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A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. < Prev Next > Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence Fourth Edition Federal Judicial Center; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Policy and Global Affairs; Committee on Science, Technology, and Law; Committee on Science for Judges—Development of the Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence, Fourth Edition . Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US) ; 2025 Dec 31 . ISBN-13: 978-0-309-70123-5 ISBN-10: 0-309-70123-6 Copyright and Permissions Copyright 2025 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. For more information, see the Bookshelf Copyright Notice . Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press Search term The 4th edition of the Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence updates the topics covered in the 2011 3rd Edition with the latest science and expands to discuss many new topics, identifying issues that will be useful to judges and others in the legal profession. This valuable reference examines pivotal issues in the areas of science most often subject to dispute, discussing assessment of a case’s needs and evaluating experts and data. The Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence will support judges and other legal professions to ensure that science presented in the courtroom can be understood in the lens of the scientific method and reasoning. First published in 1994 by the Federal Judicial Center, the Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence has been relied upon in the legal and academic communities and is often cited by various courts and others. Judges faced with disputes over the admissibility of scientific and technical evidence refer to the manual to help them better understand and evaluate the relevance, reliability, and usefulness of the evidence being proffered. The manual is not intended to tell judges what is good science and what is not. Instead, it serves to help judges identify issues on which experts are likely to differ and to guide the inquiry of the court in seeking an informed resolution of the conflict. Contents Expand All Collapse All NATIONAL ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES, ENGINEERING, AND MEDICINE FEDERAL JUDICIAL CENTER Committee on Science for Judges—Development of the Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence, Fourth Edition Board of the Federal Judicial Center Committee on Science, Technology, and Law Reviewers Foreword Preface The Admissibility of Expert Testimony CONTENTS Introduction Federal Rule of Evidence 702: An Overview History of Rule 702 Amendments to Rule 702 Procedures for Resolving Rule 702 Motions and Objections Recurring Issues in the Application of Rule 702 Conclusion How Science Works CONTENTS FIGURES TABLE Introduction Key Traits of Science Nonscience, Pseudoscience, Bad Science, and Wrong Science Science as a Human and Community Endeavor Testing Hypotheses Achieving Scientific Consensus Myths About Science Science and the Law Conclusion Glossary of Terms Reference Guide on Forensic Feature Comparison Evidence CONTENTS Overview Legal Framework Governing Forensic Feature Comparison Evidence Discussion of Selected Forensic Feature Comparison Evidence Special Issues with Machine-Generated Feature Comparison Evidence Glossary of Terms Reference Guide on Human DNA Identification Evidence CONTENTS FIGURES TABLE Introduction Variation in Human DNA and Its Detection Sample Collection and Laboratory Performance Inference, Statistics, and Population Genetics in Human Nuclear DNA Testing Special Issues in Human DNA Testing Glossary of Terms References on DNA Reference Guide on Eyewitness Identification CONTENTS FIGURES Introduction The Eyewitness as an Information-Processing “Instrument” Predicting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Identification Scientific Questions Regarding Eyewitness Identification Basic Science of Vision, Memory, and Choice Applied Eyewitness Studies in the Laboratory Applied Eyewitness Studies in the Field Effects of Eyewitness Testimony on Juries Sources of Expertise on Matters of Eyewitness Science The Legal Framework for Eyewitness Evidence Conclusion Glossary of Terms Reference Guide on Statistics and Research Methods CONTENTS FIGURES TABLES Introduction How Have the Data Been Collected? How Have the Data Been Presented? What Inferences Can Be Drawn from the Data? Correlation and Regression Data Science and Statistical Machine Learning Appendix: Conditional Probability and Bayes’ Rule Glossary of Terms References on Statistics and Research Methods Reference Guide on Multiple Regression and Advanced Statistical Models CONTENTS FIGURES Introduction and Overview Research Design: Model Specification Interpreting Multiple Regression Results Causal Analysis and Research Designs More Advanced Regression Methods The Expert Presentation of Statistical Evidence Appendix: The Basics of Multiple Regression Glossary of Terms References on Multiple Regression References on Causal Analysis Reference Guide on Survey Research CONTENTS Reference Guide on Estimation of Economic Damages CONTENTS FIGURE TABLE Introduction Damages Experts’ Qualifications The Standard General Approach to Quantification of Economic Damages Valuation Issues in the Analysis of Economic Damages Other Issues Arising in General in Damages Measurement Limitations on Damages Damages in Class Actions Damages Issues in Selected Types of Cases Acknowledgments Glossary of Terms Prologue to the Reference Guide on Exposure Science and Exposure Assessment , the Reference Guide on Epidemiology , and the Reference Guide on Toxicology Reference Guide on Exposure Science and Exposure Assessment CONTENTS FIGURES TABLES Introduction to Exposure Science Understanding Human Exposure: Key Concepts Exposure Assessment Considerations for Chemical Stressors Quantification of Exposure to Chemical Stressors Exposure Assessment of Biologic and Physical Stressors How Exposure Science Informs Evaluation of Disease Causation in