to the list of scales may be made in the interest of measuring adequately all relevant dimensions of the constructs we intend to measure. Additionally, items from some of the following scales may be adjusted to make them easier to understand or more relevant to TMWs. If modifications are made, additional validation analysis will be conducted with the collected data before running the main analysis. Table 1. List of constructs and measurement scales included in the long survey Construct Instrument of Measure Cronbach’s alpha (α) Well-being I COPPE Scale - Short Form, including all dimensions of the model [ 109 ] 0.88 Employment precariousness Employment Precariousness Scale, including several dimensions (e.g., salary, rights, temporary nature) [ 108 ] 0.82 Psychosocial work risks Questionnaire on Psychosocial risks, Well-being, and Health at Work (QRBEST) [ 110 , 115 ] 0.69–0.83 Intersectional discrimination Intersectional Discrimination Index, including: anticipation of discrimination, everyday discrimination and major discrimination related to all social identities [ 111 ] 0.93 Self-care strategies Mental Health Self-Management Questionnaire [ 112 ] 0.75 Social support (family, friends, professional/community services) Social Provisions Scale-10 items [ 113 ], e.g., emotional support and unmet needs, emotional support and questions from the Canadian Community Health Survey [ 116 ], e.g., services received and unmet needs 0.88 Immigration-related stressors Stress of Immigration Survey-Short Form, e.g., language, culture, legal aspects [ 114 ] 0.94 Demographic variations, history (employment, migration) E.g., immigration status (program), country of origin, gender, age, racialized or not, having dependents, previous jobs in Quebec - Open in a new tab In addition to the questionnaire, a short wellbeing survey (approximately 12 min) will be administered to participants at 6 months and again at 18 months. This survey will be composed of wellbeing items taken from the I COPPE scale, as well as a selected subscales from the questionnaire. This survey will be administered in the same manner as the questionnaire and available in the same languages. Qualitative component Trained research assistants will conduct individual interviews (primarily online, e.g., via Teams or WhatsApp, as successfully tested in several studies with migrants [ 117 – 119 ]; with the option of in-person meetings if needed) in the participant’s preferred language, lasting 90 to 120 min. The interviews will follow a semi-structured guide using a narrative approach aligned with the life-course perspective [ 120 – 123 ]. Narrative approaches are useful for understanding how individuals’ experiences are shaped by broader societal and structural forces (in this case, employment and immigration status precariousness) [ 124 ]. Interviewers will invite participants to divide their story into main chapters and describe key events in each period (decisions, turning points, plans, jobs), as well as contextual elements (social relationships, places, time) [ 120 ]. Special attention will be given to migration-related events and employment experiences in Canada. Participants will also be invited to share recommendations for policymakers and psychosocial practitioners to better support their well-being. Financial compensation To encourage participation and retention in the study, participants will be compensated for participation in both quantitative and qualitative components. For the quantitative measures, there are two questionnaires. For the main questionnaire, participants will receive $25 per completed questionnaire completed (Time 0, Time 1, and Time 2). For the completion of the short questionnaire (i.e., mainly focussed on well-being) during the two interim contacts (between main time points), participants will be compensated through entry into a draw for 10 prepaid credit cards valued at $100 each. For the qualitative interview, participants will be compensated with a $50. All compensation (except for the short questionnaire) will be offered in the form of cash, electronic transfer or as a gift card, following the participant’s choice. Analysis Data management Data will be stored in an S3 container on the secure VALERIA infrastructure at Université Laval, whose “facilities […] are protected by rigorous physical and IT security measures and strongly inspired by the best practices outlined in the ISO 27002 international standard” [ 125 ]. Data will be frequently backed up. Given the sensitive nature of the data and the vulnerability of the population, the team will strictly follow a comprehensive data management plan (e.g., secure storage methods, clear data-sharing limitations, compliance with ethical and legal requirements), prepared using the DMP Assistant tool from the Digital Research Alliance of Canada [ 126 ]. Quantitative analysis Analyses will be conducted using R and Mplus. For Objective 1 (evolution of well-being and the role of precariousness), a repeated-measures ANOVA will be used to examine changes in well-being across the I COPPE model dimensions over time. In line with an intersectional perspective [ 127 – 129 ], social identities and their intersections (e.g., gender, age, specific immigration status) will be considered in interaction with time. A cross-lagged structural equation model [ 130 ] will then be used to test the temporal relationship between changes in employment and immigration status precariousness and well-being across time points (preliminary analyses may begin after the second wave of data collection). For Objectives 2 and 3 (latent trajectories and associated variables), latent trajectory modeling [ 131 , 132 ] will be used to identify distinct well-being trajectories over time and determine which variables (employment and immigration precariousness, sociodemographic characteristics, psychosocial work risks, discrimination, self-care, social support, immigration-related stressors) are associated with the likelihood of belonging to each profile. Qualitative analysis To address Objectives 4 and 5, interviews will be transcribed in their original language, then translated into French by professional translators and thematically coded in NVivo. Two graduate students or research associate coders will conduct the analysis. To enhance reliability, they will maintain a reflexive journal and hold discussion sessions with co-investigators to resolve disagreements about emerging themes through consensus [ 133 , 134 ]. The thematic analysis, focused on both manifest and latent content, will