Barriers and motivators to yoga practice: A comparison of men and women across levels of engagement.

Barriers and motivators to yoga practice: A comparison of men and women across levels of engagement - PMC Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Search Log in Primary site navigation Search Log in Search PMC Full-Text Archive Search in PMC Journal List User Guide As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice J Bodyw Mov Ther . Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2026 Jun 1. Published in final edited form as: J Bodyw Mov Ther. 2025 Jan 30;42:925–931. doi: 10.1016/j.jbmt.2025.01.055 Barriers and motivators to yoga practice: A comparison of men and women across levels of engagement Camille L Garnsey a , Katherine E Gnall a , Crystal L Park a Author information Article notes Copyright and License information a Department of Psychological Science, University of Connecticut, 406 Babbidge Road, Unit 1020 Storrs, Connecticut, USA ✉ Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Camille Garnsey, Department of Psychological Science, University of Connecticut, 406 Babbidge Road, Unit 1020 Storrs, CT 06269 Camille.garnsey@uconn.edu Issue date 2025 Jun. PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC12056315  NIHMSID: NIHMS2059491  PMID: 40325775 The publisher's version of this article is available at J Bodyw Mov Ther Abstract Purpose: This study examines barriers and motivators for yoga practice among men and women across the spectrum of yoga practice frequency (regular, infrequent, and non-practicing) and explores potential shifts in the prevalence and location (online vs. in-studio/gym) of yoga practice in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: 351 undergraduates in the Northeastern United States (50% men, mean age=18.75) completed an online survey in April 2022. Results: Among men who did not practice yoga, lack of interest was the primary barrier to engagement (47%), followed by a preference for other forms of exercise (22%) and lack of time (20%). For women who did not practice, lack of time was the primary barrier (47%), followed by a lack of interest (20%), and a preference for other forms of exercise (11%). Across practitioner status, women tended to cite more emotional motivators for engagement in yoga (e.g., relaxation or calming, mental health) while men were more likely to cite physical motivators (flexibility, physical fitness, injury prevention). Many participants (41%) who reported practicing in the past six months began practicing after the pandemic began. Those who had practiced prior to the pandemic reported few changes in the location of their practice pre- and post-COVID-19 lockdowns. Discussion: While men and women cited similar barriers and motivators, differences were observed in the factors that were most salient for these groups. Findings can inform the creation of targeted interventions to address barriers and increase engagement in yoga generally and particularly among men. Keywords: yoga, barriers, motivators, COVID-19 1.1. INTRODUCTION Yoga is a mind-body practice that originated in India that, as practiced in the United States today most often includes some combination of physical postures, breathwork, and meditation. Regular yoga practice has been linked to myriad positive mental and physical health outcomes in clinical and community populations (Cochrane, 2020), including improvements in cardiovascular health ( Cramer et al., 2014 ), psychological well-being ( Cramer et al., 2018 ; Hendriks et al., 2017 ), and back pain ( Chang et al., 2016 ). Despite yoga’s many benefits, only a small proportion of individuals practice regularly. The lifetime and 12-month prevalence of yoga practice in the United States is estimated at 13.2% and 8.9%, respectively ( Cramer et al., 2016 ). The proportion of men who practice is believed to be even lower; research has suggested that approximately 75% of yoga practitioners are women ( Cramer et al., 2016 ; Park et al., 2015 ). Understanding the barriers that prevent uptake and practice of yoga as well as the factors that motivate individual practice is key to effectively promoting yoga and designing interventions to increase engagement. While some research has documented barriers and motivators for yoga practice, critical gaps remain in our understanding, particularly of the barriers that prevent men and non-yoga practitioners from practicing. Additionally, little research has examined what yoga practice patterns look like following the COVID-19 pandemic. The present study aims to address these gaps by examining current barriers and motivators to yoga practice among men and women across the spectrum of practice frequency (regular, infrequent, and non-practicing) and describing yoga practice patterns following the re-opening of gyms and studios after COVID-19 related shut-downs. Barriers are extrinsic or intrinsic factors that impede or prevent engagement in activity, while motivators are perceived benefits or positive attributes associated with an activity that can inspire individuals to start or maintain engagement in a particular activity ( Glasgow, 2020 ; Herazo-Beltrán et al., 2017 ). Thus, barriers and motivators act in the opposite directions to influence engagement in behavior. The Health Belief Model incorporates these constructs to explain why people do or do not engage in health behaviors ( Rosenstock, 1974 ). The model posits that six constructs influence the likelihood that an individual will engage in a particular health behavior: (1) perceived