Emerging trends of biomedical nanotechnology in nutrition, health monitoring and disease diagnosis.

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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice 3 Biotech . 2025 May 5;15(6):152. doi: 10.1007/s13205-025-04291-9 Emerging trends of biomedical nanotechnology in nutrition, health monitoring and disease diagnosis Palak Arora 1, 2 , Stuti Bhagat 1, 2 , M R Krishnendu 1, 2 , Sanjay Singh 1, 2, ✉ Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Nanobiology and Nanozymology Research Lab, National Institute of Animal Biotechnology (NIAB), Opposite Journalist Colony, Near Gowlidoddy, Extended Q-City Road, Gachibowli, Hyderabad, Telangana 500032 India 2 Regional Centre for Biotechnology (RCB), Faridabad, Haryana 121001 India ✉ Corresponding author. Received 2024 May 20; Accepted 2025 Mar 22; Issue date 2025 Jun. © King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology 2025. Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law. PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC12052695  PMID: 40336812 Abstract The transdisciplinary nature of nanotechnology has facilitated its application across various fields, especially in biological sciences. The primary aim of this review is to consolidate the many facets of nanomedicine, theranostics, and nanotechnology in food preservation into a unified framework and to underscore established research methodologies in the medical domain. Nanoparticles serve a crucial function in improving the bioavailability of orally delivered bioactive substances. This review demonstrated that nanoparticles can enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients, such as vitamin B12, vitamin A, folic acid, and iron. New advances in nanotechnology have made big differences in finding pathogens and killing them specifically, helping people to get better health through medication delivery and imaging, improving food packaging better so it lasts longer, and making foods healthier overall. Nanotechnology currently enhances the safety of delivering highly hazardous medicines through the use of nanozymes that exhibit antioxidant and antibacterial characteristics. Moreover, wearable devices can identify significant alterations in vital signs, medical problems, and infections occurring within the body. We anticipate that these technologies will provide physicians with enhanced direct access to crucial information about the causes of changes in vital signs or diseases, as they are directly connected to the source of the problem. This review paper thoroughly examines the latest developments in nanomaterials and nanozymes as antimicrobial agents in food science and nutrition, wound healing, illness diagnostics, imaging, and potential future uses. The paper presents a concise and structured report on nanotechnology, which will be beneficial to researchers and scientists for future research opportunities. Keywords: Antimicrobial, Wound healing, Livestock, Biosensors, Drug delivery, Food packaging Introduction The capacity to manipulate physical properties by building materials at the nanoscale (1–100 nm)makes nanotechnology so intriguing (Bayda et al. 2019 ). Owing to the smaller size and large surface area-to-volume ratio, nanoparticles (NPs) differ from their bulk materials. Apart from this, their several unique properties (such as tuneable shape and size, easy surface modification, etc.) make them ideal materials for application in the field of biomedicine and biosensors (Khan et al. 2019 ). Nanotechnology has gained the ability to revolutionize healthcare solutions through its implementation toward the treatments, prevention, or diagnosis of diseases. NPs are appropriate for external administration as they facilitate improved biological target interactions and enhanced wound site penetration. Metal NPs such as Ag, Au, and Zn make excellent candidates for incorporation in wound dressings due to their antibacterial qualities and low toxicity profile (Negut et al. 2018 ). For an example, AgNPs increase bacterial membrane permeability, both AgNPs and ZnONPs damage the cell membrane at multiple locations, etc. Various NPs are reported to eradicate multi-drug resistance (MDR) microbes without the need for antibiotics (Wang et al. 2017a ). NP-mediated drug/antibiotic delivery is a widely studied area where non-toxic NPs act as a nanocarrier to deliver drugs at the site of infection. Moreover, several NPs [such as carbon-based NPs (like graphene), metal-based NPs [such as gold (Au) NPs, silver (Ag) NPs, and nickel (Ni) NPs], and semiconductor-based NPs (such as CeO 2 and TiO 2 ) (Martins et al. 2019 ) are also extensively used for the development of biosensors for the non-invasive detection of different diseases, such as COVID-19 (Gupta et al. 2020 ), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) (Mhaske et al. 2022 ), Brucellosis (Ahangari et al. 2022 ), and Mastitis (Malhotra and Ali 2018 ). Apart from these, different NPs are extensively studied for their application in the field of nutrition as a supplement of minerals [zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs, selenium (Se) NPs, copper oxide (CuO) NPs, iron oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ) NPs, etc.] or as a delivery vehicle for essential nutrients (such as vitamins, amino acids, proteins, fatty acids, etc.) (Jampilek et al. 2019 ). For instance, ZnONPs enhanced the activities of digestive enzymes, such as protease, amylase, and lipase, thereby aiding in improved metabolism and feed digestion in livestock (Jing et al. 2009 ). Similarly, SeNPs enhanced rumen fermentation, increased antioxidant capacity, and upregulated feed conversion efficiency. Moreover, NPs as feed additives rather than their macro-counterparts lower environmental contamination and mineral waste (Hendawy et al. 2021 ). NPs have also shown promising applications for improving the quality and yield of milk, meat, and eggs (Gelaye 2023 ). With the advent of "smart" biomaterials and theranostic NPs, nanotechnology has been progressively improving the treatment, diagnosis and prevention of diseases over the past several years. This review encompasses the applications of NPs in four principal biological domains: nutrition, wound healing, antimicrobial activity, and biosensors. This review aims to consolidate the application of nanotechnology in the detection of infectious pathogens (bacteria, viruses, etc.), animal production (milk yield, meat quality, etc.), and illness management (therapies, targeted delivery, and 3D printing techniques). This research illustrated the progress of nanotechnology in the biomedical sector, particularly in the diagnosis and treatment of novel diseases, as well as in improving food preservation and storage methods. These NPs possess significant potential for the advancement of novel products and methods aimed at nutrient delivery, addressing antibiotic resistance, and detecting, preventing, and eradicating infections from animal sources. Nanotechnology for nutrition Macronutrients, including essential fatty acids, carbohydrates, and essential amino acids, along with micronutrients, such as amino acids, vitamins, microminerals, and antioxidants, are critical molecules that provide energy and are necessary for the health of both humans and animals. They play a vital role in bodily development and in the prevention of diseases, including osteoporosis (Nieves 2005 ), ophthalmologic diseases (Suskind 2009 ), and rickets (Uhl 2018 ). Inadequate or improper dietary practices can result in nutrient deficiencies in both humans and animals, subsequently leading to a range of health issues (Ahmed et al. 2022 ). Another reason can be the changes in the nutrient content of the soil due to high crop production, different natural calamities, and usage of fertilizers, which alter the vitamin/protein/mineral level in diets, thereby affecting the nutritional status of living beings (Das et al. 2022 ). To satiate the nutritional requirement, an external supplement is required. Over the last decade, NPs-based formulations showed potential as a delivery vehicle and mineral nutrient supplement (Jampilek et al. 2019 ). There are various polymeric NPs (chitosan, sodium alginate, etc.), mineral NPs (in form of ZnONPs, CuONPs, SeNPs, etc.), and lipid NPs that are reported to facilitate nutrition or the delivery of nutrient materials. Figure 1 summarizes the application of NPs in the field of nutrition. The below sections present a broader perspective of nanotechnology for nutrition. Fig. 1. Open in a new tab Schematic representation of application of different NPs in field of nutrition, such as delivery of essential nutrients, production of better quality eggs, milk and meat, targeted delivery of therapeutic materials, and packaging and preservation of nutrient materials Bioavailability and delivery of nutrient materials Nanotechnology is considered a promising tool for the field of nutrition and food safety to offer efficient approaches for cultivating the bioavailability of different nutrients (Arshad et al. 2021 ). Additionally, NPs effectively deliver biomaterials (such as vitamins, amino acids, polysaccharides, proteins, etc.) via a different route of administration. In the case of nutrition, it is known that the best route of delivery of nutrients is oral, through the gastrointestinal tract (Prittie and Barton 2004 ). For humans and animals, as an external source of nutrients, multivitamins, amino acids, and minerals containing tablets or mixtures are available commercially. However, due to the acidic environment of stomach and gut bacteria, nutrient material changes their structure and properties or interacts with other food materials, leading to a lower number of nutrient materials available for absorption in the intestine (Keller and Layer 2014 ). The bioavailability of the hydrophobic nutrient materials (such as fat-soluble vitamins) is also low. Thus, to improve absorption and bioavailability, researchers have developed micro/nanoencapsulation techniques to protect nutrient materials from pre-mature degradation, an acidic environment, and gut bacteria (Arratia-Quijada et al. 2024 ). Different NP-based formulations are explored to improve nutrient absorption, such as polymeric NPs, liposomes, nanoemulsions, metal oxide/metal NPs, etc. For example, Resende et al. formulated lipid NPs (size: 168 ± 1 nm) encapsulating vitamin A (size: 228 ± 7 nm) for oral delivery by mixing with fruit juice (Resende et al. 2020 ). This formulation was found stable under gastric simulated buffer (pH ~ 5.0) and released vitamin A at neutral pH (simulated intestinal buffer). The encapsulation efficiency of the lipid NPs was ~ 90 ± 1% and sustained ~ 80% of vitamin A under acidic conditions. In addition, this formulation was stable for up to 30 days at room temperature in aqueous suspension and at 70 °C (heat treatment for 15 min). In a study by Amiri et al., chitosan NPs were developed to encapsulate garlic essential oil (GEO) to improve absorption in broiler chickens (Amiri et al. 2021 ). The application of GEO at a concentration of 100 mg/kg demonstrated enhanced antibacterial and antioxidant properties, leading to improved performance and gut health, as evidenced by a 42 kg increase in body weight per animal and an improved feed conversion ratio. Apart from these, NPs have also been reported to deliver vitamin B12, vitamin E, vitamin B, etc. (Fidaleo et al. 2021 ). NPs-based formulation is also reported to increase the bioavailability of the minerals. Among different mineral elements, Se has been the most studied element because it is an essential requirement for normal human physiology and redox homeostasis. Se content in milk depends on its concentration in the feed of the dairy animal. Usually, external supplements such as sodium selenite or selenate are fed to dairy animals to satiate the need for Se; however, due to poor bioavailability, the Se content in milk is reduced. Increase in levels of Se and glutathione peroxidase was found when SeNPs-based diet (300 μg/kg) was fed to lactating Holstein cows (Han et al. 2021 ). Zn is also one of the most studied elements because of its beneficial role in the immune system and DNA replication. In a study, zinc methionine (Met) mixture, ZnONPs, and ZnONPs-coated Met (Met–ZnONPs) (50 g each/per ton feed) containing diet was fed to broiler chicken to evaluate the benefits of using Met–ZnONP. Wheat–soya-based feeding meal with different mineral supplements was prepared for the broiler chicken. It was observed that the Met–ZnONPs increased the intake of Zn and improved dietary nutrition utilization compared to the Zn–Met mixture. In addition, Met–ZnONPs-fed chicken’s tibia strength and overall weight increased after 21 days compared to control, Met–Zn mixture, and ZnONPs-fed groups (Alkhtib et al. 2020 ). Nano-encapsulated targeted delivery of nutrients NP surface can be easily modified, which could be utilized for the development of targeted delivery of nutrient material. Easy methods of nano-encapsulation of nutraceuticals have helped nutrients escape the acidic environment of the stomach/rumen and directly reach the intestine region (Tirla et al. 2022 ). Various NPs are developed to specifically deliver nutrients or drugs directly into the colon. For example, Martinet et al. formulated Fc receptor (FcRn)-targeted lignin-encapsulated porous silicon multistage NPs (UnTHCPsi@LNPs-Lc) (Fig. 2 A) to control the release of the insulin at neutral pH (~ 7.4) (Fig. 2 B) (Martins et al. 2022 ). As a pH-responsive material, lignin was coated on the surface of SiO 2 NPs and FcRn coated for targeted delivery in intestine cells. The in-vitro study was performed using the Caco-2 cell line (human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells). The TEM analysis (Fig. 2 C) suggested that under buffer conditions, Caco-2 cells showed normal morphology during the experiment. Additionally, without FcRn conjugated NPs (UnTHCPSi and UnTHCPSi@LNPs) were found near the cells’ membrane without much internalization (Fig. 2 C, white dashed lines). The FcRn-targeted NPs wereuptake inside the cells (Fig. 2 C, blue dashed lines), and released at the basolateral site. (Fig. 2 C, red dashed lines). To improve the absorption of fatty acids, Abbasi et al. formulated nanoemulsion (sodium alginate) containing flax seed oil (rich in omega-3) (Abbasi et al. 2019 ). The nanoemulsion was of ~ 196 nm size with zeta potential of − 29.3 mV and ~ 70% encapsulation efficiency. The formulation showed pH-responsive behavior due to sodium alginate and was found stable under acidic conditions, whereas near neutral pH, it started to release flax seed oil. This formulation was fed to broiler chicken to improve the quality of thigh and breast meat. Fig. 2. Open in a new tab Schematic illustration of the multistage NP ( A ) system designed in this study as a potential candidate for the administration of anti-diabetic drugs via the oral route ( B ). TEM images of flat embedded ultra-thin Caco-2/HT29-MTX monolayers after 120 min of incubation with buffer, UnTHCPSi, UnTHCPSi@LNPs, and UnTHCPSi@LNPs-Fc for the in-vitro permeability studies ( C ). The scale bars represent 1 μm. Adapted from ref. (Martins et al. 2022 ). The retention effect and absorption of FITC-insulin. ( D1 ), CSAD/FITC-insulin ( D2 ), CSAD-VB12/FITC-insulin ( D3 ) in intestine. Representative fluorescence imaging of small intestine from mice treated with FITC-insulin ( E1 ), CSAD/FITC-insulin ( E2 ), and CSAD-VB12/FITC-insulin ( E3 ). Intestinal absorption of FITC-insulin ( F1 ), CSAD/FITC-insulin ( F2 ), CSAD-VB12/FITC-insulin ( F3 ) after removal of mucus. Blood glucose change of T1D mice after oral administration of CSAD/insulin, CSAD-VB12/insulin (insulin, 70 IU/kg, free INS, and saline as control) ( G ). The quantified fluorescent intensity in gastrointestinal track ( H ) and isolated small intestine ( I ) of each group. The fluorescent intension of FITC-insulin in intestinal villus cells was qualified as the rate of FITC/DAPI ( J ). Adapted from ref. (Long et al. 2019 ) Additionally, Deng and co-workers used sodium alginate to prepare a nanoformulation containing vitamin B12 (VB12) and insulin with a size of 50–60 nm (Long et al. 2019 ). In this study, insulin was used as a model peptide drug, and VB12 facilitated the absorption of NPs in the intestine via the transcellular pathway. This formulation was non-toxic and exhibited high permeation ability in the Caco-2 cells. In addition, in-vivo results revealed the highest retention and absorption of insulin in the intestine (Fig. 2 D). For the in-vivo study, insulin was tagged with FITC, FITC-insulin (D1), CSAD (cysteine sulfinic acid decarboxylase)/FITC-insulin (D2), and CSAD-VB12/FITC-insulin (D3). Figure 2 E shows the monitoring of the uptake of FITC-insulin (Fig. 2 E1), CSAD/FITC-insulin (Fig. 2 E2), and CSAD–VB12/FITC-insulin (Fig. 2 E3) in the small intestine through fluorescence imaging. Figure 2 H, I showed the quantified fluorescent intensity in the gastrointestinal tract and intestine, respectively, of each group. Figure 2 F shows the absorption of FITC-insulin (F1), CSAD/FITC-insulin (F2), and CSAD-VB12/FITC-insulin (F3) post elimination of mucus in the intestine. Furthermore, the fluorescent intensity of the villus cells was quantified using FITC and DAPI and represented as the rate of FITC/DAPI (Fig. 2 J). Figure 2 G shows the changes in blood glucose