Individuals How Exposure Science Informs Evaluation of Risk in Populations Evaluating the Scientific Quality of an Exposure Assessment Qualifications of Exposure Scientists or Other Exposure Assessors Appendix A: Units of Exposure and Dose Glossary of Terms References on Law and Exposure Science References on Exposure Science Reference Guide on Epidemiology CONTENTS FIGURES TABLES Introduction The Different Kinds of Epidemiologic Studies Interpreting the Results of an Epidemiologic Study General Causation Methods for Synthesizing or Combining the Results of Multiple Studies Specific Causation Qualifications of Experts in Epidemiology Acknowledgments Glossary of Terms References Reference Guide on Toxicology CONTENTS FIGURES TABLE Introduction Toxicology and the Law Toxicology and Epidemiology Toxicology and Exposure Science Use of Biomarkers in Toxicology Exposure Assessment Toxicological Study Design Demonstrating an Association Between Exposure and Risk of Disease Specific Causal Association Between an Individual’s Exposure and Onset of Disease Medical History Expert Qualifications Acknowledgments Glossary of Terms General References on Toxicology and Chemical Risk Assessment Reference Guide on Medical Testimony CONTENTS FIGURES TABLES Introduction Medical Testimony Introduction Medical Care Medical Decision-Making Summary and Future Directions Glossary of Terms References on Medical Testimony Reference Guide on Neuroscience CONTENTS FIGURES Introduction The Human Brain Some Common Neuroscience Techniques Issues in Interpreting Study Results Questions About the Admissibility and the Creation of Neuroscience Evidence Examples of the Possible Uses of Neuroscience in the Courts Conclusion Glossary of Terms Reference Guide on Mental Health Evidence CONTENTS Overview of Mental Health Evidence Mental Health Experts Differences Between Clinical and Forensic Contexts Diagnosis of Mental Disorders Functional Impairment Due to Mental Disorders Predictive Assessments Treatment of Mental Disorders Treatment to Reduce Risk of Reoffending Limitations of Mental Health Evidence Evaluating Evidence from Mental Health Experts What Are the Qualifications of the Expert? How Was the Assessment Conducted? Was a Structured Diagnostic or Functional Assessment Instrument or Test Used? How Was the Expert’s Judgment Reached Regarding the Legally Relevant Question? Case Example Glossary of Terms References on Mental Health Diagnosis and Treatment References on Mental Health and Law Reference Guide on Engineering CONTENTS TABLES Introduction What Is Engineering and How Does It Differ from Science? Who Is an Engineer? How Do Engineers Think, Make, Test, and Evaluate? Engineering Systems Analysis of the Case Law Based on an Understanding of Engineering and How It Differs from Science Conclusion Glossary of Terms Reference Guide on Computer Science CONTENTS FIGURES Introduction Computer Organization Algorithms, Programs, and Software Overview of Cryptography Networking IP Network and Link Layer Addresses Computer and Network Security Forensics and Digital Evidence Glossary of Terms Reference Guide on Artificial Intelligence CONTENTS Introduction Roadmap An Overview of AI A Brief History from Turing to Today: Waves of AI Development A Survey of AI Applications “Today” What Is Machine Learning? Bias Algorithms That Predict Human Behavior Algorithms for Lawyers and Non-Lawyers: Technology-Assisted Review and . . . Legal Practice? AI and Discovery Judges as AI Gatekeepers Conclusion Glossary of Terms Acknowledgments Disclaimer Appendix. Biographical Information of Committee and Staff Expand All Collapse All This project is funded in part by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation through Grant GBMF10224, and the National Science Foundation under Grant GBMF10224 to the National Academy of Sciences. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of any organization or agency that provided support for the project. Suggested citation: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition . Washington, DC: National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/26919 . The Federal Judicial Center contributed to this publication in furtherance of the Center’s statutory mission to conduct research and continuing education programs for judicial branch employees for the improvement of judicial administration. This manual is provided as a resource to assist judges in understanding relevant scientific methods and principles that may arise in their cases. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Federal Judicial Center and its Board. Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.17226/26919 Library of Congress Control Number: 2025934845 This publication is available from the National Academies Press, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Keck 360, Washington, DC 20001; (800) 624-6242; https://nap.nationalacademies.org . The manufacturer’s authorized representative in the European Union for product safety is Authorised Rep Compliance Ltd., Ground Floor, 71 Lower Baggot Street, Dublin D02 P593 Ireland; www.arccompliance.com . Printed in the United States of America. Copyright 2025 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Bookshelf ID: NBK621600 PMID: 41955395 DOI: 10.17226/26919 < Prev Next > Share Views PubReader Print View Cite this Page Federal Judicial Center; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Policy and Global Affairs; Committee on Science, Technology, and Law; Committee on Science for Judges—Development of the Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence, Fourth Edition. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2025 Dec 31. doi: 10.17226/26919 PDF version of this title (13M) Related information NLM Catalog Related NLM Catalog Entries Similar articles in PubMed Personality Theories. [StatPearls. 2026] Personality Theories. Gallios JM, Iyer V, Kaylor LE. StatPearls. 2026 Jan Folic acid supplementation and malaria susceptibility and severity among people taking antifolate antimalarial drugs in endemic areas. 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