susceptibility, (2) perceived severity, (3) perceived benefits (i.e., considered analogous to motivators), (4) perceived barriers, (5) perceived self-efficacy, and (6) cues to action. Among these components, perceived barriers and perceived benefits (also referred to as motivators) have consistently been shown to be the strongest predictors of action across health behaviors ( Janz & Becker, 1984 ; Sulat et al., 2018 ). Existing research on barriers to and motivators for yoga practice has found that common barriers include cost, lack of information, preference for other physical activities, and stereotypes about who constitutes typical yoga practitioner ( Brems et al., 2015 ; Cagas et al., 2020 , 2021 ; Park et al., 2016 ; Quilty et al., 2013 ; Spadola et al., 2017 ). Research on motivators has documented factors including exercise, relaxation, prevention of disease and injury, spirituality, flexibility, and relief from depression and anxiety ( Park et al., 2015 , 2019 ). However, men are under-represented in many studies of barriers and motivators—just as they are in yoga classes themselves ( Cramer et al., 2016 ; Park et al., 2015 ). Highlighting the fact that gender-specific differences in barriers and motivators remain understudied, a recent review on the barriers and motivators for yoga practice found that men comprised at least half of the sample in only 11% of 88 published studies, and emphasized that there is a consistent lack of disaggregation of results by gender across the existing literature ( Cagas et al., 2020 ). Given the lack of representation of men in yoga studies and data suggesting that barriers and motivators for engagement in other types of physical activity differs by gender ( Herazo-Beltrán et al., 2017 ; Molanorouzi et al., 2015 ), our prevailing understanding of what gets in the way of and motivates engagement in yoga practice may not apply to men. Of the few studies that have focused on men or examined gender differences in barriers to and motivators for yoga practice, most have found differences (e.g., women are more interested in yoga for emotional health and men more for physical health or cross-training; Cagas et al., 2022 ; Wertman et al., 2016 ) and identified some factors that are specific to men (preferences for other types of activities, perceptions of yoga as too feminine; Cagas et al., 2021 ; McIver et al., 2022 ). While this growing body of research provides preliminary insight into the specific barriers to yoga practice that men face and the factors that may motivate them to engage, these studies are primarily composed of people who practice yoga ( Cagas et al., 2022 ; McIver et al., 2022 ; Wertman et al., 2016 ), examine samples comprised primarily of women ( Brems et al., 2015 ; Wertman et al., 2016 ), and/or use qualitative methods ( Cagas et al., 2021 ; McIver et al., 2022 ). Thus, additional quantitative research is needed to comparatively examine barriers and motivators using an evenly distributed sample of men and women to allow for comparison. In addition to a lack of quantitative research on gender differences, there is a relative paucity of research examining how barriers to and motivators for yoga practice vary across practitioner status. Many studies on motivators and barriers have been conducted with people who regularly practice yoga or are enrolled in a yoga intervention (eg., Dayananda et al., 2014 ; Quilty et al., 2013 ; Wertman et al., 2016 ). One study that reported on motivators and barriers by practitioner status did not examine gender differences within these groups ( Brems et al., 2015 ). Overall, additional research is needed to examine barriers and motivators separately among those who practice regularly, those who practice but do so infrequently, and those who have never practiced. There is reason to believe that factors may differ across these groups: practitioners’ perceptions of barriers and motivators will be linked to personal experience, while non-practitioners’ perceptions may be associated with assumptions and perhaps other sources, such as media representations of yoga. This study also provides an up-to-date snapshot of engagement in yoga as of April 2022, following the re-opening of gym and studio closures, which were originally mandated as part of COVID-19 lockdowns. During the months-long shutdowns that began in the Spring of 2020, individuals increasingly turned to at-home and online exercise options ( Martin et al., 2021 ). There is a lack of evidence regarding how whether those shifts in practice locations have persisted now that in-person classes are accessible again. Building on approaches and findings from previous studies of yoga motivators and barriers (e.g., Brems et al., 2015 ), this exploratory study aims to describe the barriers to and motivators for engagement in yoga practice among young adults and compare these barriers and motivators between men and women across practitioner status. The secondary aim of this study is to describe yoga practice patterns in the context of shifts to physical activity patterns precipitated by COVID-19. By addressing these key gaps in the literature, this study can inform targeted efforts to make yoga more accessible, acceptable, and widely adopted, which may have downstream implications for public health given yoga’s documented preventive and therapeutic effects ( Cagas et al., 2020 ). 