level of T1D mice post administration of the formulation. Lee and his groups developed vitamin D3-loaded magnetic NPs (VitD3–IONPs) to increase the solubility and absorption at the peritoneum site (Cheng et al. 2021 ). The IONPs were modified with alginate and glycoprotein to improve solubility and peritoneum targeting, respectively. This formulation was found effective in peritoneal dialysis. Nanotechnology-based strategies for improving meat and milk production Various studies have shown that NPs-based supplements can increase the content of essential nutrients in animal products, such as milk and meat. It is known that minerals play a vital role to maintain health, keeping bones, muscles, heart, and brain to the best of their physiology. In the last decade, reports have discussed the effect of ZnONPs, CuONPs, Fe 2 O 3 NPs, and SeNPs on improving the quality of milk, meat, and other animal products. For example, in a study, ZnONPs-based diet fed Shami goat showed a dose-dependent increase in meat yield (Khattab et al. 2021 ). An 11.5 and 22.50 mg/kg dry matter (DM) ZnONPs mixed feed was given to 2–3 years (38.43 ± 1.94 kg) Shami goats for 12 weeks, which increased meat yield as confirmed by the gain in body weight and performing ultrasound of the lumbar longissimus dorsi ( L. dorsi ) muscle region between 12th–13th rib intercostal space (Fig. 3 A–C) and 3rd–4th intervertebral space (Fig. 3 D–F). The ultrasound images of T1 (11.5 mg/kg DM, Fig. 3 B, E) and T2 (22.50 mg/kg DM, Fig. 3 C, F) fed Shami goats revealed the increase in fat thickness and muscle depth compared to control (Fig. 3 A, D). In another study, glycine-coated SeNPs (G-SeNPs) were fed on finishing pigs for 60 days to improve Se content (Zheng et al. 2020 ). G-SeNPs-based diet maintained the loin quality and growth performance of pigs with about 0.50 mg/kg G-SeNPs bioaccumulated indifferent tissues (Loin, Heart, Liver, Pancreas, and Kidney) and improved Se concentration in tissue. Fazaeli and co-workers used Holstein calves for feeding a ZnONPs-based diet for ~ 100 days (considering the weaning period). Here, ZnONPs-based diet increased the Zn level in the blood, led to an increase in nutrient digestibility, rumen fatty acids, and decreased ammonia–N. Moreover, the incidence of disease in young Holstein calves was also decreased with Zn supplemented diet. In addition, post-weaning, dry matter intake, nutrient digestibility, and hematocrit level were found to be increased in calves receiving ZnONPs-based diet (Abdollahi et al. 2020 ). Fig. 3. Open in a new tab Ultrasound scanning of L. dorsi muscle between the 12th- and 13th-rib intercostal spaces ( A – C ) of Shami goats fed Control, T1, and T2 diets, respectively. Ultrasound scanning of L. dorsi muscle at third- and fourth-intervertebral spaces of the lumbar vertebrae ( D – F ) in Shami goats fed Control, T1, and T2 diets, respectively. Control = basal diet (0 mg ZnO NPs/kg DM TMR); T1 = Control + 11.25 mg ZnO NPs/kg DM TMR; T2 = Control + 22.50 mg ZnO NPs/kg DM TMR. TMR, Total mix ration; MS, Muscle shadowing; RS, Rib-related acoustic shadowing; and TS, transverse process-related acoustic shadowing. Adapted from ref. (Khattab et al. 2021 ). Effect of zinc supplements on somatic cell count in different group of goats ( G )—Gr I: supplemented with no zinc; Gr II: supplemented with 20 ppm inorganic zinc; Gr III: supplemented with 10 ppm nano zinc; Gr IV: supplemented with 20 ppm nano zinc. Adapted from ref. (Shafi et al. 2020 ). Lipoperoxidation ( H ) and total antioxidant capacity ( I ) measured in sheep milk supplemented with curcumin in three formulations over 7 days, collected on days 0 and 8 of the experiment. Adapted from ref. (Jaguezeski et al. 2019 ) Nutrition and health play a very important role in animals during milk and meat production, therefore, to increase milk yield and meat quality, supplements are provided with the diet to keep them healthy. The NP-based external supplement has also shown a favoring impact on milk and meat yield. For example, Kar and his group fed ZnONPs (10–20 ppm) mixed diet to four months pregnant Barbari goat for 75 days (30 and 45 days before and after kidding, respectively) (Shafi et al. 2020 ). The goats showed lower number of somatic cell counts compared to the control (without Zn) group (Fig. 3 G). Although ZnONPs-fed goats did not show increased milk yield, however, the absorption efficiency of Zn was found to be better compared to inorganic Zn. Apart from nanominerals, certain drug-loaded NPs have also been found to improve milk quality. For example, the antioxidant property of curcumin was found to improve milk quality supplemented with decreased lipid peroxidation and increased anti-oxidant levels (Jaguezeski et al. 2019 ). A nanocapsule [poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) and Eudragit L-100 (EL-100)] containing curcumin was developed and fed to dairy sheep (60 days postpartum) for 7 days. The nanocapsule–PCL and nanocapsule-EL-100 had 99.9 ± 0.01% and 100 ± 0.03% drug loading efficiency, respectively. It was found that nanocapsule-EL100 (at 3 mg/kg curcumin) showed decreased lipid peroxidation (Fig. 3 H) and increased antioxidant enzyme expression (catalase) (F i g. 3 I) compared to the control, alone curcumin, and nanocapsule–PCL-treated groups. In addition, nanocapsule–EL100-treated group showed a lower number of total leucocytes and serum globulin. Li et al. studies the effect of dietary chromium as chromium nanocomposite (CrNano) at a rate of 200 µg in finishing pigs for 28 days. The CrNano had appreciable effects on carcass characteristics, pork quality, skeletal muscle mass, and increased tissue chromium concentration in selected muscle and organs (Tian et al. 2014 ). Another study fed broilers a diet containing 0.5 mg/kg of chromium picolinate for 21 days. Supplementing broilers with chromium picolinate (CrPic) had no effect on body weight, feed consumption, or feed conversion ratio, but it reduced mortality and improved breast meat yield at 300 and 400 ppb levels (Feng et al. 2021 ). Table 1 contains a list of NPs tested for milk and meat production. Table 1. Application of different NPs for milk and meat production Nanoparticles Concentration Study duration Animal model Results/observation References SeNPs 0.6 mg/kg 4 weeks Khalkhali goats and kids Increase level of different minerals (Se, Cu, Zn, and Fe) in whole blood and its serum compared to control (Without SeNPs treatment) However, SeNPs concentration in new born kids did not increase. In addition, SeNPs did not induce milk yield and body weight in goats Kachuee et al. ( 2019 ) ZnONPs 60 mg/kg 12 weeks Holstein dairy cow ZnONPs fed cow showed reduced number of somatic cells count in milk and thus improve quality of milk. ZnONPs mixed diet fed cow did not showed increment in milk yield or body weight Shafi et al. ( 2020 ) ZnONPs 5 mg/kg concentrate feed mixture 5 weeks Ossimi ewes The body weight of the ewes increased by 12.54% compare to control. In addition, total antioxidant capacity, glutathione-S-transferaseactivity, prolactin, triiodothyronine, and thyroxin concentrations at 15-, 45- and 75-day post-lambing found increased Hafez et al. ( 2020 ) ZnONPs 69.6 mg/kg 8 weeks Lactating cow Post 4 h of feeding cow with ZnONPs-based diet, Zn content in milk found increased compared to control and inorganic Zn–methionine mixture. In addition, Zn content in blood serum and mammary permeability of ZnONPs was found similar to inorganic Zn–methionine mixture Cai et al. ( 2021 ) SeNPs 0.3 mg/kg 13 weeks 40 weaned Taihang black goats (Male) The body weight of bucks was increased (3 kg) compare to control. In addition, Se content in serum, glutathione peroxidase, SOD and catalase were found higher compare to control group Shi et al. ( 2011 ) Chromium NPs (CrNPs) 0.2 mg/kg 5 weeks Finishing pigs CrNPs fed pigs showed high carcass lean percentage (14.06%) large longissimusmusclearea (19.96%) and low carcass fat percentage (by 25.53%) and backfat thickness (by 18.22%) compare to control. Collectively results suggested that CrNPs containing diet improved meatquality, skeletal-muscle weight, and chromium content in muscle Tran et al. ( 2017 ) AgNPs 50 ppm 11 days Broiler chicken It was observed that AgNPs did not interact with intestinal microbes. However, AgNPs treated chicken’s body weight gain; comparative weights of bursa and spleen were decreased compare to control. It showed specific anti-microbial activity against C. jejuni Vadalasetty et al. ( 2018 ) SeNPs 0.3–1.5 ppm 29 days Broiler chicken There was no intestinal tissue morphology and toxicity was observed on SeNPs fed chicken. The bioavailability of Se in SeNPs fed chicken breast (1.35 ppm/g tissue) and duodenum tissue (15 ppm/g tissue) was increased compared to inorganic Se [Chicken breast (0.2 ppm/g tissue) and duodenum (5.5 ppm/g tissue)] Gangadoo et al. ( 2020 ) Open in a new tab Nanomaterials-mediated food preservation and storage Various animal-derived foods or products, such as eggs, meat, and milk, can be stored for a longer time with the use of NPs. For example, nanofilms made up of polylactic acid, bergamot essential oil, and TiO 2 NPs exhibited antimicrobial properties and enhanced the storage duration of mangoes by 15 days (Chi et al. 2019 ). Similarly, for meat preservation, Badawy et al. synthesized chitosan monoterpene NPs, which exhibited antioxidant and antimicrobial activity (Badawy et al. 2020 ).The antibacterial activity of NPs was assessed against E. coli (MIC: 0.2 g/L) and S. typhimurium (MIC: 0.35 g/L). Furthermore, chitosan monoterpene NPs were packed with minced meat and stored at 4 °C for 10 days. After incubation, the bacterial count was found to be significantly lower in the case of NPs treated meat (9.54 cfu/g) than control (300 cfu/g). In another study, chitosan NPs loaded with spirulina increased the shelf life (14 days) of pike-perch ( Sander lucioperca ) at 4 °C storage conditions (Karimzadeh et al. 2023). The encapsulation efficiency of chitosan NPs was ~ 67% and exhibited the release of spirulina at pH 7.4. In another study, ZnONPs-based combined radio frequency (ZnONPs–CF) was reported to improve preservation of chicken thigh meat (Xu et al. 2020a ). ZnONPs also ZnONPs–CF technique was compared with HPS (high pressure steam) pasteurization. It was found that 20-min ZnONPs–CF treatment improves water holding capacity and the quality of chicken thigh meat. Change of color, flavor, moisture, pH value, and texture were also decreased compared to the HPS technique. Okra mucilage and carboxymethyl cellulose-mixed ZnONPs are reported to increase the shelf life of chicken meat (up to 12 days at 4 °C) (Mohammadi et al. 2019 ). In this study, ZnONPs formulation was packed with chicken meat, and every 3 days (till 12 days), total microbial count was observed. It was found that ZnONPs formulation reduced the microbial count (6.0 cfu/g) and improved the quality of meat. For example, in a study, gelatin–cellulose-based magnesium oxide NPs (CG–MgONPs) was used as a coating material to enhance the preservation of the eggs (Wang et al. 2021 ). CG–MgONPs were found biodegradable, possessing small pore size, thus, the coating can retain water content of the eggs. The rate of weight loss was decreased upon NPs coating of eggs. The pH of the coated eggs was maintained to be normal than uncoated ones. In another study by Chekh et al., Zn containing chitosan NPs (ChiNPs1), and chitosan NPs containing Ca (ChiNPs2), chitosan NPs containing copper, TiO 2 , Fe 2 O 3 , magnesium, cobalt, and zinc (ChiNPs3) were analyzed for the preservation of eggs with better hatchability (Chekh et al. 2021 ). These formulations were sprayed on the egg to check their effects for about 35 days. It was observed that ChiNPs3 induced hatchability of eggs (2.3–11.6%) was comparable to the other two formulations and the contamination was decreased by 99.29–99.7% than untreated eggs. Chitosan NPs were also reported to improve milk preservation and pasteurization. In a study by Shawkat et al., chitosan NPs were used to improve the shelf-life (from 2 to 30 days) of the pasteurized milk (Shawkat et al. 2019 ). Chitosan NPs (0.3% w/v) inhibited B. cereus in pasteurized milk stored at 5 °C. In another study, Ellahi et al. developed polypropylene polymer-coated silica NPs and mixed them with the essential oil of P. Atlantica to design an antimicrobial packing for the milk (Ellahi et al. 2020 ). The developed packing material was able to store milk for up to 35 days by significantly inhibiting the viability of S. aureus (0.85 cfu/g), S. enterica (0.30 cfu/g), and E. coli (1 cfu/g). The antimicrobial activity of the developed material was due to the essential oil of P. atlantica . Table 2 contains the applications of different NPs for storage and preservation. Table 2. Applications of different NPs for storage and preservation of animal derived food products Nanoparticles Concentration Preservation/storage of food Storage temperature Stability after NPs incubation Result References AuNPs 82.5 μg/mL Raw chicken, pork,toothfish, beef, raw prawn, and shrimp 4 °C 16 days The total bacteria count/growth in different meat was decreased. In addition, AuNPs was examined for the detection of the dimethyl-sulfide (LOD: 500 ng/mL) and histamine (LOD: 35 ng/mL) Chow ( 2020 ) Chitosan–AgNPs 1–2.5 mg/g meat Minced beef meat 4 ˚C 10 days Chitosan–AgNPs showed antimicrobial activity against E. coli (MIC: 0.150 g/L) and S. typhimurium (MIC: 0.2 g/L). Additionally, the % total antioxidant activity in meat was increased by 49.62% Badawy et al. ( 2019 ) chitosan–montmorillonite NPs 1:1 (1% each) ratio of chitosan:montmorillonite Egg 24 ˚C 4 weeks NPs showed reduction in weight loss of the coated egg compared non coated egg. The Haugh unit for coated egg was increased (from 37.3 to 58.2). In addition, NPs coating maintained the freshness of the egg Caner et al. ( 2022 ) ZnONPs-chitosan/gum edible coating 0.5% Chitosan/gum: 0.5% ZnONPs Banana 35 ˚C 17 days ZnONPs showed antimicrobial activity against S. aureus , B. subtilis and E. coli . The coating of the developed material improved the freshness and shelf-life (13 to 17 days) of the banana post harvesting La et al. ( 2021 ) Proline-coated chitosan NPs 0.1% W/V Strawberry 4 ˚C 12 days Due to the coating of NPs, nutritional value (antioxidant activity, total flavonoid content, total anthocyanin content) of strawberry was retained for 12 days when stored at 4 ˚C. In addition, NPs coating decreased the level of the MDA, H 2 O 2 and reduced weight loss Bahmani et (al. 2022 ) AgNPs 8.9 μg/mL, 900 μg/mL Milk 37 ˚C and 43 ˚C 3 days AgNPs showed antimicrobial (8.9 μg/mL) and antifungal (900 μg/mL) activity. AgNPs decreased the rate of spoilage of milk Taher et al. ( 2022 ) Open in a new tab Nanotechnologies for wound healing Typically, a wound is described as a disruption of the tissue's normal morphological features that results in the loss of function (Lazarus et al. 1994 ). Numerous cells, soluble mediators, growth factors, and communication between cells and the ECM, are important factors for wound healing. The coordinated action between wound healing events leads to hemostasis, inflammation, and epithelisation, which are followed by granulation tissue formation and angiogenesis, ultimately causing wound remodelling and contraction and leading to the healing of wounds (Fig. 4 ) (Velnar et al. 2009 ; Rodrigues et al. 2019 ). Chronic wounds are described as wounds that take longer time to heal in accordance with the typical stages of healing, delaying restoration. Wounds are regarded as a serious clinical problem that impacts several million individuals worldwide owing to the underlying challenge posed by infections and associated illnesses like diabetes. Chronic wounds are estimated to cost $30 billion annually in healthcare costs in the United States alone (Rodrigues et al. 2019 ). Even though there are thousands of commercially accessible solutions for treating wounds, they are still regarded as a burden on both the individual and society as a whole (Dhivya et al. 2015 ).The majority of healing methods follow the "old dependable" strategy, which results in wound dehydration and inefficient wound healing. Nanocomposite dressings, three-dimensional (3D) mesh, and hydrogels with integrated active components such as antimicrobials, nanomaterials, nanozymes, growth factors, and natural enzymes are a few examples of present wound healing techniques. These treatments not only avoid inflammation but also accelerate as well as track wound healing. Fig. 4. Open in a new tab Schematic representation showing the kinetics of key events during the typical wound healing process. The further important physiological events of the wound healing process taking place from immediately after the wound generation to its long-term healing process ranging from hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation and remodelling have also been highlighted Nanotechnology-based interventions for modern wound therapy Traditional wound dressings such as gauze and bandages simply fill skin flaws, absorb exudates, cause wound dehydration, and further encourage bacterial development, which leads to delayed wound healing. The ideal dressing should have antimicrobial properties; promote proliferation and angiogenesis, and shows real-time status of the wound microenvironment in addition to imitating the extracellular matrix (ECM) to sustain a moist microenvironment. This