follow a hybrid approach combining a deductive component (initial coding tree based on the study’s conceptual frameworks) with an inductive component [ 135 ]. The approach will follow six steps: (i) familiarization with the data; (ii) generating initial codes; (iii) searching for themes; (iv) reviewing themes; (v) defining and naming themes; (vi) producing the report [ 135 ]. Quantitative–qualitative integration Themes from the thematic analysis will be compared across participants’ trajectories, based on the results of the quantitative survey analysis. This will allow us to identify shared content across trajectories regarding the impacts of precariousness on well-being, as well as themes that distinguish each trajectory. Only a limited number of studies (e.g. [ 136 ]), and none in the field of precarious employment or among TMWs, have integrated trajectory analysis (or similar quantitative techniques) with qualitative research. However, since both methods are person-centered, there is strong potential for synergy. Our design will enable full integration of the qualitative and quantitative components, generating unique meta-inferences [ 137 ] that recognize both the heterogeneity and commonality of TMWs’ experiences. Discussion To improve the well-being of TMWs in Quebec, Canada, it is essential that policymakers be better informed. From that perspective, this longitudinal study has the potential to provide original data to better understand the evolution of the well-being of TMWs in Canada over the course of their journey, as well as variations in well-being among their different subgroups (e.g., women, racialized individuals), thus allowing for more targeted intervention and policies. Conducting a longitudinal study with the TMW population involves several operational challenges. A first challenge is the lack of measures that have been validated in all primary native languages spoken by TMWs in the Quebec context (i.e., mostly, French, English, Spanish, and Arabic). Additionally, among the few survey tools available in several of these languages, the wording of the items often does not suit varying levels of literacy, and scales’ content often do not suit the specific realities of TMWs (e.g., atypical jobs). To address these issues, as explained above, our study’s advisory committee, based on findings from an ongoing study with a group of TMWs and other stakeholders working with them, will help to review the measures we are proposing, assessing their adequacy for TMWs and suggesting content and wording adaptations when needed. A rigorous back translation process will also be followed to ensure adequate translation of the scales. While we acknowledge that there is a risk inherent in modifying the content of validated scales, this will be done cautiously and with parsimony, and validation analysis will be performed as preliminary analysis. Such flexibility is essential when conducting research with populations who are often neglected in survey studies. The adapted and translated scales will also represent methodological contributions of the study. Another challenge is the significant risk of attrition during a longitudinal study with this population, whose temporary status imply some form of mobility, thus making it more difficult to follow participants across multiple timepoints. To help increase retention in the study, the study design was carefully planned, including contacts with participants in-between the main measurement waves. This contact will help sustain participants’ engagement, while also offering the opportunity to update contact information. Furthermore, our fair and ethicallyapproved compensation plan for participants, as well as our multi-channel communication strategies with participants (including using WhatsApp, and collecting family contact information, when approved by participants) aim to improve participants’ retention. As a summary, findings from results, both quantitative and qualitative, will offer a unique, comprehensive yet detailed and nuanced, understanding of the well-being challenges faced by TMWs. The findings will be widely disseminated to support the improvement of policies as well as professional and community support practices. Our advisory committee, including representatives of many organizations working with and for TMWs (in labor, immigration, and health/social services) will promote the application of the results. Ultimately, the study will contribute to deepening public discourse about this population whose experiences remain poorly understood. Acknowledgements Not applicable. Abbreviations ANOVA Analysis Of Variance QRBEST Questionnaire sur les Risques psychosociaux, le Bien-être et la Santé au Travail TMW Temporary Migrant Worker WHO World Health Organization Authors’ contributions The research protocol was designed and written by SC and AL, with input on the quantitative phase from MD, DC and CB and, on the qualitative phase, from ED. FV prepared the initial draft of the present article based on the study’s grant. JCC and SA reviewed the initial draft for accuracy. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Funding The study has received funding from the Insight grant program (link) of the Government of Canada’s Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) (funding number: 435-2024-1330). The study has received a successful peer review as part of the merit review process associated with this funding opportunity. Data availability No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Phase 1 of this project has been approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Université Laval (project number: 2025 − 245) signifying that it conforms to the Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans , which is a joint policy of Canada’s three federal research agencies – the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC). This Policy has been informed, in part, by leading international ethics norms (e.g. the Helsinki Declaration and the International Ethical Guidelines for Health-related Research Involving Humans) to guide Canadian researchers, in Canada and abroad, in the conduct of research involving humans ( https://ethics.gc.ca/eng/documents/tcps2-2022-en.pdf ). Participants have not yet been recruited to this study. 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Associated Data This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article. Data Availability Statement No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study. 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