2.1. METHODS 2.2. Participants and sampling Data were collected at a large Northeastern university in the United States. Participants were recruited via the Psychological Sciences Department Participant Pool platform to complete a one-time anonymous online survey. To recruit a sample with equal numbers of men and women, two separate recruitment postings were made; one for women and non-binary individuals, and one for men. Each posting was capped at 175 participants. Neither study description mentioned yoga to minimize bias in participation. Enrollment was capped at 175 for each posting. Six of the 351 participants recruited identified outside of the gender-binary, and five participants did not provide information on gender. For this gender-specific study, these 11 participants were excluded from analyses. All study procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Connecticut and participants provided informed consent electronically before beginning the survey. 2.3. Measures 2.3.1. Practitioner status In the online survey, participants were asked whether they had ever done yoga (lifetime prevalence), had done yoga at all in the past six-months (six-month prevalence), and frequency of practice (if they reported practice in the last six months). Participants were then categorized into three practice levels: non-practitioner (no reported practice in the last six months), infrequent practitioner (reporting average practice frequency of <4x monthly), and regular practitioner (reporting average practice frequency of ≥4x monthly). 2.3.2. Yoga participation Those who endorsed practicing in the past six months were asked about average frequency (per month), duration (categorical question with blocks of time), and location (in-person or online) of practice as well as about location of practice prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Those who did not endorse practicing in the past six months (non-practitioners) were asked to rate the likelihood of practicing in the future on a scale of 1–10 (1=very unlikely, 10=very likely). 2.3.3. Yoga barriers and motivators A comprehensive list of potential barriers and motivators for yoga was compiled from existing literature on the topic, and discussed and finalized by the research team ( Brems et al., 2015 ; Cagas et al., 2022 ; Park et al., 2016 , 2019 ; Quilty et al., 2013 ; Spadola et al., 2017 ). The final list included 22 barriers and 20 motivators, with a write in’other’ option for both. For barriers, non-practitioners and infrequent practitioners were asked to rate the degree to which each factor played a role in preventing them from doing in-person and online yoga on a scale from 1–4 (1=no role, 4=large role). Non-practitioners and infrequent practitioners were then asked to select one factor that they perceive to play the primary role in keeping them from doing yoga (either in-person or online). Non-practitioners who indicated that they were at least somewhat likely to practice yoga in the future (≥6 on the likelihood of future practice), infrequent practitioners, and frequent practitioners were asked to use the same rating scale used for the barriers question (i.e., 1–4) to rate the degree to which different factors were a motivator for doing yoga (either in-person or online). They were then asked to select their primary motivator (either in-person or online). 2.4. Analysis Descriptive data are presented disaggregated by gender and practitioner status. The data was split by practitioner status and compared across gender. Gender differences in item-level means for barriers and motivators were assessed using t-tests. This analysis is exploratory in nature; thus, no corrections were made for multiple tests, an approach that has been discussed and justified in the context of exploratory research ( Rubin, 2017 ). 3.1. RESULTS 3.2. Demographic Characteristics The sample for the present study comprised 340 undergraduate students, with 167 (49%) men and 173 women (50.9%). The average age of our sample was 18.75 years (SD=1.42, range=17–28). Seventy percent of our sample (n=237) identified as White, 17% (n=56) as Asian, 8% (n=27) as Black, 3% (n=11) as Biracial, and 1% (n=1) as Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander. In terms of ethnicity, fifteen percent (n=52) identified as Hispanic or Latino. Forty-two percent (n=145) of the sample reported that their family income growing up was over $100,000 annually. According to the U.S. census, the median family income in the United States in the United states in 2021 was estimated to be $69, 717, suggesting that our participants were of high socioeconomic status than the average American ( U.S. Census Bureau, 2022 ). Most participants (87%; n=297) identified as heterosexual or straight. 3.3. Yoga Prevalence and Practitioner Status Table 1 describes the lifetime and six-month prevalence of yoga practice and subsequent practitioner status for all participants in the sample by gender. Men reported lower lifetime (55% vs. 82%) and 6-month (19% vs. 43%) prevalence than women. In total, 79% of men vs. 57% of women were categorized as non-practitioners. Over a third (n=92; 39%) of these non-practitioners rated their likelihood of future yoga practice as a 6 or above on a scale of 1–10. These individuals are referred to as “contemplators” in the below discussion of motivators. Women, on average, rated their likelihood of doing yoga in the future as a 5.7 (SD=2.22) on a scale from 1 to 10, while men rated their likelihood as a 4.3 (SD=2.37). Men who reported practicing yoga in the past six months reported a mean practice duration of 20 minutes while women reported a mean practice duration of 30 minutes (asked as a categorical variable with blocks of time). Table 