requires the application of special materials with exceptional properties (Sarabahi 2012 ). In practice, various categories of wounds, such as poorly managed chronic wounds, cellular fibrosis, impaired tissue function, and even deformity, require different approaches for healing. As a result, a wide variety of NPs—including polymeric NPs, carbon-based nanomaterials, metallic NPs, and nanostructures with peptides have been investigated for their potential applications in the treatment of wounds. Hydrogels, nanoscaffolds, and films made of nanomaterials are presently used extensively as dressings. The construction of regulated biocompatible nanoscaffolds that mirror the ECM structure are used in contemporary dressings for therapeutic applications in wound repair (Tocco et al. 2012 ). For nanoscaffold formation, electrospinning is regarded as one of the most breakthrough advances in wound management (Bigliardi et al. 2009 ). As a result, electrospinning is frequently applied to create nanoscale biocompatible fibers (Das et al. 2020 ), as well as dressings based on nanomaterials that use blends of various polymers and NPs, such as PCL/gelatin incorporated with CeONPs (Ambrogi et al. 2020 ), polyvinyl alcohol incorporated carbon dots (PVA/-CD) with riboflavin and AgNPs (Mazloom-Jalali et al. 2020 ), and polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan nanofiber encapsulating the antibacterial peptide with carboxymethyl chitosan NPs (Colobatiu et al. 2019 ). The unavailability of therapies with controlled release to complement the treatment efficacy is another disadvantage of existing therapies. In an in-vitro study, Rivero et al. developed pH-sensitive nanofibrous membranes with 15% w/v ES100 solutions as intelligent dressings that begin releasing nitrofurazone after wound infection. Upregulation in the wound pH is a marker of bacterial infection, as a result of the polymer's pH selective solubility, electrospun dressings were capable of releasing nitrofurazone when the pH of the wound environment increases above 7.0, showing antibacterial activity against E. coli (Rivero et al. 2020 ) . Lately, nanocompounds that include growth hormones, genes, or stem cells have recently been created, and they will soon introduce novel treatment modalities. For instance, to promote wound healing, Gan et al. fabricated a microneedle (MN) patch encapsulating antimicrobial AgNPs and mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-exos). The MN tips (made of porous methacrylate gelatin hydrogels) can continually distribute angiogenic and anti-inflammatory MSC exosomes at the site of the wound and can accelerate the healing by improving immune functions, reconstructing blood vessels, and increasing cell functions. The patch can effectively resist E. coli and S. aureus contamination by inserting AgNPs in the MN patch, which also aids in wound healing (Gan et al. 2022 ). In another study, stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) was convoyed precisely at the damage site using poly-(1,4-phenyleneacetone dimethylene–thioketal) polymeric (PPADT) NPs as delivery vehicles, which is an ROS responsive polymer (Tang et al. 2015 ). In a mouse model, the SDF-1-loaded PPADT NPs showed significant efficacy and biocompatibility in directing SCs to the wounded tissues, leading to increased angiogenesis and injury healing without causing any toxicity or immunogenicity. The immune-fluorescence assay of the SDF-1–PPADT group is shown in Fig. 5 A–E, and it reveals that compared to the groups that received blank NPs, SDF-1, or blank NPs combined with SDF-1, they had significantly more GFP + /CD31 + . This suggests that SDF-1–PPADT NPs elevated MSC localization to the wounds. Figure 5 F demonstrates that PPADT NPs wounds that were SDF-1-loaded had greater vascularization and healed more quickly than wounds treated with blank NPs, pure SDF-1, or blank NPs mixed with pure SDF-1. Currently, temperature sensitive therapeutic delivery systems are most frequently used for the on-site delivery of active drugs. One noteworthy study developed a thermoresponsive textile dressing with every thread of the patch covered in an alginate hydrogel layer that included poly-N-isopropylacrylamide–polyethylene ethylene glycol (PNIPAm–PEG) copolymers that were loaded with a particular drug. Various medicines were put on various threads, and electrical voltage could be applied to each thread individually to excite it. Interestingly, enhanced granulation and faster closure of wounds were shown (Fig. 5 G) in diabetic animals. Zone of Inhibition (ZOI) around the activated antibacterial fiber shows the enhanced effect of antibiotic release and reduced bacterial colonies compared with the control drug loaded (not stimulated), which did not show any noticeable ZOI (Fig. 5 H, I ). The number of activated threads could also be used to regulate drug dosage. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was loaded into the polymeric material to show the potential of this study. Live/Dead assay (8 h) revealed that most cells in the control group were dead, bacteria had been eliminated (Fig. 5 J), and HUVECs had not significantly formed any capillaries (Fig. 5 K), whereas PNIPAm–PEG loaded drug group with VEGF had formed the capillary-like structure, indicating neovascularization as an effective response to the release of VEGF (Fig. 5 L) (Mostafalu et al. 2017 ). Fig. 5. Open in a new tab Homing of the BM–MSCs to the wound bed. Immunofluorescence assay of saline ( A ), blank NPs ( B ), pure SDF-1α ( C ), blank NPs ( D ) combined with SDF-1α, and SDF-1α–PPADT ( E ). The arrows point to green dots which are BMSCs that are labelled by GFP, red dots which are vascular endothelial cells that are labelled by the CD31 antibody, and blue dots which is the nucleus that is labelled by DAPI. 6-week-old BALB/c mice with full-thickness skin defects injected intravenously with (a) saline, (b) blank NPs, (c) blank NPs + SDF-1α, (d) SDF1α, (e) SDF-1α-PPADT NPs ( F ). Reprinted with permission from ref. (Tang et al. 2015 ). Results of measurements of granulation tissue deposition; (*** p < 0.001) ( G ). Evaluation of the fibers containing antibiotics on E. coli and S.aurues activity, not triggered drug loaded thread is the control sample and triggered drug loaded thread is the main sample-i) Zone of inhibition test ( H – I ). Culture of GFP-expressed endothelial cells infected with bacteria and treated with a patch without antibiotic, patch releasing Ab without VEGF loaded fibers, a patch with Ab and VEGF loaded fibers respectively (i) contaminated prior to starting the treatment, (ii) after 4 h of treatment, and (iii) Live/Dead assay after 8 h of treatment ( J – L ). The live cells appear as green and nonviable cells appear as red. The arrows are showing lines formed from self-assembly of more than three cells forming tube-like organization. (ns nonsignificant, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, **** p < 0.0001). Adapted from ref. (Mostafalu et al. 2017 ) Nanomaterial-mediated wound healing strategies Although there have been several strategies that utilize the intrinsic properties of nanomaterials and assist in wound healing applications, all can be broadly divided into two categories: (i) nanomaterials which can heal as a result of the internal properties of the nanoscale material: by promoting angiogenesis, providing broad spectrum antimicrobial properties, exhibiting intrinsic antioxidant behavior, etc.; and (ii) nanomaterials acting as delivering agents: gene delivery mediated wound healing. i) Accelerated wound closure Limiting excessive inflammation is important in wound healing. The current gap in wound care is to achieve quick healing without leaving a scar. Inflammation, epithelialization, and deposition of collagen matrix are all upregulated by enhancing angiogenesis and promoting tissue perfusion. Another crucial phase in the healing of skin wounds is the synthesis of the ECM with comparable flexibility, tensile strength, and compressibility (Landén et al. 2016 ). The process of tissue repair includes a sophisticated interaction among various immune cells, highlighting the importance of immunomodulation as a key approach. Biomaterials, which can be comprised of both natural and synthetic polymer, can be chemically engineered to trigger particular immunomodulatory responses, primarily concentrating on macrophage polarization (Las Heras et al. 2024 ). Hauck et al. showed that highly sulphated hyaluronan (low molecular weight) hydrogels could reduce the onset pro-inflammatory cells usually seen with low molecular weight-hyaluronans. This reduction was linked to a disruption in the activation of M1 macrophages, mainly influenced by cytokines, such as MCP-1, IL-6, and IFN-γ. Additionally, they showed an increased secretion of IL-10, which promoted an M2 macrophage transition (Hauck et al. 2021 ). The ability of proteins found in the ECM to regulate immune cell function mostly relies on particular biologically active sequences of amino acids that specifically engage with these kinds of cells (Lynn et al. 2010 ). Hence, these amino acid sequences can, therefore, be essential building blocks for creating immunomodulatory agents. For instance, it has been demonstrated that modifying different materials with the -motif- a tripeptide sequence [arginine–glycine–aspartic acid (RGD)] present in several ECM proteins, including collagen, fibronectin, and vitronectin, which is essential for adherence of cells, cellular signalling and migration, lowers the gene expression of TNF-α and IL-1β as well as lowering macrophage traction and foreign body response (FBR) in-vivo (Lynn and Bryant 2011 ). Traditional therapeutic angiogenesis treatments frequently have limitations because of factors, such as quick clearance, a shorter half-life, and the ability to cause thrombosis, fibrosis, neoplasia, and future disease progression. The mode of distribution of angiogenic drugs to the target tissues and their effect may change if nanotechnology is used in therapeutic angiogenesis. According to Das et al., who synthesized CeONPs (size: 3–5 nm), HIF1 is primarily activated by CeONPs by altering the intracellular oxygen level. The valence states of CeONPs have a significant impact on their angiogenesis. By inducing endothelial cell proliferation, tube formation in in-vitro HUVEC cells, and vascular sprouting in-vivo , CeONPs in lower Ce 3+ was found to increase angiogenesis by ~ 400% than the control group (Das et al. 2012 ). According to earlier investigations, VEGF-A plays a significant role in up regulating angiogenesis in routinely healing wounds (Nissen et al. 1998 ). According to a study by Augustine et al., ZnONPs included in electrospun PCL scaffolds facilitated angiogenesis stimulation. CAM assay ( in-vitro) and dermal implantation study in guinea pigs ( in-vivo) show that angiogenic mediators such as fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and VEGF were elevated by 1% ZnONPs integrated PCL scaffolds through the formation of ROS. The ZnONPs incorporated scaffolds that enhanced the angiogenic capacity (123 branching points) compared to the only PCL scaffolds (68 branching points) (Augustine et al. 2014a , b ). For the purpose of encouraging angiogenesis and the healing of diabetic wounds, Wang et al. created a temperature sensitive multifunctional injectable and adhesive dressing based on polysaccharides (FEP) having porous architecture and prolonged pH-responsive exosomal release. The dressing has a number of characteristics, including antimicrobial property, hemostatic qualities, and self-healing characteristics. In-vitro , endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and tube formation can be improved by FEP-incorporated exosomes (FEP@exo). Compared to the control group (only ampicillin), FEP dressing eliminated more than 99.99% of S. aureus and E. coli . Results obtained in-vivo using a dermal wound condition demonstrated that FEP@exo dressing accelerated wound healing through angiogenesis by up to 70% (Wang et al. 2019b ). Hydrophilic polymer chains in hydrogel are cross linked, and are useful as they can absorb wound exudate as well as offer wide surface area for pharmacological loading. In a research, Zhou et al. created copper sulfide NPs with an approximate diameter of 12 nm, combined with hyaluronic acid (CuS/HA), to form an injectable hydrogel that could be used for photothermal treatment when exposed to near-infrared (NIR) light. In comparison with the HA hydrogel, at the beginning stages of healing, the CuS/HA hydrogel boosted the production of VEGF (Figs. 6 A, B ), and CD31 (a marker of endothelial cells), fluorescence staining confirmed the upregulated angiogenesis (Zhou et al. 2020 ). Fig. 6. Open in a new tab Immunohistochemical staining for angiogenic factor VEGF of the wound tissues during the healing at different days (3, 7, and 14). Scale bar, 200 μm ( A ). Average optional density of VEGF was calculated by Image J. ( n = 6, data = mean ± SD.) (II: NIR; IV: HA hydrogel + NIR; and VI: CuS/HA hydrogel + NIR) ( B ). Adapted from ref. (Zhou et al. 2020 ). Antibacterial performance of PCL-based membranes against S. aureus .(PCL-O: 100% PCL; PCL-1: 97%PCL 3% Ti3C2TX; PCL-2: 97%PCL, 3% baicalin; PCL-3: 94% PCL, 3% Ti3C2TX, 3% baicalin; PCL-4: 92% PCL, 3%Ti3C2TX, 5% baicalin) ( C ). Adapted from ref. (Zeng et al. 2022 ). Flow cytometry quantification of cellular ROS stained by DCFH–DA ( D ). Fluorescence photos of the intracellular ROS treated with different groups ( E ). Images of wounds treated with PBS (Control), GelMA/R, GelMA/A, and Ir@Ag@GelMA/A fiber films ( F ). Adapted from ref. (Wu et al. 2022 ). Representative confocal images of HUVECs treated with pANG/TMC complexes (control) and cultured on Fa and Fb nanofibers, where the transfection efficiency of Fa and Fb nanofibers was compared with the green fluorescence protein ( G ). Green fluorescence indicates positive transfection. Adapted from ref. (Li et al. 2018 ) (ii) Broad-spectrum antimicrobials The issue with wound closure that occurs most frequently is the infestation of an infectious agent. Although the microbes that constitute the skin microbiome and are helpful in avoiding the acquisition of all other microorganisms, these pathogens can impede the healing process if they reach a critical level at the site of a wound, usually as a consequence of the biofilm development. Moreover, foreign infections have the potential to directly infect the wound, resulting in a poor healing outcome (Negut et al. 2018 ). S. aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) are the most frequently encountered bacteria among them, affecting the early stages of wound healing, but P. aeruginosa and E. coli are hallmarks of chronic wound infections and infect underlying layer of the skin (Mihai et al. 2014 ). The majority of instances of bacterial biofilms are in chronic wounds, where the invading bacteria produce an external polymer that serves as a preventive coating to form an enclosed environment (Madalina Mihai et al. 2015 ). Most of existing wound healing treatments do not deliver adequate therapeutic outcomes, either physiologically (such as wound re-epithelialization or loss of fluid management) or functionally (e.g. elasticity, durability, sensitivity, etc.). Metal/metal oxide NPs including Ag, Au, Cu, Ti, and Zn, create special alternatives for incorporation in wound dressings due to their antibacterial qualities and lower toxicity. Gao et al. fabricated a hydrogel-based reservoir of drugs (temperature-sensitive), which releases loaded ingredients as needed in response to activation from near-infrared light. They combined complimentary antibacterial defence mechanisms by mixing polydopamine NPs loaded with ciproflaxin and glycol chitosan. In a mouse model, the light-sensitive hydrogel more accurately released antibiotics and thus eradicated 99.99% of E. coli and S. aureus , and more prominantly inhibited bacteria-induced ailments. The bacterial count at the infected site reduced significantly upto 3 times in the treated group compared to the untreated groups (2.1 × 10 6 CFU/g), hence improving wound healing (Gao et al. 2019 ). Wang et al. developed a novel calcium alginate hydrogel in a diabetic rat model that reacts to pH and is stuffed with protamine NPs and hyaluronan oligosaccharides. The underlying hypothesis was that the alkaline fluids would become less abundant as the hydrogel absorbed wound exudates, resulting in a pH drop that induced the calcium alginate to secrete effective NPs, killing both bacterial species. The minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) of loaded hydrogel were 40 μg/mL against E. coli and 60 μg/mL against S. aureus (Wang et al. 2019b ). In a different animal wound investigation, a composite hydrogel dressing made of antibacterial highly branched poly-lysine (HBPL), agarose, glycerol, and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was created by freezing and thawing. The hydrogel demonstrated strong mechanical capabilities, while the HBPL contained within the hydrogel demonstrated efficient and all-around antibacterial activities against bacteria, fungi, and biofilms. According to in-vitro testing, the hydrogel destroyed 99% of E. coli and S. aureus strains and enhanced wound healing by up to 4 days when compared to the control group (Cao et al. 2023 ). In a different work, a scaffold for repairing skin defects is developed