1. Yoga engagement, practitioner status, and modes of practice. Engagement and practitioner status Men (n=167) Women (n=173) Total (n=340) Lifetime yoga practice Yes 92 (55%) 141 (82%) 233 (69%) Practice in past 6 months Yes 32 (19%) 74 (43%) 107 (31%) Practitioner Status Non-practitioner 132 (79%) 98 (57%) 230 (68%) Infrequent practitioner 26 (16%) 56 (32%) 82 (24%) Regular practitioner 9 (5%) 19 (11%) 28 (8%) Modes of practice by timing of practice initiation Longer-term practitioners (n=64) Newer Practitioners (n=42) Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic April 2022 April 2022 Only or mainly in-person yoga 37 (58%) 37 (58%) 20 (48%) Only or mainly online yoga 25 (39%) 26 (41%) 20 (48%) Equal in-person and online yoga 2 (3%) 1 (2%) 2 (5%) Open in a new tab Note. Percentages represent the proportion of participants in each group as defined by the top row in each column (i.e., % of men, % of women, % of total sample, % of longer-term practitioners, % of newer practitioners). Note. Among the 114 participants categorized as practitioners in our data set, data is missing on timing of practice initiation for n=4 3.4. Location of Yoga Practice among Practitioners All participants who endorsed practicing yoga in the past six months (i.e., both infrequent and regular practitioners) were asked about longevity and location of yoga practice. Sixty percent of practitioners reported practicing prior to the COVID-19 pandemic (i.e., “longer-term practitioners”), while 40% indicated that they did not practice prior to the onset of the pandemic (i.e., “new practitioners”). Table 1 also presents primary location of practice (i.e., primarily online versus primarily in-person) pre- and post-COVID-19 lockdowns for longer-term practitioners and newer practitioners. The majority (i.e., 70%) of longer-term practitioners evidenced no shift in their primary location of practice between pre-COVID and April 2022. The remaining longer-term practitioners either shifted from primarily in-person to online (13%), or from primarily online to in-person (10%), while only 6% ( n = 4) shifted either to/from equally in-person/online. In terms of gender differences in individuals’ location of practice, 66% of men (n=23) and 47% (n=35) of women reported mainly in-person practice, while 31% (n=11) of practicing men and 51% (n=38) of practicing women reported mainly online practice. 3.5. Barriers Figure 1 displays the most cited primary barriers for men versus women across non- and infrequent practitioner groups (regular practitioners were not asked about barriers). Items frequently endorsed as the primary barrier among non-practicing and infrequently-practicing men included lack of interest, preference for other types of exercise, and a lack of time. For non-practicing and infrequently-practicing women, a lack of time, lack of interest, preference for other forms of exercise, and the perception that yoga is too expensive were primary barriers. Figure 1. Open in a new tab Primary barriers to yoga by gender and practitioner status (Color to be used in print) The extent to which each individual item on the potential barrier list was considered a barrier to yoga practice by participants who were categorized as non- or infrequent practitioners was also analyzed (non- and infrequent practitioners analyzed together). On average, many items were rated as playing a small-to-no role in obstructing practice. On average, the items that individuals selected as primary barriers were rated as playing about a moderate role in preventing yoga practice. On average, no single factor was endorsed as playing a large role as a barrier to yoga practice. Highly significant differences (p <.001) were noted for men versus women on the barriers of time, cost, lack of interest, seeing yoga as only for women, and preferring other types of exercise. See supplementary Table 1 for the complete list of barrier item means by gender. 3.6. Motivators Figure 2 presents the top primary motivators for men and women across practitioner status. Regular practitioners, infrequent practitioners, and contemplators (non-practitioners who rated their likelihood of future yoga practice as six or above out of 10) were asked about motivators. Flexibility, prevention of injury, physical fitness, and focus or productivity were commonly selected primary motivators across the three groups. Women in all three groups also selected similar primary motivators to one another, including relaxation or calming, and mental and emotional health, followed by physical fitness and flexibility. Figure 2. Open in a new tab Primary yoga motivators by gender and practitioner status (Color to be used in print) The degree to which individual items on the list played a role in motivating practice was also assessed. For men across these two groups, over half of the motivators listed were rated as playing at least a moderate role (mean > 2.5) in motivating practice, including focus or productivity, physical fitness, flexibility, relaxation or calming, posture, physical balance, stress management, mental and emotional health, physical pain, prevention of injury, and sports conditioning. For women, many of the same factors, with the exception of physical pain, prevention of injury, and sports conditioning and with the addition of sleep, were rated on average as playing at least a moderate role in motivating yoga practice. Highly significant differences ( p <.001) were noted for men versus women on the motivating factors of stress management, mental or emotional health, and prevention of injury. See supplementary Table 1 for the complete list of motivator item means by gender. 4.1. DISCUSSION Despite the fact that men’s engagement in yoga consistently lags behind women’s ( Cramer et al., 2016 ; Park et al., 2015 ), men are under-represented in research on barriers and motivators to yoga practice. Additionally, gender-disaggregated data, as well as data that examines differences between non-practicing and practicing individuals, is lacking. This study aimed to address these gaps by recruiting an equal sample of men and women to advance our understanding of the similarities and differences in the type and obstructiveness of barriers to and motivators for yoga engagement across practitioner status. Additionally, this study provides timely data regarding the nature and location of practice followings shifts in the physical activity/yoga practice landscape that took place due to COVID-19 related shutdowns. We observed much higher rates of practice in our sample of college students than has been documented in nationally representative samples ( Cramer et al., 2016 ), with 69% of participants in the present study endorsing having tried yoga at least once in their life and 31% endorsing practice in the past 6 months. Consistent with existing literature ( Cramer et al., 2016 ), the proportion of men reporting having ever tried yoga or doing yoga in the past six months was lower than the proportion of women, highlighting the critical importance of examining barriers and motivators for men specifically. Despite these generally high levels of practice, few who endorsed practicing reported practicing frequently, and the average duration of yoga practice was also relatively short. Results also indicate that both online and in-person practice are utilized in near equal proportion amongst young adult yoga practitioners. That said, very few participants report practicing both online and in-person, which suggests that individuals tend to strongly prefer one modality over the other. Very few longer-term practitioners changed their location of yoga practice from pre- to post-COVID shutdowns, suggesting that participants went back to their old routines once gyms and studios re-opened, indicating an endurance of yoga habits despite interruptions and adaptations to these routines during the pandemic. Additionally, among those endorsing yoga practice in the past six months, many individuals (40%) reported that they had only begun practicing since the COVID-19 pandemic. This finding could reflect the increased marketing of yoga as a stress management practice to combat stress and mental health symptoms during the pandemic. Additionally, many individuals explored new hobbies and/or began exercising during lockdowns (Williams et al., 2021). Further, young adulthood is often a time when individuals develop health behavior habits; with affordable access to yoga classes on campus, many college students may have begun trying out yoga during this transitional period. The stability of yoga preferences and the equal split of individuals who favor in-person and online classes highlight the importance of continued availability of both in-person and online formats to meet the needs of practitioners’ preferences. Future research should further examine reasons underlying individuals’ preferences for each format, which could further inform efforts to decrease barriers and increase motivation amongst current non-practitioners. Many of the same primary barriers to yoga (i.e., lack of interest, preference for other forms of exercise, lack of time, and cost) were cited across gender and practitioner status. These barriers are similar to those reported in other samples (e.g., Brems et al., 2015 ; Cagas et al., 2020 ). This suggests that despite an increase in the visibility or accessibility of virtual, cost-effective or free yoga options (initially forced by studio shutdowns), and reduced time-related barriers for online practice (e.g., transportation), the most salient barriers to yoga have remained consistent. Among non-practicing men, lack of interest was the most cited primary barrier, followed by a preference for other forms of exercise. This finding is not surprising given the typical Westernized perception of yoga as a feminine practice that conflicts with stereotypical perceptions of masculinity ( Webb et al., 2020 ). However, comparing barriers endorsed by infrequent practitioner men to those endorsed by non-practitioner men, it appears that lack of interest is a much lower barrier for men who have tried yoga recently (i.e., 47% to 22%); these men instead cite a lack of time. This finding reflects a need to better advertise yoga to men who may not directly see how the practice might benefit them (e.g., considering yoga as an adjunct/complementary practice to improve their performance in other preferred exercise, or as a stress management strategy). Importantly, organizations are increasingly focusing on changing men’s perceptions of yoga and normalizing men’s engagement ( Webb et al., 2020 ). Item-level barriers add additional nuance to our understandings by providing a direct comparison. In general, the item level responses were consistent with the patterns observed in the primary barriers analyses – men were significantly more likely to endorse lack of interest and time as barriers compared to women. Unsurprisingly, men also endorsed significantly higher perception of yoga as mainly for women. Finally, cost was rated as a higher barrier for women compared to men. This response suggests that for