using a porcine acellular dermal matrix (ADM), an injectable dermal extracellular matrix hydrogel. Vancomycin, an antibiotic used to induce haemostasis, speed up antibacterial action, and support tissue repair, is combined with the hydrogel. AgNP-decorated mesoporous silica NPs of the MCM-41 type had low cytotoxicity and long-lasting antibacterial activity. AgNP decorated silica leads to 1.1 to 7.5 fold increase in ROS, thus giving bactericidal effects more than the control group (Liu et al. 2019 ). Baicalin (an antimicrobial component)-incorporated PCL/MXene (PCL/Ti3C2TX) hybrid nanofibrous was explored by Zheng et al. Several PCL, Ti3C2TX nanoflakes, and baicalin concentrations were spun into the PCL-based nanofibers. Among them, the PCL hybrid membrane with 3-weight percent Ti3C2TX nanoflakes and 5-weight percent baicalin showed acceptable antibacterial activity against the gram-positive bacterium S. aureus (Fig. 6 C) (Zeng et al. 2022 ). Table 3 contains variously reported nanomaterials for antimicrobial wound healing. Table 3. List of  nanomaterials reported to exhibit  antimicrobial activity and wound healing Nanomaterial Shape and size Target microbe Wound Healing model Application References AgNPs–rGO hydrogel having NPs Spherical, 150–210 nm MRSA and E. coli Rat NM enhanced the antibacterial activity, leading to acceleration of infected wound healing In-vitro study shows that 99.85% wound closure was observed with hydrogel, whereas only 58% wounds were closed in untreated group ( in 12 days) Yan et al. ( 2019 ) AuAgCu 2 O Nanoshell (NS) Spherical, 190 nm β-lactamase Escherichia coli (ESBL E. coli ) & MRSA Diabetic mice AuAgCu 2 O NS with laser irradiation shows 93.5% recovery after 8 days in the bacterial infected wound. Meanwhile, the AuAgCu 2 O NSs without laser irradiation or Ag NPs with laser irradiation treatment induced moderate recovery of the trauma area (for about 67.0 and 49.7% recovery rate, respectively) Qiao et al. ( 2020 ) Collagen mimetic peptide tethered vancomycin -containing liposomes (CMP-Van-Lipo) Spherical, 150 nm MRSA BALB/c (8 week old) mice The formulation regulated drug release over extended periods of time boosted the antibacterial activities both in-vitro and in-vivo . Drug deposited in the wound site after diffusion via the co-gels, enhancing the antibacterial effects conferred by prolonged contact time Thapa et al. ( 2020 ) Porous graphitic carbon nitride C 3 N 5 nanosheets (PtRu/C 3 N 5 ) Oligomeric lamellar structure, 3 nm S. aureus , MRSA, E. coli , and P. aeruginosa MRSA infected mouse model The PtRu/C3N5 incorporated MN patch had a death rate of > 99.999% against a broad range of bacteria after 10 min of sonication, and it significantly suppressed inflammatory responses after one hour of exposure to visible light Shi et al. ( 2022 ) Metal-phenolic nanoplatform (Ag/Cu–MPNNC) Spherical, 32 nm E. coli and S. Aureus In-vitro sterile pig skin Ag@Cu–MPNNC's antibacterial activity against S. aureus was demonstrated using models of infection in rats and pigs. Remarkably, only a few numbers of bacteria were found on the surface of Ag@Cu–MPNNC–PES, and both antibacterial strains were completely destroyed Xie et al. ( 2022 ) ZnO NPs Spherical, 80–400 nm E. coli, S. aureus, S. enterica Typhimurium, Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus and Candida albicans In-vitro study done against E. coli, S. aureus, S. enterica Typhimurium, Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus and Candida albicans The antibacterial property of ZnONPs depends on the size of the NPs. Smaller size ZnONPs shows higher antimicrobial activity compared to the larger NPs against bacterial and fungal species. Instead, higher particle size ZnONPs shows more fibroblast cell viability Kaushik et al. ( 2019 ) Open in a new tab (iii) Nanozymes with intrinsic antioxidant property Inadequate wound healing is primarily caused by the overproduction of reactive oxidative stress (ROS) and bacterial infection, which burden the antioxidant system of the body and slow down the healing process (Sahu et al. 2021 ). Increased ROS generation in the wounded region results in a number of negative consequences, including cell senescence, fibrosis scarring, and inflammatory response (Rizwan et al. 2014 ). Hence, it is assumed that reducing the levels of oxidative damage in the local wound environment of the injured region can facilitate faster wound healing. Current clinical wound treatments, such as debridement, antibiotics, blood glucose management, and wound dressing, which largely concentrate on symptom control or controlling the wound infection, infrequently address the change of the oxidative wound microenvironment (Han and Ceilley 2017 ). Consequently, it is extremely important to find new therapy methods to address the abnormalities of redox signaling in poor wound healing (Jiang et al. 2019 ). The ability of CeO nanozymes to successfully stimulate keratinocyte, fibroblast, and vascular endothelial cell growth and migration was established by Mattson and colleagues. Full-thickness cutaneous wounds heal much more quickly when water-soluble CeO nanozymes are applied topically because of the combinatorial effects of enhanced cellular migration and proliferation as well as decreased oxidative stress owing to catalytic abilities (Chigurupati et al. 2013 ). In another study, the in-vivo efficacy of the Prussian Blue (PB) nanozyme was tested in a mouse cutaneous wound model that exhibited the highest wound closure percentage, collagen deposition, and mature organization. Moreover, it affected the development of capillaries, neovascularization, and keratinocyte differentiation. The outstanding H 2 O 2 degradation and superoxide radical scavenging activity of PB nanozyme were validated by the multi-enzyme mimicking activities and ROS attenuation property. Overall, this research showed that PB nanozyme has remarkable potential for treating cutaneous wounds (Sahu et al. 2021 ). It has also been shown that adding such nanozymes to hydrogels or scaffolds to make versatile nanozyme-based nanomaterials can enhance wound healing (Wu et al. 2019a , b , c , d ). Li et al. developed a novel kind of stretchable, adhesive, moderately hysteretic molybdenum disulfide–poly dopamine composite hydrogel (MPH) with both antimicrobial as well as antioxidant functions for tightly fitting and wound repair in movable parts through the polymerization of NIPAAm, acrylamide, and acryloyl Pluronic 127 (PF127-DA). In addition, the high-efficiency intrinsic enzyme-like activity of catalase and the ability of MPH to scavenge OH radicals confer an antioxidant capacity, lower oxidative stress, enhance the wound microenvironment, and speed up wound healing in a mouse model (Li et al. 2022a , b ). A film with intricate nanostructures that offers biocompatibility and several functionalities is crucial for wound healing. The researchers develop an ordered hydrogel fiber film with multiple active components by spinning methacrylate gelatin (GelMA) loaded with AgNPs and iridium NPs covered using polyvinyl–pyrrolidone (PVP–IrNPs) inside the polymer solution. The flow cytometry studies that measured cellular ROS supported that film loaded with PVP–Ir NPs shows outstanding ROS sequestration capacity. In addition, after H 2 O 2 treatment, the fluorescence micrography showed an increased ROS level, with Ir@GelMA/A treated groups exhibiting a significant decrease (Fig. 6 D, E ). By destroying bacteria and oxidizing free radicals (ROS), the multi-active hydrogel fiber sheet helps in the prevention of infection and expedite wound healing by encouraging the growth of new blood vessels and granulation tissue, as demonstrated by infected mouse wound model (Fig. 6 F) (Wu et al. 2022 ). In another study, NPs having peroxidase, catalase, and superoxide dismutase-like activities were used to create a hydrogel based on molybdenum disulphide (MoS 2 ). The hydrogel showed outstanding antibacterial activity and oxidative stress resistance while producing excess O 2 that was beneficial for wound healing due to its elevated multiple nanozyme activities. The hydrogel also demonstrated good adhesion, quick self-healing, and quick shape-adaptivity (Li et al. 2022a , b ). Accumulating studies have shown that nucleic acids, growth hormones, and stem cells are potential new treatments for wound healing. Their low survival, quick decomposition, and deactivation in the unfavorable oxidative wound milieu are significant barriers, though. It has been demonstrated that combining these biotherapeutics with antioxidant nanozymes is a potential method for maintaining their bioactivities. Ling and colleagues developed a novel "seed-and-soil" method for improved wound healing in diabetic wound model employing CeO nanozyme-reinforced self-protecting microRNA containing hydrogel (PCN-miR/Col). The hydrogel is designed to simultaneously modify the unfavorable wound milieu (the "soil") and deliver angiogenic microRNA signals in order to promote ceria nanozyme is very good at getting rid of ROS, which protects the encapsulated miRNAs from being destroyed by ROS. This keeps their bioactivities at their highest level and changes the harmful oxidative wound microenvironment wound healing and regrowth of diabetic wounds. The highly efficient ROS-scavenging properties of the ceria nanozyme allow PCN-miR  to shield encapsulated miRNAs from ROS-induced destruction, which maximizes the preservation of their bioactivities while also changing the unfavorable oxidative wound microenvironment (Wu et al. 2019a , b , c , d ). The adaptable wound healing NPs show the practically applicable potential for wound-healing by taking use of these characteristics. (iv) Gene delivery-mediated healing Due to a lack of effective focused treatment options owing to the complicated wound environment, there is a strong demand for the next-generation healing solution. Wound dressing materials, growth factors, genes, medication delivery methods, and stem-cell therapies are often used in modern medicine (Kolanthai et al. 2022 ). The creation of non-viral nanotechnology was prompted by the failure of several novel therapeutic techniques in wound healing. The creation of innovative therapies based on nanotechnology may aid in addressing the problems with the wound healing processes. In a study, a single bifunctional nanosystem (HPT–RP) was created by conjugating photosensitizer and bacterium/cell-affinity phenyl boronic acid onto hyperbranched polyaminoglycosides in a single pot. This system encodes epidermal growth factor (EGF), which is used to treat infected wounds and deliver genes. HPT–RP demonstrated the impressive efficacy of anti-infective/EGF delivery and rapid healing in a rat infected-skin defect model (Ansari et al. 2013 ). In another study, plasmids expressing VEGF-A and the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF-B), two factors that speed up the curative process by boosting neovascularization, formation of granulation tissue, collagen synthesis, and re-epithelialization, were loaded into poly-D-L-lactic co-glycolic acid–polyethyleneimine (PLGA–PEI) nanospheres. These nanospheres increase the expression of certain genes in diabetic rats and speed up the healing of diabetic foot ulcers (DFU) (Shi et al. 2018 ). In related research, fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and VEGF-A genes were delivered utilizing PLGA NPs as carriers to aid in the healing of burn wounds. The findings imply that the early percentage of wound full epithelialization and the percentage of wound healing in rats treated with NPs/bFGF + VEGFA plasmid complexes were both greater. Hence, integrating gene therapy with NPs may be a successful biological approach for healing wounds (Zhang et al. 2022 ). Sener et al. found that in pig and murine diabetic wound models, CNPs-miR-146a conjugates efficiently reduced both infection and ROS while enhancing wound healing without affecting wound elasticity or strength. The CNP-miR-146a has been included in zwitterionic cryogels, a superficially applied self-healing, continuous release biocompatible polymer, to enable superior delivery ways than subcutaneous injection treatment (Sener et al. 2020 ). Furthermore, porous nanofibers made of poly (L-lactic acid) and polyhedral oligomeric siloxane (PLLA) was used to treat deeper tissue defects. Trimethyl chitosan chloride (TMC) complexes and many plasmid DNAs (pDNAs) encoding angiopoietin (ANG) (Fa) and bFGF (Fb) were present in these nanofibres. The nanofibrous structure made it possible for the pDNAs to be released slowly and steadily. After being cultured for 3, 5, and 7 days, the cells were placed on Fa and Fb nanofibers, where they produced more DNA–P2V–GFP fusion protein (Fig. 6 G). In a rat model, the study found that nanofibres not only suppressed the inflammatory response but also speed up wound healing (Li et al. 2018 ). As a result, combined gene therapy delivered by NPs might represent a successful biological approach for tendon restoration. (v) Scaffolds for tissue regeneration In order to promote cellular processes such as growth, migration, and vascular development and to safeguard native tissue components such as blood vessels, the lymphatic networks, and nerve bundles, scaffolds designed for applications such as wound healing should possess appropriate mechanical characteristics (Zaman et al. 2011 ). According to Norahan et al. ( 2023 ), an ideal skin scaffold ought to possess the attributes that follow: it should be biocompatible, environmentally friendly, non-sensitizing, and antimicrobial; it should also have appropriate mechanical attributes, suitable viscosity, elevated biological action, and adequate biological degradation; it should be flexible; it should allow for the absorption of wound exudates; it ought to promote growth factors; it should prevent wound site cellular death; should also have outstanding barrier qualities; should have a high permeability to oxygen (Norahan et al. 2023 ). A number of investigations have demonstrated that scaffolds with above 60% porosity are useful for applications related to wound healing because they can provide enough room for the activity of cells, cell growth, high oxygenation and exchange of nutrients, and the formation of fresh ECM (Freyman et al. 2001 ). In instances of sustainable skin scaffolds, the rate of degradation and release kinetics are key aspects to consider. Elsner found that as the scaffold degrades, the bioactive component is released faster (Elsner et al. 2010 ). On the contrary, the rate at which degradation occurs of the skin scaffold needs to be proportionate to the rate of wound healing (Elsner et al. 2011 ). The physicochemical characteristics of the scaffolds, and consequently their degree of degradation and release characteristics, can be impacted by the inclusion of nanobiomaterials (de Souza et al. 2020 ). Because of their many qualities, including angiogenic, anti-inflammatory properties, and antimicrobial properties, NPs are frequently utilized as an efficient component of composite scaffolds to hasten the healing of chronic wounds (Groeber et al. 2011 ). By generating nitric oxide (NO) via the MAPK/Akt/eNOS pathway, ZnO-NPs were demonstrated to promote angiogenesis and drive migration of endothelial cells (Barui et al. 2019 ). One interesting strategy for skin regeneration is the integration of ZnO-NPs into scaffolds. In their fabrication and characterization of the PCL/ZnO-NPs electrospun membrane, Augustine et al. showed higher epidermal fibroblast cell migration and elevated production of VEGF-A and FGF2. According to Augustine, these findings demonstrated the capability of the electrically spun membrane for blood vessels reconstruction during wound healing (Augustine et al. 2014a , b ). According to reports, certain NPs' intrinsic qualities enhance the scaffolds' mechanical performance. For instance, collagen scaffolds' mechanical strength was increased by adding lanthanum oxide NPs and gold NPs (Akturk et al. 2016 ). Alginate fibers were used in an experiment to create a wound dressing; however, their mechanical characteristics was restricted. This issue was resolved by integrating silica NPs and hydroxyapatite (HAP) with alginate fibers, which increased the fibers' mechanical strength (Weng et al. 2021 ). By creating a bridge among edges of wounds and drawing them closer together, NPs with rough exteriors have recently been discovered to be able to stick to cellular membranes and promote attachment of tissues (Xu et al. 2020a , b ). Hydrogels and polymer membranes have been fixed to biological tissues, including those exposed to blood flow, using these NPs' solutions up to this point (Meddahi‐Pellé et al. 2014 ). Silica, titanium dioxide, iron oxide, and zinc oxide NPs have all been shown to exhibit nanobridging qualities (Gao et al. 2017 ). Wu and colleagues showed that because of their rough surface, mesoporous particles of silica (MSN) coated with Ce nanocrystals (MSN-Ceria) promote skin wound closure and healing via the nanobridge effect (Wu et al. 2018 ). Although many research studies have been created for regeneration of the skin using NPs, Acticoat® is the only skin treatment based onNPs that has received Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval in the United States. Skin bioprinting in three dimensions (3D) is a hot topic of research these days. One of the most important parts in this process is choosing the biomaterial, and the most popular kind is hydrogel made of biopolymers (Murphy and Atala 2014 ). Due to factors such as lipid dissolution, inadequate stability, harmful effects, and the requirement for regulated release, many medications and active ingredients are difficult to load directly and readily into the scaffolds. In this respect, these issues have mostly been resolved by the development of NPs that offer these chemicals a distinct area with a controlled release. Although curcumin has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, its instability and hydrophobic properties limit its application. As a result, this material is typically added to NPs to increase their effectiveness. Chitosan, dextran, and CCM@ZIF-8 NPs are noteworthy examples of curcumin-containing NPs that are being utilized for wound repair scaffolds and enhanced closure of wounds (Wang et al. 2020a , b , c ; Andrabi et al. 2021 ). The regulated release of medications into the scaffold is an additional benefit of drug loading in NPs. In this instance, depending on the stimuli, the release could be quick, sequential, cascading, or hierarchical. To prevent ischemic stroke, Liu et al., for example, created a hydrogel that contained PF127 NPs containing BIO (6-bromoindirubin-3′-oxime, preventing glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β)) synthesis with a gradual release because of their enlarged size to promote angiogenesis in the second step and a rapid absorption because of their small size to reduce inflammatory processes in the first (Liu et al. 2022 ). Heparin has been shown to be a useful agent for wound recovery, and it has been discovered that encapsulating it in PLGA NPs prolongs its release (Liu et al. 2022 ). Additionally, it has been found that loading pioglitazone (Pio) hydrochloride, a diabetic medications, inside NLC NPs prolongs its release through the collagen/chitosan scaffold (Awasthi et al. 2021 ). For the on-demand/precise timepoint distribution of PDGF-loaded gold NPs in the wound area, researchers created a collagen–glycosaminoglycan scaffold (Li et al. 2005 ). Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) can offer a numerous-controlled mechanism through sequential or stacked release by encapsulating multiple compounds in distinct regions of an individual MOF NPs to release them on a regular basis. For instance, Wang et al. used MOFs to create a regulated dual-release combination of curcumin and zinc dioxide in poly (L-lactic acid) (PLLA) scaffolds, with Zn 2 + serving as the core and curcumin as its binding agent, in order to decrease oxidative stress and inflammatory response in chronic diabetic wounds (Man et al. 2022 ). Stimulus-regulated response is an additional method of controlled release. In these situations, compounds whose properties are susceptible to external factors such as pH level, temperature, redox capability, etc. are employed in the composition of NPs. For instance, PNIPAAm, a thermal-sensitive polymer which expands or contracts in response to temperature variations, can be used to regulate the release. Chitosan, which has amine groups, and polyurethane, which contains hydrazone connections, are examples of pH-responsive polymers, which have functional groups or connections sensitive to pH (Karimi et al. 2016 ). Nanosensors and theranostics for wound healing monitoring Physical properties of the wound region serve as a key input for wound management as they are crucial indications of the state of wound healing development. Since as many enzymes—catalyzed reaction mechanisms are temperature sensitive, temperature is one of the frequently seen physiological indicators in the body. Skin's typical temperature range is 31.1 °C to 36.5 °C. Infections and changes in metabolic activity usually cause a prolonged rise of at least 1.11 °C at the wound site. Conductive hydrogels have been employed to measure temperature, in turn, may help infected chronic wounds heal more quickly. Recently, a flexible device for non-invasive real-time tracking of temperature at the wound bed was created. A bottom collagen–chitosan dermal mimic for tissue repair and a top extensible layer composed of the temperature sensor make up the device, which was designed in the style of a band-aid. The observed wound temperature was received, displayed, and examined in real time using an app on a smartphone (Lou et al. 2020 ). Another study developed a flexible smart bandage to treat infected wounds as necessary. The dressings comprised two levels: a top layer with a temperature probe and built-in UV lights, and a bottom layer containing gentamicin, an antibacterial drug, that interacted with the wound area. The gentamicin dissolves more readily due to the PEG-based hydrogel ability to react to UV light. An inflammatory state brought on by an infection could cause the wound temperature to increase. The sensor used to measure the temperature sent out the information to a mobile phone with decision-making software through an integrated wireless connection. Hence, the mobile phone transmitted a signal to the device, which leads to the activation of UV light and further antibiotic release in response to the high heat of infection (Pang et al. 2020 ). In addition, the chemical markers of wound exudates, including pH, cytokines, and uric acid, exhibit remarkable variation and provide valuable biochemical signals for the degree of inflammation and the condition of wound healing. The pH of wound infection is frequently between 7.11 and 8.9. An acidic atmosphere (pH of 4 to 6) is beneficial for wound healing. A pH-responsive fiber patch was developed by Tamayol et al. to monitor epidermal wound conditions. Prior to their inclusion into Na–alginate fibers via a coaxial device, pH-responsive dyes are loaded onto mesoporous particles. Using a smartphone camera and colorimetric picture processing, quantitative pH mapping is possible (Tamayol et al. 2016 ). To do affordable, continuing pH monitoring without the need for pricey equipment, this dermal patch may be used as dressing for wounds. For the in-situ monitoring of wounds, Gao et al. have developed flexible, wearable multiplexed biosensors called VeCare. The VeCare is made up of these three important parts: A set of sensing devices that can measure pH, inflammatory biomarkers (TNF-, IL-6, IL-8, and TGF-1), temperature, and S. aureus (marker for the microbial burden on wounds). Phrynosomacornutum skin-inspired passive microchannel collection system, which accumulates wound secretions and guides them into many sensor areas. The VeCare has a clinical purpose for tracking wound fluids in patients with wound infection after exhibiting good cytocompatibility in a mouse wound model (Gao et al. 2021a ). By combining active medicine delivery systems with biosensors, smart wound dressings may be created. The development of intelligent wound care technologies seeks to decrease the number of rounds to the physician and the time gap between the wound and the administration of medicines. In this instance, automated tools assess the wound conditions and decide if therapeutic medication administration is required. In a study, an intelligent, automated dressing was developed that included pH sensors to track the wound bed. The pH fluctuations could be a sign that microorganisms have colonized the site. The platform had a hydrogel layer that included thermoresponsive drug carriers that were loaded with antibiotics. The dressing may activate an inbuilt heater to initiate the release of antibiotics in response to change in the pH of wound milieu. The platform proved successful in releasing antibiotics and eliminating germs in a biocompatible in-vitro mouse model (Mostafalu et al. 2018 ). Engineered nanomaterials for antimicrobial activity Many bacterial pathogens have evolved antibiotic resistance as a result of the increased use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, which makes the battle against pathogens far more challenging. There are a lot of reasons why current antibiotic treatment is unsuccessful, including side effects, poor stability, and solubility. To combat bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics, studies have generated highly targeted nanomaterials. The antibacterial action of nanomaterials is significantly impacted by their surface reactivity, size, structure, and composition when they interact with the cellular components of microbes. With the use of nanocarrier systems, such as polymeric nanosystems, liposomes, nanozymes, other metal and metal oxide NPs, trojan horse mechanism, and anisotropic NPs many antimicrobial agents can be encapsulated, combined, or even conjugated for efficient delivery (Fig. 7 ) (Mody et al. 2014 ). Additionally, surface modification of nanosystems could aid in the targeted delivery of antibiotics to the infection site. Fig. 7. Open in a new tab Schematic representation showing the list of different nanomaterials reported as antimicrobials along with their mechanism of action, such as trojan horse mechanism, resistance-free nanoantimicrobials, ROS-mediated inhibition of microbes using nanozymes, and anisotropic nanomaterials as antimicrobials. Nanomaterials for combating antimicrobial resistance Antibiotic resistance in bacteria has created the problem of resistant infections and is a serious threat to global public health. Most nosocomial infections are caused by a collection of pathogens known as the "ESKAPE pathogens," which include S . aureus, Enterobacter species, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterococcus faecium, P. aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter baumannii . The lack of new, strong antibiotics is one factor in the growth of multi- drug resistant (MDR). To fully accomplish this achievement, the application of NPs as new antimicrobials is now gaining interest on a worldwide scale. Due to their target-specific drug delivery, low dosage requirements, reduced resistance development, and enhanced antibacterial efficacy, NPs have developed massive attention in the past decade (Hajipour et al. 2012 ). NPs with intrinsic antimicrobial activity, including AgNPs (Qian et al. 2018 ), ZnONPs (Eshed et al. 2012 ), and Fe 2 O 3 NPs (Naha et al. 2019 ), are of great potential as nano-antibiotics. The effectiveness of nanomaterials against ESKAPE infections has been the focus of several studies. For instance, according to Wu et al., silica-coated gold–silver nanocages (Au–Ag@SiO 2 NCs) exposed to NIR laser irradiation demonstrated consistent high antimicrobial effects against S. aureus and E. coli (in-vitro) and in-vivo against S. aureus in rat models, as NIR radiation caused consistent Ag ions release. Moreover, the S. aureus biofilm was effectively disrupted after being exposed to NIR laser light for 10 min on Au–Ag@SiO 2 NCs. Research demonstrated that the heat generated by the nanomaterial was quick and effective at killing ESKAPE germs (Wu et al. 2019a ). However, due to the prolonged release of antibiotics and the low number of NPs utilized, NPs with antibiotic coatings show extraordinarily strong antibacterial activity against a wide spectrum of infections. For instance, AgNPs coated with the antibiotic polymyxin-B, which exhibited improved antibacterial action against A. baumanni . The nanocombination of AgNPs and polymyxin B displayed a 16-fold decrease in MIC when compared to biogenic AgNPs, which had a MIC of 0.460 g/mL (Allend et al. 2022 ). For the cure for pulmonary infection brought on by M. abscessus , Rinaldi et al. showed that the 96 mM rifampicin-loaded liposome (Rif-Lipo) suppresses M. abscessus infection with a similar impact as 192 mM rifampicin alone. The stability of the created nanoformulation at 4 °C and room temperature for 90 days was discovered (Rinaldi et al. 2021 ). Due to the frequent use of antimicrobial drugs and further development of resilience in the gut microbiome, MDR bacteria in ruminants have been regarded as a serious health concern. Animals with diseases can spread antibiotic-resistant bacteria to people. According to Ghazy et al., E. coli and Salmonella were resilient to the antimicrobial activities of AuNPs with particle sizes ranging between 10 and 42 nm. E. coli. shows the largest inhibition zone diameter and lowest inhibitory concentrations of 23 mm and 3.125 g/mL. This reason behind this is the thin peptidoglycan layer in gram-negative bacteria, which makes it easier for AuNPs to enter the cytoplasm (Abdalhamed et al. 2021 ). Another work describes the creation of biofilm-responsive nano-antibiotics (rAgNAs) made of self-assembled silver nanoclusters which are pH sensitive and show charge reversal. The bactericidal activity of the nano-antibiotics increases specifically in the biofilm milieu (Wu et al. 2019b ,). Ag nano-assemblies without imidazole (uAgNAs) or vancomycin exacerbated only an 8–25% decrease in the overall bioburden among the tested antibacterial agents, whereas rAgNAs treated biofilms demonstrated a substantial decrease (about 72.9%) in the overall bioburden. This shows that the biofilm was more vulnerable to the lethality of rAgNAs (Fig. 8 A, B ). rAgNAs had bactericidal effects on planktonic bacteria in-vitro that were equivalent to those of the positive control (vancomycin) (Fig. 8 C). rAgNAs treated biofilm bacterium had the greatest ratio of red/green fluorescence in comparison with all other treatment groups, according to live/dead staining of the MRSA (Fig. 8 D). As a result, the research demonstrates that rAgNAs have excellent therapeutic effects on MRSA infection models both in-vitro and in-vivo (Wu et al. 2019c ). Precious et al. discovered that bromelain's antibacterial potential was increased when it was encased by chitosan NPs, due to the improved absorption, resistance against acid proteases, and simultaneous antibacterial effects of the nanomaterials and the drug. Mastitis-causing bacteria ( S. aureus, Staph spp., Enterobacter spp., and Klebsiella spp. ) in dairy goats can be successfully treated with bromelain. As compared to pure bromelain (5 mg/ml), the MIC of the nanoencapsulated bromelain was lowered by 5 times (Precious et al. 2020 ). Table 4 summarizes the use of different NPs in combating antimicrobial resistance. Fig. 8. Open in a new tab Total bioburden of the MRSA biofilm after treatment ( n = 4) ( A ). **** P < 0.0001. Viability of the biofilm bacteria after treatment ( n = 4) ( B ). * P < 0.05 and ** P < 0.01. Colony formation of planktonic MRSA on the agar after being co-cultured with a therapeutic agent with a concentration of 200 μg mL –1 ( C ). Representative images of SYTO TM green/PI staining of a biofilm to investigate the membrane permeability of bacteria in the biofilm ( D ). Scale bar, 50 μm. Adapted from ref. (Wu et al. 2019a , b , c , d ). Confocal images of PAA–CeONPs using DiBAC4 staining. CTAB treated cells were used as a positive control for depolarization in comparison with untreated cells ( E ). Scale bar = 2 µm. SEM images of Salmonella bacteria after 48 h growth in (a) media only and in (b) media containing PAA–CeONPs ( F ). Confocal microscopy images of damaged bacterial cell membrane of Salmonella bacteria by (a) Untreated (b) CeONPs and (c) PAA–CeONPs. Membrane damage was visualized using FM4-64 dye (for staining lipid bilayer) and DNA leaking from cells (white arrows) was visualized by DAPI ( G ). Adapted from ref (Precious et al. 2020 ) Table 4. List of nanoparticles reported  to combat antimicrobial resistance Nanoparticle Shape and size Bacteria name Concentration Results/observation References Red blood cell membrane (RBCM)and bacteria-responsive gelatin NPs (GNPs)Ru-complex-modified selenium NPs (Ru–Se@GNP–RBCM) Spherical, 152 nm MRSA 25 μg/mL The neutral nature of the RBCM helped to reduce the immune system clearance of NPs. GNPs exhibited antimicrobial activity by degrading gelatinase in pathogen infected area. The Ru–SeNPs showed antimicrobial activity against MRSA Lin et al. ( 2019 ) Vancomycin loaded liposome (Van-Lipo) Spherical, 100–200 nm S. aureus Biofilm MIC: 3.13 μg/mL Van-Lipo showed 32.5% encapsulation efficiency and stability up to 120 days. Van-Lipo showed increased antimicrobial activity against mature biofilm compare to free drug Scriboni et al. ( 2019 ) AgNPs Spherical, 10–20 nm S. aureus 4 Mm AgNPs showed inhibition antimicrobial activity against S. aureus in swine sperms. However, higher concentration of AgNPs (10 mM) affected the morphology of sperms Pérez-Duran et al. ( 2020 ) Chitosan NPs Spherical, 130–240 nm S. aureus V329 and S. xylosus 25 μg/mL Chitosan NPs showed antimicrobial activity in in-vitro bovine cells. In addition, these NPs induced host-immune response, inhibited biofilm formation, promoted pro-inflammatory cytokines in mammary epithelial cells Orellano et al. ( 2021 ) Bovine Neutrophil β-Defensin-5-Loaded PLGA NPs (B5-NPs) Spherical, 206 nm Mycobacterium bovis 100 μg/mL The encapsulation efficiency of the NPs was 85.5 ± 2.5% with 205 nm size and -27.1 mV zeta potential. B5-NPs enhanced expression of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-10 in J774A.1 macrophages. B5 reduced the bacterial load in spleen and lungs of mice model Liang et al. ( 2020 ) AgNPs Spherical, 10–20 nm S. enteritidis and S. typhimurium 5 μg/mL and 8 μg/mL The biosynthesized AgNPs showed antimicrobial activity against MDR strains of bacteria. These strains were isolated from the laying hens Nagshetty et al. ( 2010 ) AgNPs Spherical, 10 nm Prevotellamelaninogenica and