women, logistical barriers are interfering more than interest, while the opposite pattern may be true for men. Lack of time is also a common barrier across gender and practitioner status, which, in combination with “preference for other types of physical activity,” suggests that yoga is often not prioritized in college samples, even despite reductions in accessibility-related barriers (e.g., cost). Lack of time is also a commonly reported barrier to other forms of physical activity ( Kelly et al., 2016 ) as well as meditation practice ( Gryffin et al., 2014 ). Given the competing demands facing young adults, efforts to incorporate brief yoga exercises within college settings, workplace environments, and other places might reduce this common barrier. However, without increasing personal motivation for yoga, competing time demands seems likely to continue to interfere with engagement. Data on motivators provides insight into the perceived benefits of yoga that might inspire or prompt individuals to start a practice, increase the frequency of their practice, or maintain their regular practice. Our data suggest that men are generally more motivated by the physical benefits of the practice (physical fitness, injury prevention, flexibility), while higher proportions of women cited mental or emotional health benefits as their primary motivator for engagement (e.g., relaxation or calming, mental health). These findings align with what has been observed in practitioner-only samples ( Cagas et al., 2022 ; Wertman et al., 2016 ). These patterns may indicate that men view yoga and its benefits in a fundamentally different light than women: men may think of yoga primarily as a form of exercise (and one that has benefits, but perhaps is not perceived to be as rigorous or intense as is preferred), while women may tap more into the spiritual and mental dimensions of the practice. These patterns may also indicate that men are less motivated to spend time or seek out practices to address their mental or emotional health. Future research should further investigate men’s perception of yoga, as well as their perceptions of their own emotional/mental health needs and inclination towards engaging in practices to address these domains of well-being. To increase men’s engagement in yoga, it may be useful to cite the documented physical benefits of the practice, including the ways it can complement other athletic endeavors. For those who remain skeptical that it is worthwhile as a physical activity alone, it may be helpful to frame yoga as a holistic health practice whose mental and emotional health benefit may improve functioning and well-being in other domains of life (e.g., school, relationships; Webb et al., 2020 ). Limitations of the present study should be noted. First and foremost, our analysis is exploratory and descriptive and we did not correct for multiple comparisons when conducting t-tests on item-level barrier and motivator means. Replication studies are needed to give greater confidence that the patterns across gender and practitioner status hold across other samples, particularly because reported motivators and barriers for this group of college students may not generalize to other populations. For instance, college students differ from non-student adults in their access to yoga (e.g., free on-campus yoga classes at the fitness center) and young adults are less likely to experience certain health conditions (e.g., physical pain, chronic health conditions) and/or time constraints that may act as greater barriers for older adults ( Atella et al., 2019 ). Additionally, the geographic homogeneity and relatively high socioeconomic status of participants in this sample may limit generalizability, as individuals may have had more exposure and access to yoga prior to attending university. Other limitations include our exclusion of individuals who identified outside of the gender binary ( n = 11). Given these groups are significantly underrepresented in both yoga practice and research ( Webb et al., 2020 ), future research is greatly needed to understand barriers and motivators to yoga practice in this population. Frequency of yoga practice was assessed categorically (i.e., range of average practice frequency in the past six months), rather than continuously, which limited our ability to examine variability within practitioner status groups. Additionally, regular practitioners were not asked about barriers. Despite these limitations, this study makes timely contributions to our understanding of the barriers and motivators for yoga practice among men compared to women and provides a snapshot of the current nature of yoga practice in young adults. By disaggregating by gender and practitioner status, this study contributes specific and nuanced data on barriers to and motivators for engagement in yoga that can guide targeted efforts to increase yoga practice, particularly among men. Supplementary Material 1 NIHMS2059491-supplement-1.docx (20KB, docx) Table 2. Modes of practice among yoga practitioners (infrequent and regular) by timing of practice initiation Longer-term practitioners (n=64) Newer Practitioners (n=42) Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic April 2022 April 2022 Only or mainly in-person yoga 37 (58%) 37 (58%) 20 (48%) Only or mainly online yoga 25 (39%) 26 (41%) 20 (48%) Equal in-person and online yoga 2 (3%) 1 (2%) 2 (5%) Open in a new tab Note. Percentages represent the proportion of participants in each group as defined by the top row in each column (i.e., % of longer-term practitioners, % of newer practitioners). Note. Among the 114 participants categorized as practitioners in our data set, data is missing on timing of practice initiation for n=4. 