Arcanobacterumpyogenes 1 μg/mL 10 nm AgNPs showed antimicrobial activity against the MDR bacteria isolated from uterine secretion sample of cattle. AgNPs showed ROS mediated bacteria cell death Gurunathan et al. ( 2018 ) Open in a new tab Catalytic nanozymes-mediated selective killing of microbes Given their broad-spectrum antimicrobial efficacy, minimal risk of pathogen resistance development, low price of synthesis, and great stability, nanozymes have recently emerged as potential novel antibacterial agents. Nanozymes (NPs that exhibit enzyme-like catalytic activity) have three different antibacterial mechanisms: (1) the production of ROS by peroxidase and oxidase-like catalytic processes; (2) the haloperoxidase-like reaction that produces the antimicrobial agent HOBr/Cl; and (3) the catalytic properties of DNase that degrades genetic information of organisms (Su et al. 2022 ). The catalytic production of ROS by nanozymes with antibacterial characteristics has emerged as the mechanism that is most often exploited. The creation and removal of oxidative stress in bacterial cells are in balance during regular conditions; however, when the generation of ROS is high, the intracellular redox status is changed and encourages oxidation (Peng et al. 2013 ). Cell membrane degradation can result from oxidative stress, which is a major factor in changing the permeability of bacterial membranes (Cheloni et al. 2016 ). For instance, Fe 3 O 4 magnetic NPs (Fe 3 O 4 NPs) were discovered by Shen et al. to be able to significantly lower the viability of intracellular S. enteritidis in chicken cells. The production of ROS, which facilitates S. enteritidis autophagic clearance within cells, is the basis of Fe 3 O 4 NPs' antibacterial action against the pathogen. The in-vivo investigation showed that Fe 3 O 4 NPs may successfully prevent S. enteritidis from invading the chicken liver (Shen et al. 2020 ). Core–shell Pd–Ir bimetallic nanostructures with morphology-dependent antibacterial action were created by Cai et al. Since Pd–Ir octahedrons have more oxidase activity than Pd–Ir cubes, this analysis revealed that they exhibit stronger antibacterial action. According to the findings, Pd–Ir octahedron had a V max that was 4.4 times greater than the Pd cubes. The nanozyme produced a lot of ROS and encouraged cellular internalization of the nanostructure when it interacted with humic acid (HA) (Cai et al. 2019 ). Furthermore, nanozyme-based medicines that target bacterial cell membranes can have strong antibacterial effects. Recently, polyacrylic acid (PAA)-coated CeO 2 NPs have been designed by Chakravortty and Mugesh's group as antibacterial agents for E. coli, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholera, and Shigella flexneri . Owning to the Ce 3+ and Ce 4+ oxidation states, this nanozyme exhibited phospholipase mimetic activity and bound with phospholipids following hydrolysis of the surface of the bacterial cell membrane (Fig. 8 E).The PAA–CeO 2 NPs treated bacteria generated sparse colonies with cytoplasmic leaking from the ruptured cells, as shown in SEM pictures of bacteria treated with and without the NPs (Fig. 8 F). Contrary to the tightly packed cellular matrix of the untreated cells, the cell membrane of Salmonella cultured in the presence of CeO 2 NPs and PAA–CeO 2 NPs was entirely damaged, resulting in DNA leakage [labeled by 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI)] from the injured cells (Fig. 8 G). PAA–CeONPs showed fivefold fewer MIC values with respect to CeONPs. Since phospholipids are widely present in the extracellular membrane, the hydrolysis of the cell membranes activated by phospholipase can be used for targeting gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria (Khulbe et al. 2020 ). AuNPs, which are regarded as effective and non-toxic antibacterial agents, are revolutionizing medicine delivery. Rai and colleagues investigated the principles underlying cefaclor conjugated AuNPs' antibacterial activity and found that the collaboration between cefaclor and AuNPs was the cause of the observed bactericidal activity. Cefaclor increased the membrane porosity upon interaction against the exterior peptidoglycan layer, while AuNPs also produced holes in cell walls. Therefore, it was proposed that cefaclor-capped AuNPs bind with DNA and pass through bacterial membranes. Furthermore, they proposed that the association between AuNPs and DNA impeded production and DNA unravelling (Katz and Willner 2004 ). Additionally, bacteria treated with cefaclor conjugated AuNPs had elevated cefaclor concentrations (Rai et al. 2010 ). AgNPs with a size range of 5–10 nm shown antibacterial efficacy toward MRSA, and MSSA in a different study (Ansari et al. 2011 ). It is important to remember that small AgNPs alter the lipid bilayer, attach to cell membranes, enhance permeability of the membranes, and ultimately result in cell death (Li et al. 2013 ). The active sites of single-atom nanozymes (SANs) are maximized compared to ordinary nanozymes owing to the even arrangement of metal centers in them, making SANs unique catalysts. By integrating the nanozyme generated from the zeolitic imidazole frameworks-8 (ZIF8), Wang et al. created a triple synergistic method. ZIF8 can generate Zn ions, hence used as the carrier to combine glucose oxidase (GOx) and AuNPs. Bacterial clearance is caused by the release of Zn ions and the ROS produced by AuNPs. Subsequently, the gluconic acid produced during the catalytic process increases the effectiveness of releasing Zn ions and creating ROS, which boosts the antimicrobial property for both S. aureus and E. coli (a major cause of endometritis) (Wang et al. 2022 ). In a different work, Shi et al. created single iron atom nano-catalysts by securing the atoms in SAF NCs, an amorphous carbon with N-doped carbon that exhibits peroxidase-like activity. With a low in-vitro MIC of 62.5 gm/L, these SAF NCs have demonstrated outstanding antimicrobial properties against both S. aureus and E. coli cells (Huo et al. 2019 ). Trojan-horse mechanism for delivery of antimicrobial compounds The majority of organelles, cells, and diseases have unique entrance points that block the admission of undesirable molecules from the outside. One of the greatest challenges facing the invention of antibiotics is their capacity to reach their target, which requires strong bacterial invasion and aggregation. NPs are possible carriers for antibiotics that might be used to treat intracellular infections since they are quickly internalized by mammalian cells (Prabha et al. 2016 ). The nanocarrier-antibiotic conjugates are often more durable in physiological conditions and show fewer adverse side effects because of the specific microbial targeting. When nanoantibiotics (antibiotics conjugated with NPs) are introduced to the cellular or bacterial gateways, the Trojan horse (internalisation of NPs) phenomenon is triggered via delivering antibiotic compounds to the sites of infection and disabling the metabolic processes of bacteria. Liposomal NPs, for instance, can mimic the surfaces of microorganisms and have properties that react to stimuli and provide unimpeded cellular entry through membrane attachment and fusion. MRSA has been successfully eradicated using increased drug-carrying capacity amphiphilic liposomes (Gao et al. 2021a , b ). Wang et al. synthesized Platensimysin (PTM)-loaded liposomes, which show improved efficacy in a macrophage-infection model against intracellular MRSA. Compared to free PTM, PTM-loaded liposomes may successfully remove any remaining bacteria in the MRSA-infected macrophage cell culture. 20–40% more infected mice survived after receiving 10 mg/kg of PTM nanocarriers, indicating PTM had increased in-vivo effectiveness (Wang et al. 2020c ). In-vivo selectivity, biodegradability, low cytotoxicity, and significant capacity for drug loading characterize graphene-oxide (GO). Study reveals that GO selectively aggregates in lung cells and stops Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) growth, the main microbe responsible for tuberculosis infection (De Maio et al. 2020 ). It was shown that tilmicosin (TMS)-loaded lipid NPs had a better bioavailability when administered orally and were recommended as an efficient means of delivering the medication to broiler chickens. The increased oral absorption of TMS was demonstrated by the transport through the Caco-2 cell monolayers to entail the suppression of NLC against P-gp efflux (Sahito et al. 2020 ). Due to the potential of microbial resistance, the administration of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole (used to treat respiratory infections in cattle) is prohibited for a broad spectrum of bacterial diseases. In one study, Fe 3 O 4 /Ag and Fe 3 O 4 @SiO 2 /Ag NPs were used to boost the efficacy of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole. The release kinetics investigation found that 64.7% of the drugs left the carriers in less than 40 days. The MIC values against E. coli were reduced by three times using the antibiotic-incorporated NPs in comparison with the sole medications. Due to the use of artificial NPs in their administration, these antibiotics need to be taken in smaller amounts than their traditional versions (Mehrabi et al. 2021 ). Zambom et al. enclosed Histatin 5 in nanoliposomes (bilayer lipid vesicles having nanometer range) like a "Trojan Horse." to stop the growth of Candida albicans . The antifungal activity of the peptide was sustained by the liposomal systems, which were able to suppress yeast growth for 72 h, showed good stability, and regulated and extended release of the peptide, by time-kill findings with C. albicans . According to the study, loading the liposomes with Histatin maintained the peptide's capacity to inhibit the development of C. albicans , demonstrating the system's appropriateness for the treatment of illness (Zambom et al. 2019 ). Anisotropic nanomaterials-based antimicrobials Anisotropic NPs are excellent building blocks due to their distinct and anisotropic optical, electrical, magnetic, and mechanical capabilities for a wide range of useful materials. Modifying the anisotropic shape can also affect a NP's cytotoxicity, uptake by cells, targeted administration, bioavailability, and pharmacology. Many nanomaterials now being used in medicine or for laboratory research, are spherical in shape. Anisotropic nanostructures, on the other hand, have rapidly developed, in the last 20 years for a variety of uses. High bactericidal activity was made possible by several anisotropic shapes of various NPs, including nanoplates, nanorods, nanotriangles, and nanoprisms. The underlying plane with large facets, which served as the greatest reactivity sites and the strongest antimicrobial activities, was one of the causes of significant antimicrobial effect of anisotropic shapes. For instance, Ahmed et al. created AgNP in three different forms (triangular, cubes, and rods) via plasmon-mediated synthesis, and it was demonstrated that the truncated triangular AgNPs were more effective against bacteria than the spherical and rod-shaped particles (Ahmad et al. 2021 ). In contrast to spherical AgNPs of equivalent size, Bharti et al. examined the antimicrobial property of decahedral AgNPs. For all of the investigated strains of bacteria ( E. coli, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, and S. aureus ), the MIC for decahedral AgNPs was 10 times lower than that for spherical AgNPs. The higher effectiveness of the decahedral NPs may be due to the presence of numerous high-density surface atoms at their corners and edges (Bharti et al. 2021 ). According to Goyal et al., plate-like AgNPs have bactericidal action against E. coli, S. aureus, Bacillus, V. cholerae, and S. pyogenes ., AgNPs antibacterial activity was discovered to be affected by their form, and this effect is equally evident against all bacterial species (Goyal et al. 2017 ). Chloroxine-conjugated AgNPs (COX–AgNPs) nanoflowers were created by Shahabadi et al. They discovered that the formulation has impressive antibacterial and antifungal action against a variety of diseases. The findings revealed that E. coli and S. aureus were both more susceptible to COX–AgNPs (at 0.25 g/mL), which completely suppressed bacterial growth when compared to AgNPs and chloroxine alone (Shahabadi et al. 2021 ). In another study, anisotropic ZnO NPs (rod and cube-shaped) showed strong antimicrobial action against MDR bacteria and yeast. With a zone of inhibition (ZOI) of 22.4 mm, 13 mm, and 12.5 mm against Candida tropicalis, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, respectively, the produced NPs demonstrated a notable antibacterial activity. Moreover, the produced ZnONPs showed increased biofilm suppression of around 79.33%, 72.94%, and 33.68%, respectively, against the respective bacterial species. ZnONPs had a remarkable contact surface area of 10.62 m 2 /g, a small crystal size of 34.51 nm, high opacity of 13.16%, and an anisotropic structure that significantly increased the antibacterial effectiveness of ZnONPs at low concentration (25.0 μg/ml), against all tested bacterial species (Abd Elkodous et al. 2020 ). Nanomaterials for biosensing and detection applications The unique interaction of nanomaterials with biomolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, and whole cells has resulted in the emergence of smart sensing probes for the investigation involving environmental monitoring, disease diagnosis, clinical treatment, and food security (Su et al. 2019 ). Sensing platforms incorporated with nanomaterials as active elements such as transducer or detector offer the advantages of enhanced detection signals with increased sensitivity and minimized detection limits in small sample volumes. Nanomaterials have been widely exploited for their unique physiochemical properties to construct biosensors, which consist of a biorecognition element (BRE) that specifically interacts with a corresponding analyte from a sample. The resulting physical or chemical property change, constituted in the form of an electric signal, will be transduced by a transducer to a data analysis system to generate the measurable signals (Fig. 9 ) (Wongkaew et al. 2018 ). Some of the common and important approaches to the involvement of nanomaterials in the biosensors and analyte detection system have been comprehensively covered in the below sections. Fig. 9. Open in a new tab Schematic representation of different types, their construction, and the working mechanism of various nanobiosensors used for the applications in food industry, disease diagnosis. Use of different types of nanozymes in disease diagnosis has also presented Incorporation of nanomaterials in biosensors Nanomaterials-based biosensors work on the principle of various analytical techniques including electrochemistry, field effect transistor (FET), fluorescence, surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), colorimetry, and surface plasmon resonance (SPR). In a recent study by Alafeef et al. 2020 ), graphene film coated paper-based electrochemical platform composed of modified antisense oligonucleotides (ssDNA) conjugated to AuNPs was designed for SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection in the range of 585.4 to 5.854 × 10 7 copies/μL, with a sensitivity of 231 (copies/μL) and detection limit of 6.9 copies/μL (Fig. 10 A). The antisense ssDNA acts as the biorecognition element, designed to target the SARS-CoV-2 N-gene, encoding nucleocapsid phosphoprotein. When the sensor encounters viral RNA, the mounted ssDNA on the graphene conducting film hybridizes with the complementary region of the viral RNA, resulting in electron mobility and charge variations, constituting output voltage changes in the sensor within a short response time of 5 min (Fig. 10 B).The performance of the sensor toward viral RNA load of different concentrations from SARS-CoV-2-infected Vero cells shows a linear response to increasing viral RNA concentration (Fig. 10 C). The critical role of the ssDNA probe in the detection of viral RNA was studied by experimenting with the response of the electrochemical sensor chip assembly using only graphene coating, citrate stabilized AuNPs deposition on graphene coating and, ssDNA probe capped with AuNP. From the experimental results, the output signal with significant changes for the target viral RNA was not observed in the case of only graphene-coated devices and deposition of AuNPs stabilized with citrate on graphene-coated devices, thereby confirming the the stability of ssDNA probe capped with AuNP for detecting SARS-CoV-2 N-gene (Fig. 10 D). Selectivity of the ssDNA-based graphene electrochemical sensor chip to SARS-CoV-2 RNA against SARS-CoV RNA and MERS-CoV load has been shown in Fig. 10 E. The real-time response of the sensor chip developed was very effective in distinguishing healthy and COVID-19-positive clinical samples (Fig. 10 E) collected through a nasal swab or saliva (Fig. 10 F) from a representative population of 15 healthy individuals and 15 COVID-19-confirmed individuals (Fig. 10 G). Quantification of the viral load in different clinical samples was accurately detected by the sensor chip (Fig. 10 H) with an r 2 value of 0.999 from the standard curve based on the quantification performed (Fig. 10 I and 10 J). Yolanda et al. ( 2021 ) have developed a stable, low cost and reusable multi-sample fluorescent biosensor composed of blue emitting fluorescent liposomal NP conjugated with polymers (L-CPNS) and α-glucosidase enzyme co-immobilized within a sol–gel matrix for the detection of potential antidiabetic drugs targeting the enzyme α-glucosidase. In presence of α-glucosidase enzyme inhibitors, the fluorescence of L-CPNS was turned on, whereas in absence of the inhibitor, p-nitrophenol (PNP), the hydrolysis product of the substrate p-nitrophenyl-α-D-glucopyranoside (PNPG) quenches the fluorescence of L-CPNS, which can be observed in situ using a confocal fluorescence microscope. The developed device achieved a detection limit of 37.8 µM. A single NPs-based bumpy core–shell nanoprobe working on the principle of surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy was developed (Shim et al. 2022 ) to detect the spike proteins of the SARS-CoV-2 virus with a detection limit of 7.1 × 10 −16 M in the range of 3.7 × 10 −15 to 3.7 × 10 −8 M. The nanoprobe consists of self-assembled monolayers of internal 4-nitrobenzenethiol Raman reporters with a sub-nanometer gap, which undergoes plasmonic coupling with the external bumpy shell to produce SERS signal to detect the spike protein mutations in SARS-CoV-2 virus variants, such as alpha, beta, delta, gamma, and omicron. Colorimetric detection of glucose (Glu), uric acid (UA), and choline (Ch) based on modified Fe 3 O 4 magnetic NPs in the linear concentration range of 11.1−111.1 μM for Glu, 5.43−65.22 μM for UA, and 2.78−44.4 μM for Ch with detection limits of the order 0.59, 0.34, and 0.20 μM, was developed in a study conducted by Avan et al. ( 2022 ). The different oxidases, such as choline oxidase, glucose oxidase, and uricase, were separately immobilized on the MNP surface, followed by the specific enzyme–substrate reaction to generate H 2 O 2 . H 2 O 2 was further oxidized to molecular O 2 and H 2 O by the light blue colored CUPRAC reagent, resulting in its reduction to form Cu (I)−Nc chelate of yellow/orange color, constituting the colorimetric detection of the biological substrates in real samples. Seo et al. developed COVID-19 field-effect transistor (COVID-19 FET) sensor by immobilizing SARS-CoV-2 spike antibody on graphene-based biosensing device through 1-pyrenebutyric acid N-hydroxy succinimide ester, which acts as the probe linker. The COVID-19 FET sensor developed was efficiently used for clinical applications involving detection of SARS-CoV-2 antigen protein with a LOD of 1 fg/mL from nasopharyngeal swabs and clinical samples (Seo et al. 2020 ). C-reactive protein (CRP) is an acute-phase protein produced by liver in response to inflammatory conditions or cardiovascular diseases. A portable aptameric multiwalled carbon nanotube-based field-effect transistor (MWCNTFET) was developed possessing buried gate electrode with dielectric layer of Al 2 O 3 for the real-time monitoring of CRP (Firoozbakhtian et al. 2022 ). Changes in CRP concentrations were detected by the developed nanobiosensors in 8 min with a lowest detection limit of 150 pM covering the level of CRP in the physiological range of 0.43−42.86 nM (0.05−5 mg L −1 ). BSA coated gold nanocluster (BSA AuNC)-based fluorescence probe for the detection of intracellular H 2 O 2 in WRL-68 liver cells was developed by Jain et al. ( 2021 ). Artificial accumulation of H 2 O 2 in WRL-68 was activated by 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole, the catalase inhibitor and the cells were further treated with a BSA AuNC fluorescence probe, displaying bright fluorescence. The fluorescence intensity of the probe was significantly quenched upon exposure to the WRL 68 cells with a high concentration of H 2 O 2 , concomitant with the degradation of H 2 O 2 , confirming the role of BSA AuNC as a strong fluorescent probe for the detection of intracellular H 2 O 2 . Fig. 10. Open in a new tab Schematic representation of paper-based electrochemical sensor chip ( A ). Sensor chip output signal in response to SARS-CoV-2 RNA load ( B ). Standard curve of sensor chip output signal with respect to SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentration ( C ). Comparative study on the sensitivity of Pristine sensor, AuNPs and Au-probe response to SARS-CoV-2 RNA ( D ) and specificity of sensor chip to SARS-CoV-2 RNA with respect to MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV ( E ).Sensor chip real time response to COVID-19 positive and healthy clinical sample ( F ). Comparative study on sensor chip response to representative set of clinical samples consisting 15 COVID-19 confirmed samples and 15 healthy samples ( G ). Schematic representation of clinical sample collection through nasal swab or from saliva samples ( H ). Comparison of sensor chip response to different RNA concentration from clinical samples ( I ) and the standard curve for estimation of RNA concentration based on average of the three repetitive measures of the clinical samples ( J ). Adapted from ref. (Alafeef et al. 2020 ) Nanomaterial-based sensors for detection of important animal diseases The projected increase in food demand by 2050 is approximately 70%, with a 50% increase in meat production (Gattani et al. 2019 ). Therefore, routine monitoring of animal health would be essential to produce the best quality animal food. Infectious disease and metabolic and hormonal perturbations are the crucial factors threatening animal health. Sensing platforms involving nanomaterials are expected to offer timely monitoring and diagnosis of various pathogens and the metabolic status of the livestock. Listeria monocytogenes is an infectious pathogen of ruminants that causes listeriosis. Listeriosis manifests in the form of encephalitis or meningo encephalitisin adult ruminants resulting in abortion, placentitis, septicaemia, and perinatal mortality. Magnetic NPs-based microfluidic biosensor working on the mechanism of impedance analysis of urease catalysis has been developed for listeria detection. When applied with a high gradient magnetic field, the sandwich complex of MNP–Listeria–AuNP–urease gets captured in a separation chip where the injected urea undergoes catalysis into carbonate ions and ammonium, which gets further transported through an interdigitated microelectrode to a microfluidic detection chip for Listeria cell detection (Wang et al. 2017a ). Another poly-5-carboxy indole (5C Pin) polymer with DNA sensing probe-based impedimetric biosensor was developed to detect hly-A gene of Listeria. The DNA sequence of the target was hybridized on the probe which was immobilized with a 5C pin, using which a linear range of plot was obtained between target DNA logarithmic concentration and charge transfer resistance (Soni et al. 2015 ). Brucellosis is the most common reproductive disease affecting most animal species globally. Brucellosis in cattle leads to abortion, stillbirth, and male infertility and causes significant reductions in milk yield. Gupta et al. have developed a CeO 2 nano-octahedra incorporated chitosan-based immunosensors with the detection limit of 0.1 ng/ml, for Brucella detection. Khan et al. have developed immunosensors based on thickly coated zirconium oxide NPs and copper-doped nickel fabricated on electrodes plated with gold for the detection of Brucella abortus (Khan et al. 2018 ). Campylobacteriosis affects human and animal digestive system. A hybrid electrochemical genosensor was fabricated by Morant-Miñana and Elizalde, consisting of Cyclo Olefin Polymer (COP) deposited gold electrode, for Campylobacter spp. detection in the range of 1 and 25 nM and achieved a detection limit of 90 pM (Morant-Miñana and Elizalde 2015 ). Clostridium perfringensis, a common enteric pathogen, produces several toxins causing disease to humans and animals. Quian et al. have developed CeO 2 nanorod-based label-free genosensor for detecting C. perfringens DNA sequence of range 1.0 × 10 −14 to 1.0 × 10 −7 mol/L and with a detection limit of 7.06 × 10 −15 mol/L (Qian et al. 2018 ). FMD virus causing foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a contagious disease in animals with cloven feet. FMD in cattle causes an 80% reduction in milk yield, abortion, and ultimately death due to multifocal myocarditis. Hussein et al. have developed a viral imprinted polymer (VIP) biosensor for rapid detection of FMDV (Hussein et al. 2019 ). FMDV serotype O imprinted on oxidized O-aminophenol (O-AP) film, on a gold screen-printed electrode was electrochemically polymerized for the formation of biorecognition element. The developed biosensor was highly selective to serotype O than other serotypes with a LOD of 2 ng/mL and quantification limit of 6 ng/mL, which were 50 fold lower compared to traditional methods, such as ELISA and PCR. Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) is a respiratory disease commonly affecting cattle, and delay in the diagnosis leads to the death of the animal. BVDV infection in cattle leads to immunosuppression, reduction in milk yield, congenital deformities, and early embryonic death. Montrose et al. have developed an electrochemical-based immunosensor for BVDV detection in serum by electrodepositing the virus on a single nanowire, which is further applied for detecting the BVD antibodies (Montrose et al. 2015 ). Bovine ketosis in cattle is an important metabolic disease, infecting during the periparturient period. β-Hydroxy butyrate (BHB) estimate is the gold standard for diagnosing subclinical ketosis. Each 0.1 mmol/L rise of β-hydroxy butyrate (BHB) is linked to a 0.5 kg/day reduction in milk production (van der Kolk et al. 2017). Weng et al. have developed quantum dots (QD)-based optical microfluidic biosensor with modified nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD + ) for the detection of β-hydroxy butyrate (BHB) with 35 μM as the LOD (Weng et al. 2015 ). Physical stress analysis in animals can be assessed through sweat analysis. Non-invasive monitoring for the presence of trace metals and heavy metals in sweat using a voltametric biosensor coupled with a bismuth/Nafion film electrode was developed by Kim et al. ( 2015 ). Monitoring of cattle ovulation period is a crucial factor in deciding the time window of artificial insemination. Zeiden et al. have developed a nano-enhanced aptamer integrated surface plasmon resonance imaging-based sensor (SPRi) for progesterone sensing in which the X-aptamers selectively bind to progesterone (Zeidan et al. 2016 ). The assay covers 1.57 ng/mL to 126 μg/mL range of concentration with a detection limit of 1.57 ng/mL (5 nM). Biosensors using nanozymes Nanozymes are nanomaterial-based artificial enzymes mimicking the catalytic functions of natural enzymes, with the ability to replicate kinetic behavior to generate oxidized colored products from the catalytic conversion of substrates. The applications of nanozymes in the field of biosensing are vast with most of the enzymatic activities being categorised into four major enzymatic classes, namely, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, oxidase, and peroxidase. The catalytic oxidation of the various chromogenic substrates such as 2,2’-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS), 3,3’-diaminobenzidine (DAB), and 3,3’,5,5’-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) by peroxidase or oxidase mimicking nanozymes results in colored aqueous solutions (Das et al. 2021 ), which can be analysed with unique absorption spectrum by spectrophotometer. Unique properties of nanozymes, especially larger surface-to-volume ratio, responsiveness to peripheral inducements, self-assembling capability, biocompatibility, fluorescence, electrical, magnetic, and thermal conductivity, and high stability, have contributed to develop biosensors with the purpose of detection and point-of-care diagnosis of various analytes. Feng et al. have developed a peroxidase mimicking Au/Fe-MOF-based amperometric immunosensor, exploiting the Fenton chemistry for detecting prostate-specific antigen/PSA with detection limit of 0.13 pg/mL (Feng et al. 2020 ). The dual enzyme mimicking activity of CeO 2 NPs was studied by Singh and Singh in which they reported that the catalase mimetic activity of CeO 2 NPs was much more stable than the SOD mimetic activity at Ce +4 / +3 ratio in biologically buffered solutions without compromising the catalytic activity (Singh and Singh 2015 ). The same group has further used the catalase mimetic property of CeO 2 NPs to protect human hepatic cells from the damage and cytotoxicity induced by the increased level of intracellular H 2 O 2 (Singh and Singh 2019 ). Results revealed that CeO 2 NPs with catalase-mimicking activity carried out the degradation of the increased level of H 2 O 2 when the cells were exposed to cellular catalase enzyme inhibitor, 3-aminotriazole (3-AT). Ali et al. fabricated a cellulose paper strip based on platinum NPs for uric acid (UA) quantitative detection, with a limit of detection of 4.2 ± 5 μM (Ali et al. 2019 ). The intrinsic peroxidase activity of platinum NPs was employed for the colorimetric detection by which the chromogenic substrate TMB undergoes oxidation in the presence of UA with the change of reaction color from dark blue to yellow and, in UA absence, colorless to dark blue. The sensor developed showed a linear response in the range of 0 mM to 8 mM and a sensitivity of 0.12 abs/mM.mm −2 was acquired for the uric acid samples from the calibration curve slope. Alizadeh et al. developed a portable paper-based biosensor incorporating Co 3 O 4 –CeO 2 nanocomposites in association with smartphone-based software for the quantitative measure of glucose from human serum (Alizadeh et al. 2019 ). The peroxidase-like activity of the nanocomposite was found higher than the natural enzyme HRP, with the generation of H 2 O 2 from the reaction between glucose and glucose oxidase enzyme. Zhang et al. have designed a bifunctional metal-free nanocomposite biosensor for the detection of glucose based on graphite carbon nitride (g-C3N4: GCN) with intrinsic oxidase–peroxidase-like activity (Zhang et al. 2019 ). The microfluidics system developed possesses both enzyme activity simultaneously and achieved a limit of detection of 0.8 µM in a short response time of 30 s. Darabdhara et al. have developed a nanohybrid system composed of an Au–Ni bimetallic NPs system (Au–Ni/g-C 3 N 4 ), doped onto graphite carbon nitride sheets incorporated with the glucose oxidase enzyme for colorimetrically detecting glucose in serum. The enhanced peroxidase-like activity of the bimetallic nanocomposite was attributed to the electron transfer between Au and Ni, causing electron charge density accumulation on Au, which further enhances the oxidation rate of TMB (Darabdhara et al. 2019 ). Detection of biothiols has a significant role in the diagnosis of diseases associated with disrupted physiological functions, such as Alzheimer, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. Zhu et al. have developed a colorimetric sensor based on graphene quantum dots modified with terephthalic acid (TPA@GQDs), to which the metal ions such as Cu 2+ , Fe 2+ ,and Zn 2+ were integrated to form the catalytic active centers for the selective quantitation of different thiols (Zhu et al. 2022 ). The peroxidase-like activity of TPA@GQDs generates hydroxyl radicals in presence of H 2 O 2 , resulting in the oxidation of the chromogenic substrate, TMB whereas the interaction of metal ions with thiols of higher binding affinity causes suppression of the catalytic properties of TPA@GQDs. The detection limit of 50 nM was achieved with unique absorbance for the different thiolanalytes. A catalase mimicking PtNPs-based simple sensing application was developed by Yu et al. for detecting carcino embryonic antigen (CEA) in combination with a multiwall carbon nanotube-based pressure sensor for the quantitative determination of the analyte (Yu et al. 2018 ). The antibody conjugated PtNPs with catalase mimicking activity result in O 2 generation, causing increased pressure of electrode functionalized with carbon nanotube, which was measured by digital multi-meter readout associated with a paper-based pressure light sensor. The device achieved a LOD of 167 pg/mL with a linear detection range of 0.5–60 ng/mL. Nanosensors for food quality assessment Food safety has become a major global concern, and food quality assessment has great significance in the present scenario for ensuring the safety of food products. Potential applications of nanomaterial-based biosensors have been widely investigated for the detection of major food contaminants, such as foodborne pathogens, mycotoxins, heavy metals, illegal additives, and drugs (Hua et al. 2021 ). Au nanostar, with its plasmonic properties, has been utilized for the detection of illegal additives, such as thiocyanate (SCN) and aromatic colorants. In this context, Cui et al. functionalized Zn phthalocyanine (shows high affinity to SCN) on Au nanostars and further decorated onto indium tin oxide electrode (Cui et al. 2020 ). The presence of SCN causes the electrochemical oxidation of Au nanostars to Au ions at the electrode surface, which further leads to the formation of soluble Au thiocyanate that results in the color change from navy blue (Au nanostars) to red (Au sphere). This change was easily determined by UV–Vis spectrum with a detection limit of 0.3 μg/L. Marine food products are the major source of potential allergens, especially fish. Fish allergy triggers allergic reactions mediated by immunoglobulin