5.1. Clinical Relevance. Individuals who practice yoga tend to engage in only in-person or only online practice. Thus, it is imperative that both in-person and online modalities continue to be available, that efforts are made to increase the visibility and accessibility of both options, and that individuals are encouraged to determine what practice locations works best for them. Men in this sample articulated a preference for other forms of exercise as a primary barrier to yoga engagement. This speaks to the need for health promotion campaigns and clinicians hoping to engage men in yoga to highlight the documented physical benefits of the practice, including the ways it can complement other athletic endeavors. For those who remain skeptical that it is worthwhile as a physical activity alone, it may be helpful for clinicians to provide psychoeducation about yoga as a holistic health practice whose mental and emotional health benefit may improve functioning and well-being in other domains of life (e.g., school, relationships). Lack of time was a common barrier cited in this study by both men and women; given the competing demands facing young adults, clinicians should explore opportunities to incorporate brief yoga exercises within college settings and workplace environments to reduce the salience of this commonly reported barrier. Footnotes Declaration of interest: None. Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. References Atella V, Piano Mortari A, Kopinska J, Belotti F, Lapi F, Cricelli C, & Fontana L (2019). Trends in age-related disease burden and healthcare utilization. Aging Cell, 18(1), e12861. 10.1111/acel.12861 [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Brems C, Justice L, Sulenes K, Girasa L, Ray J, Davis M, Freitas J, Shean M, & Colgan D (2015). Improving access to yoga: Barriers to and motivators for practice among health professions students. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 29(3), 6–13. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Cagas JY, Biddle SJH, & Vergeer I (2020). When an activity is more than just exercise: A scoping review of facilitators and barriers for yoga participation. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 0(0), 1–62. 10.1080/1750984X.2020.1827448 [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ] Cagas JY, Biddle SJH, & Vergeer I (2021). Yoga not a (physical) culture for men? Understanding the barriers for yoga participation among men. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 42, 101262. 10.1016/j.ctcp.2020.101262 [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Cagas JY, Biddle SJH, & Vergeer I (2022). For exercise, relaxation, or spirituality: Exploring participation motives and conformity to masculine norms among male and female yoga participants. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(2), Article 2. 10.3390/ijerph19020770 [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Chang DG, Holt JA, Sklar M, & Groessl EJ (2016). Yoga as a treatment for chronic low back pain: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Orthopedics & Rheumatology, 3(1), 1–8. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Cochrane Library Special Collection: Yoga for improving health and well-being. (n.d.). Retrieved July 17, 2022, from https://www.cochrane.org/news/cochrane-library-special-collection-yoga-improving-health-and-well-being Cramer H, Lauche R, Anheyer D, Pilkington K, de Manincor M, Dobos G, & Ward L (2018). Yoga for anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Depression and Anxiety, 35(9), 830–843. 10.1002/da.22762 [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Cramer H, Lauche R, Haller H, Steckhan N, Michalsen A, & Dobos G (2014). Effects of yoga on cardiovascular disease risk factors: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Cardiology, 173(2), 170–183. 10.1016/j.ijcard.2014.02.017 [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Cramer H, Ward L, Steel A, Lauche R, Dobos G, & Zhang Y (2016). Prevalence, Patterns, and Predictors of Yoga Use: Results of a U.S. Nationally Representative Survey. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 50(2), 230–235. 10.1016/j.amepre.2015.07.037 [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Dayananda H, Ilavarasu JV, Rajesh S, & Babu N (2014). Barriers in the path of yoga practice: An online survey. International Journal of Yoga, 7(1), 66–71. 10.4103/0973-6131.123490 [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Glasgow R (2020, September). Perceived barriers to self-management and preventive behaviors | division of cancer control and population sciences (dccps). National Cancer Institute: Division of Cancer Control & Population Sciences. https://cancercontrol.cancer.gov/brp/research/constructs/perceived-barriers [ Google Scholar ] Gryffin P, Chen W, & Erenguc N (2014). Knowledge, Attitudes and Beliefs of Meditation in College Students: Barriers and Opportunities. American Journal of Educational Research, 2(4), Article 4. 10.12691/education-2-4-2 [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ] Hendriks T, de Jong J, & Cramer H (2017). The effects of yoga on positive mental health among healthy adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 23(7), 505–517. 10.1089/acm.2016.0334 [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Herazo-Beltrán Y, Pinillos Y, Vidarte J, Crissien E, Suarez D, & García R (2017). Predictors of perceived barriers to physical activity in the general adult population: A cross-sectional study. Brazilian Journal of Physical Therapy, 21(1), 44–50. 10.1016/j.bjpt.2016.04.003 [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Janz NK, & Becker MH (1984). The Health Belief Model: A decade later. Health Education Quarterly, 11(1), 1–47. 10.1177/109019818401100101 [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Kelly S, Martin S, Kuhn I, Cowan A, Brayne C, & Lafortune L (2016). Barriers and facilitators to the uptake and maintenance of healthy behaviours by people at mid-life: A rapid systematic review. PloS One, 11(1), e0145074. 10.1371/journal.pone.0145074 [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Martin AM, Champ F, & Franklin Z (2021). COVID-19: Assessing the impact of lockdown on recreational athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 56, 101978. 10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.101978 [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] McIver S, O’Shea M, Nixon B, Seidler Z, & Evans S (2022). “The only man on the mat”: Yoga as a therapeutic pathway for men’s mental health. Australian Psychologist, 0(0), 1–9. 10.1080/00050067.2022.2093624 [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ] Molanorouzi K, Khoo S, & Morris T (2015). Motives for adult participation in physical activity: Type of activity, age, and gender. BMC Public Health, 15(1), 66. 10.1186/s12889-015-1429-7 [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Park CL, Braun T, & Siegel T (2015). Who practices yoga? A systematic review of demographic, health-related, and psychosocial factors associated with yoga practice. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 38(3), 460–471. 10.1007/s10865-015-9618-5 [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Park CL, Quinker D, Dobos G, & Cramer H (2019). Motivations for adopting and maintaining a yoga practice: A national cross-sectional survey. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 25(10), 1009–1014. 10.1089/acm.2019.0232 [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Park CL, Riley KE, Bedesin E, & Stewart VM (2016). Why practice yoga? Practitioners’ motivations for adopting and maintaining yoga practice. Journal of Health Psychology, 21(6), 887–896. 10.1177/1359105314541314 [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Quilty MT, Saper RB, Goldstein R, & Khalsa SBS (2013). Yoga in the real world: Perceptions, motivators, barriers, and patterns of use. Global Advances in Health and Medicine, 2(1), 44–49. 10.7453/gahmj.2013.2.1.008 [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Rosenstock IM (1974). The Health Belief Model and preventive health behavior. Health Education Monographs, 2(4), 354–386. 10.1177/109019817400200405 [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Rubin M (2017). Do p Values Lose Their Meaning in Exploratory Analyses? It Depends How You Define the Familywise Error Rate. Review of General Psychology, 21(3), 269–275. 10.1037/gpr0000123 [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ] Spadola CE, Rottapel R, Khandpur N, Kontos E, Bertisch SM, Johnson DA, Quante M, Khalsa SBS, Saper RB, & Redline S (2017). Enhancing yoga participation: A qualitative investigation of barriers and facilitators to yoga among predominantly racial/ethnic minority, low-income adults. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 29, 97–104. 10.1016/j.ctcp.2017.09.001 [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Sulat JS, Prabandari YS, Sanusi R, Hapsari ED, & Santoso B (2018). The validity of Health Belief Model variables in predicting behavioral change: A scoping review. Health Education, 118(6), 499–512. 10.1108/HE-05-2018-0027 [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ] U.S. Census Bureau. (2022). Household Income: 2021. Webb JB, Rogers CB, & Thomas EV (2020). Realizing Yoga’s all-access pass: A social justice critique of westernized yoga and inclusive embodiment. Eating Disorders, 28(4), 349–375. 10.1080/10640266.2020.1712636 [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Wertman A, Wister AV, & Mitchell BA (2016). On and off the mat: Yoga experiences of middle-aged and older adults. Canadian Journal on Aging = La Revue Canadienne Du Vieillissement, 35(2), 190–205. 10.1017/S0714980816000155 [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Associated Data This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article. Supplementary Materials 1 NIHMS2059491-supplement-1.docx (20KB, docx) ACTIONS View on publisher site PDF (485.2 KB) Cite Collections Permalink RESOURCES Similar articles Cited by other articles Links to NCBI Databases Follow NCBI NCBI on X (formerly known as Twitter) NCBI on Facebook NCBI on LinkedIn NCBI on GitHub NCBI RSS feed Connect with NLM NLM on X (formerly known as Twitter) NLM on Facebook NLM on YouTube National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20894 Web Policies FOIA HHS Vulnerability Disclosure Help Accessibility Careers NLM NIH HHS USA.gov Back to Top

Related documents

• Gender gaps in patience, risk-taking, trust, and prosociality are smaller among younger cohorts.#450072
• Research Use, trustworthiness and willingness to self-monitor health and personal wellness: a UK population survey#231400
• Gender Gap in Eco-friendliness: Is It Mostly in Our Head?#1001886
• Gender Gap in Eco-friendliness: Is It Mostly in Our Head?#1001794
• The Effect of Solution-focused Approach on Emotional Eating#908082