E (IgE), resulting in atopic dermatitis, emesis, angioedema, and life-threatening anaphylaxis shock under severe conditions. Parvalbumin (PV) has been identified as a major fish allergen and is a protein with α and β isoforms abundant in the vertebrate’s muscle tissues. Allergenicity of PV is constituted by the β lineage, and fish often carry both lineages, which are conserved among the different species. Wang et al. have developed a ssDNA aptamer conjugated AuNP, for the detection of allergic protein PV, present in fish white muscle tissues (Wang et al. 2020a ). In the absence of PV, AuNP and complementary short-chain fluorescent dye-labelled DNA aptamers remain hybridised and quenched. When PV is present, AuNP gets disassembled and fluorescent dye is released with the development of red color, which can be detected with colorimetric or fluorometric readouts. Ochratoxin-A (OTA) was identified to be a harmful mycotoxin, which has been categorized as a potential carcinogen as well as a toxicant to liver and kidney functioning. The LSPR peaks of Au nanorods are sensitive to their shape and, therefore, utilized for the detection of OTA in association with structure-switching aptamer-based enzymatic reactions (Tian et al. 2020 ). The colorimetric detection of OTA is based on the multicolor variations resulting from the LSPR peak shift occurring due to tiny changes in the Au nanorod aspect ratio. Foodborne diseases cause huge damage to human health and well-being. Pathogenic bacteria are the prime reason for the majority of foodborne outbreaks, among which 20% of the total foodborne diseases are contributed by non-typhoidal S. enterica . Muniandy et al. developed an rGO–TiO 2 -based nanocomposite with a detection limit of 10 CFU/mL for S. enteric detection (Muniandy et al. 2019 ) . Incorporation of GO with TiO 2 has increased the overall surface area of the electrode. When bacterial cells were adsorbed onto the interface of the electrode, electron transfer was inhibited, resulting in the reduced differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) signal. Various nanomaterial-based biosensors reported for the application of food safety analysis are briefly discussed in Table 5 . Table 5. Nanobiosensors developed for food safety analysis Type of biosensor Analyte/s Category of analyte Nanomaterials used LOD References Surface enhanced Raman scattering Malachite green isothiocyanate/Melamine Illegal additive Au nanorods 10 nM Wu et al. ( 2019d ) Colorimetric Allergen genes in peanut, soybean and sesame Allergens AuNPs 0.5 nM Yuan et al. ( 2019 ) Circular dichroism-based absorption spectra Tropomyosin from shell fish Allergen AuNPs 21 ng/L Wang et al. ( 2019 ) Electrochemical Brettanomyces bruxellensis Pathogen Fe 3 O 4 @SiO 2 NPs 5 CFU/mL Villalonga et al. ( 2019 ) Colorimetric Ochratoxins Mycotoxin Au Nanobipyramids 1.99 ng/L Wei et al. ( 2019 ) Electrochemical S.  typhimurium serovar Pathogen AuNPs 6 cells/mL Silva et al. ( 2019 ) Colorimetric Cyromazine Pesticide AuNPs 0.04 mg/L Liu et al. ( 2020 ) Surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) S. aureus Pathogen AuNFs 10 3 CFU/mL Juneja and Bhattacharya ( 2019 ) SPR E. coli O157:H7 Pathogen AuNP–rGO 5.0 × 10 2 CFU/mL Zhou et al. ( 2018 ) Open in a new tab 3D printing as well as kits for disease diagnosis and treatment 3D printing-based drug delivery systems provide numerous advantages, including individualized medication delivery systems that enable regulated delivery adapted to each particular need. In addition to these factors, 3D printing employs straightforward processes for economical production that is readily scalable. The current advanced industrial level 3D printing technology enables the production of some components or entire sensor and Point of Care Testing (POCT) devices for expedited deployment and evaluation. This has decreased the time and expense associated with these devices, potentially leading to an increased production rate. Pumera and colleagues have created a 3D-printed prototype of a COVID-19 immunosensor that incorporates COVID-19 recombinant protein on a graphene-based nanocomposite electrode surface (Muñoz and Pumera 2021 ). The designed immunosensor demonstrated favorable electroanalytical characteristics in both buffer and human serum samples. In a similar vein, Ali et al. created 3D nanoprinted electrodes tailored to the S1 protein of SARS-CoV-2. The 3D-printed electrode is coated with nanoflakes of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and immobilized with viral antigens, such as receptor-binding domain (RBD), via a typical electrochemical cell approach. The experimental results indicated that the biosensing platform can identify the SARS-CoV-2 virus within seconds (Ali et al. 2021 ). Furthermore, there is significant demand for customized novel materials for the development of additively built structures for wound healing. A 3D printed composite of ZnONPs exhibiting photocatalytic properties was enclosed within hydrogel (alginate) constructions to enhance antibacterial activity for wound healing. Three-dimensional printed constructions exhibited markedly larger pore diameters and improved structural integrity relative to manually casted samples. Bacterial resistance tested on Staphylococcus epidermis shown that the incorporation of ZnO NPs into the gels reduced bacterial proliferation relative to the control alginate gels. The incorporation of ZnO nanoparticles into the alginate gels did not negatively impact the viability of STO–fibroblast cells (Cleetus et al. 2020 ). Researchers have utilized functionalized nanosized cellulose to fabricate 3D bioplotters with customized tissue, designed at the centimeter scale and enhanced with alginate/methylcellulose hydrogel. This may be utilized for regenerative therapy in cartilage and adipose tissue, with an added capability to address tissue abnormalities (Thayer et al. 2020 ). 3D printing can be utilized to fabricate biomaterials including tailored scaffolds and specified architecture, shape, porosity, pore dimensions, and pore interconnectivity, ensuring great reproducibility. NPs are utilized to improve the surface and biological properties of these scaffolds (Mani et al. 2022 ). Roh et al. included magnesium oxide NPs into PCL and HAP composites to enhance bone regeneration. Magnesium, a vital natural mineral for osseous development and a biodegradable metal, demonstrated efficacy in enhancing osteoblast cell proliferation. The 3D composite scaffolds of PCL/HAP/magnesium oxide NPs, characterized by interconnected pores, exhibited superior bioactivity relative to other groups (Roh et al. 2017 ). 3D printed medications are emerging as a compelling alternative to traditional pharmaceuticals due to their streamlined and decentralized production processes, optimized active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) delivery profiles, customized manufacturing, personalized treatment, and patient-centered disease management (Ishack and Lipner 2020 ). 3D printing facilitates the creation of tailored drug formulas and structures, allowing for targeted therapies and controlled release mechanisms. This combination enables the production of patient-specific medications, facilitating personalized treatment strategies. The amalgamation of nanomedicines and 3D printing enhances therapeutic efficacy and optimizes the manufacturing process, signifying the advent of a new epoch in personalized medicine. The 3D-printed hydrogel-based microfish exhibit significant potential as targeted medication delivery systems, demonstrated by their ability to navigate within the body for up to 2 h. Iron oxide for magnetically directed propulsion or platinum NPs for chemical propulsion are utilized to achieve this (Alzoubi et al. 2023 ). 3D printing can produce hand-held quick testing kits that enable healthcare personnel to screen for the COVID-19 virus without requiring specialized medical resources. The designs of the quick testing kits can be refined internally for the production of rapid diagnostic kits and point-of-care tests (POCTs). Point-of-care testing (POCT) refers to the detection and diagnosis of disease at the patient's immediate location. The prompt detection of analytes at the patient's location is crucial for improved diagnosis, monitoring, and management. This approach enables early detection of dissemination, hence ensuring expedited therapy in a regulated manner. 3D-printing technology has significantly contributed to the advancement of these point-of-care tests (POCTs). Xiaong et al. reported the detection of the SARS-CoV-2 virus with a multiplexed targeting approach. It is a monolithic, three-dimensional printed lab-on-disc platform for multiplex molecular detection of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The developed kit can diagnose the envelope gene and is also capable of detecting the nucleoprotein and internal components of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. It can detect up to 100 copies of SARS-CoV-2 RNA within 50 min. The device demonstrated an accuracy of 50% and a sensitivity of 100% (Ding et al. 2022 ). Moreover, the attractive benefits of 3D printed pharmaceuticals encompass the ability to produce pills, tablets, or capsules of any size and shape, the individualized optimization of dosage, precise control over the quantity and concentration of active ingredients in the drug formulation, and the capacity to substitute or eliminate specific components to accommodate patients with allergies or hypersensitivities to particular substances (Javaid et al. 2020 ). Beck et al. initially created medication delivery systems by integrating 3D printing with nanotechnology to administer deflazacort via 3D printed tablets containing nanocapsules, which were fabricated using FDM. The 3D printed filaments were immersed in various polymers (PCL, Eudragit® RL100, with or without mannitol as a channeling agent) and subjected to varied infill percentages in a suspension containing deflazacort nanocapsules. The produced nanocapsules exhibited a positive zeta potential of + 6.87 mV, a size of less than 0.284 µm, a narrow polydispersity index of 0.10, and an in-vitro drug release of 65% after 24 h. Moreover, they noted an enhancement in drug loading (deflazacort nanocapsules) within 3D printed filament corresponding to prolonged soaking time, and drug release from 3D printed tablets occurred by Fickian diffusion and case-2 transport (Beck et al. 2017 ). Rupp et al. fabricated diminutive core–shell capsules by a dual-step 3D printing methodology utilizing a CAD application, wherein the upper and lower layers were densely packed with thermoplastic polymer PCL and nanocapsules via FDM. The middle layers were infused with oil (linalool, limonene, trivalent alkyne, and farnesol) using an inkjet print head, resulting in microsized capsules measuring 200–800 µm that encapsulated nanocapsules. These capsules, fabricated using 3D printing, exhibited thermal resilience at temperatures up to 80 °C (Rupp and Binder 2020 ). Limitations of biomedical nanotechnology A crucial area of nanoscience called nanotoxicology studies the possible negative consequences of manufactured NPs through various mechanisms, particularly in biomedical applications. Although NPs are widely used for various application, concerns regarding their safety are raised by their small size and unique properties (Egbuna et al. 2021 ). Various factors influence its toxicity such as  shape, size, and surface functional groups. (Chen et al. 2019 ). NPs can be harmful due to their small size, which allows them to infiltrate tissues and cells rapidly at lesser quantities, they may be harmless or even beneficial, but at higher concentrations, they can cause ROS generation, cellular inflammation, DNA damage, and even cell death (Iavicoli et al. 2018 ). Dose-related NPs toxic effects, as it relates to human health, explains how a particle's harmful effects increase with higher concentrations or longer exposure times. Because regulatory agencies like the FDA rely on information about safety from bulk materials, regulating nanomedicines presents a significant difficulty. This method ignores the unique physicochemical and pharmacological properties of nanomedicines, which could result in disparities in evaluations of their efficacy and safety. In light of this, traditional laws might not sufficiently address the special qualities of nanomedicines, which could make it difficult to guarantee their safety and effectiveness (Bawa 2011 ). Different regulators throughout the world classify nanomedicine differently; some classify it as a medicine, while others classify it as a medical device. Because of the disparity in regulatory requirements, a nanomedicine may be approved in one nation but not in a different nation which could lead to differences in the effectiveness and safety evaluations (Metselaar and Lammers 2020 ). It is doubtful that preclinical nanomedicine research and characterization will undergo substantial modifications in the absence of strong clinical regulatory guidelines. Stability issues arise when manufacturing nanomedicines on a larger scale, requiring strict approval procedures. Determining Critical Quality Attributes (CQA) is essential for process management and comprehending intricate architectures. Because of their complexity, nanomedicines are challenging to manufacture consistently, which affects their efficacy, safety, and quality. Additionally, because nanomedicine is a multidisciplinary field, close collaboration between science, medicine, and engineering is required. The path to widespread therapeutic application is made more challenging by the unexpected behavior of NPs among biological systems, which further hampers clinical testing (Hoskins et al. 2012 ). Decisions about market entrance supervision are complicated by the absence of definitive toxicity data. Standardizing evaluation techniques, filling in toxicity data gaps, and defining precise rules for assessing and handling risks are all necessary to guarantee the safety of nanomaterials. Understanding nanotoxicity processes, developing reliable evaluation techniques, and resolving regulatory challenges are all necessary for the safe use of nanomaterials. In order to provide scientific knowledge, the European Medical Authority established a panel of specialists on nanomedicines that includes experts from academics and the European regulatory network (Đorđević et al. 2022 ). Future studies should look at the long-term effects of NP exposure, create new assessment techniques, and enhance regulatory frameworks in order to stay up with nanotechnology. Conclusion and future directions Nanotechnology is anticipated to be beneficial in various areas of biomedical science, including disease diagnosis and treatment, imaging, personalized therapy, enhancement of reproductive performance and fertility, and nutritional management aimed at developing efficient, cost-effective feeding strategies to augment animal production potential. The consistent incorporation of nano-supplements to enhance livestock feed is probable in the near future; however, the complete substitution of antibiotics with NPs in feed will require more time. Nevertheless, advancements in NP synthesis and surface modification have paved the way for innovative strategies in the development of new antimicrobial agents to mitigate the risk of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). NPs have already been included in certain facets of animal production, such as antiseptic wound dressings, with other applications anticipated. The integration of wireless technology, non-invasive methods, artificial intelligence, and nanotechnology can enhance the welfare of both humans and animals. Nanomaterial-based sensors, microfluidics, and wireless communication systems have facilitated the emergence of novel applications, such as wearable solutions for the self-monitoring of physiological parameters and biochemical markers via body fluids, including sweat, saliva, and tears. The application of nanomaterials as biosensors for disease detection is very promising for future research, notwithstanding the various health risks linked to their handling and administration. Comprehending the problems, failures, and successes of NPs in clinical applications is essential for the future development of nanomedicine. A comprehensive study is necessary to comprehend the complete potential of nanotechnology and to further advance and market the promising nanotechnology-based medicines. Acknowledgements S. Singh acknowledges the core funding received from the DBT-National Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Hyderabad, India (Grant no: C0046). P. Arora and K. M R thanks to the University Grants Commission (UGC), India for providing Junior Research Fellowship. S. Bhagat acknowledges the Indian Council of Medical Research, India, for providing Senior Research Fellowship. Author contributions Sanjay Singh: conceptualization, methodology, writing, reviewing and editing. Palak Arora: data curation, writing, and original draft preparation. Stuti Bhagat: data curation, writing, and original draft preparation. Krishnendu M. R.: data curation, writing, and original draft preparation. Funding The core funding received from the DBT-National Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Hyderabad, India (Grant no: C0046). 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