How does emotional labor relate to emotional exhaustion among university counselors? the differential moderating roles of psychological detachment.

How does emotional labor relate to emotional exhaustion among university counselors? the differential moderating roles of psychological detachment - PMC Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock Locked padlock icon ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Search Log in Dashboard Publications Account settings Log out Search… Search NCBI Primary site navigation Search Logged in as: Dashboard Publications Account settings Log in Search PMC Full-Text Archive Search in PMC Journal List User Guide PERMALINK Copy As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. 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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice BMC Psychol . 2026 Mar 9;14:540. doi: 10.1186/s40359-026-04325-8 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search How does emotional labor relate to emotional exhaustion among university counselors? the differential moderating roles of psychological detachment Gaoyun Zhang Gaoyun Zhang 1 Science and Technology Department, Fuzhou Polytechnic, Fuzhou, Fujian 350108 China Find articles by Gaoyun Zhang 1, ✉ , Kunjin Xu Kunjin Xu 2 Student Work Department, Fuzhou Polytechnic, Fuzhou, Fujian 350108 China Find articles by Kunjin Xu 2 , Tianlin Chen Tianlin Chen 3 Psychological Counseling and Guidance Center, Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330004 China Find articles by Tianlin Chen 3 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Science and Technology Department, Fuzhou Polytechnic, Fuzhou, Fujian 350108 China 2 Student Work Department, Fuzhou Polytechnic, Fuzhou, Fujian 350108 China 3 Psychological Counseling and Guidance Center, Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330004 China ✉ Corresponding author. Received 2025 Oct 17; Accepted 2026 Mar 5; Collection date 2026. © The Author(s) 2026 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ . PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC13085299  PMID: 41803991 Abstract Background University counselors are particularly susceptible to emotional exhaustion due to the demands of intensive emotional labor. Surface acting (pretending to display certain emotions) and deep acting (using cognitive reappraisal to regulate internal feelings) have different effects on emotional exhaustion. However, the combined mechanisms remain insufficiently explored. Moreover, few quantitative studies have examined the moderating role of psychological detachment in these relationships, particularly in the context of Chinese universities. This study addressed these limitations. Methods This was a cross-sectional survey. In total, 271 full-time university counselors from China were selected using convenience cluster sampling. Participants completed three validated instruments: the Emotional Labor Scale, the Psychological Detachment Scale, and the Emotional Exhaustion Scale. An integrated latent moderated structural equation model (SEM) was constructed using AMOS 23.0, and the latent moderated structural equation (LMS) approach was employed to examine the dual-path relationships between emotional labor and emotional exhaustion, as well as the moderating effect of psychological detachment. Results The dual-path model demonstrated a good fit (χ²/df = 2.513, RMSEA = 0.062, CFI = 0.918, TLI = 0.905). Surface acting was positively correlated with emotional exhaustion (β = 0.315, p < 0.001), whereas deep acting was negatively correlated with it (β = -0.352, p < 0.001), with both effects exhibiting comparable magnitudes. Psychological detachment had significant path-specific moderating effects. Using the absolute value of the path coefficient at a low level of psychological detachment (M–1 SD) as the baseline, a high level of psychological detachment (M + 1 SD) significantly weakened the positive relationship between surface acting and emotional exhaustion (path coefficient decreased from 0.457 to 0.168, a reduction of 63.2%) and substantially strengthened the negative relationship between deep acting and emotional exhaustion (path coefficient decreased from -0.179 to -0.516, an increase of 188.3%). Conclusions The findings support a dual-path model linking emotional labor to emotional exhaustion, and reveal differential moderation by psychological detachment. These results extend the Conservation of Resources Theory to high-emotional labor professions and inform interventions aimed at promoting counselors’ occupational health. Keywords: University counselors, Emotional Labor (surface acting/deep acting), Psychological Detachment, Emotional Exhaustion, Moderating role Introduction As a distinctive group within China’s higher education system, university counselors (hereafter referred to as counselors) foster moral integrity and nurture individuals. They differ from student affairs professionals in Western universities in terms of their positioning, core responsibilities, and work models [ 1 ]. According to the Regulations on the Construction of Counselor Teams in Ordinary Institutions of Higher Education [ 2 ], counselors are assigned nine core responsibilities, including ideological and theoretical education, Party and League building, academic advising, and mental health services. These duties form a “four-in-one” professional identity encompassing educators, managers, service providers, and guides [ 3 ]. This multifaceted role requires counselors to address the diverse needs of students throughout their development, which imparts a characteristically "high demand for emotional regulation through ideological and political education, and counselors must convey mainstream values with positive and resolute emotions to prevent negative feelings from undermining the effectiveness of ideological guidance. When managing student affairs, such as disputes over scholarships, awards, or disciplinary violations, they must suppress irritability or resistance, and communicate objectively and rationally. When providing mental health services to students experiencing crises such as depression or anxiety, counselors must first regulate their emotional stress to offer stable and professional support [ 4 ]. Furthermore, universities evaluate counselors based on the "effectiveness of ideological and political education," "completion rate of administrative tasks," and "student satisfaction," coupled with high expectations from parents [ 5 ], further intensifying counselors’ emotional regulation burden. Consequently, counselors represent a professional group with high emotional labor demands, and face a significant risk of emotional exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion among counselors not only affects their occupational health and psychological well-being, but also directly influences the effectiveness of ideological and political education, quality of students' psychological support, and overall campus safety and stability [ 3 ]. However, existing research has primarily focused on the direct relationship between emotional labor and exhaustion, paying insufficient attention to the moderating role of psychological detachment, which is a crucial factor in resource recovery. The interactive mechanisms among these three variables remain unclear, underscoring the practical importance of this study. Moreover, the local Chinese context adds unique complexity to these relationships. On one hand, the core mission tied to counselors' professional identity imposes stringent normative demands on their emotional expressions. On the other hand, the bureaucratic management model and "administration + teaching" work system prevalent in Chinese universities significantly limit their opportunities for psychological detachment [ 4 ]. These indigenous contextual factors complicate the interplay among the three key variables—university counselors’ emotional labor strategies (surface acting and deep acting), the quality of psychological detachment, and emotional exhaustion—resulting in notable differences from the professional environments of student affairs practitioners in Western contexts. This highlights the urgent need for context-specific research to clarify the pathways from emotional labor strategies to emotional exhaustion and to explore the moderating role of psychological detachment in this process. Literature review and research hypotheses Emotional labor Hochschild [ 6 ] defined emotional labor as the deliberate regulation of internal emotions and external expressions through cognitive or behavioral strategies to meet organizational demands. Unlike physical and mental labor, its defining characteristic is emotional controllability: individuals actively manage both emotional input (internal experiences) and output (external displays) to conform to professional norms [ 7 ]. Diefendorff et al. [ 8 ] initially proposed three dimensions of emotional labor: natural acting, deep acting, and surface acting. Natural acting involves the alignment of internal and external emotions without conscious regulation, and requires minimal psychological effort. Deep acting entails modifying internal feelings through cognitive reappraisal to align with organizational standards. Although it consumes resources, it preserves authenticity. Surface acting involves faking external emotions while suppressing true feelings, which causes emotional dissonance and psychological strain. Grandey [ 7 ] challenged the classification of natural acting as emotional labor, arguing that it lacks intentional regulation. Current scholarly consensus favors the two-dimensional model (surface acting versus deep acting) [ 9 ] adopted in this study. The two-dimensional model has been validated in the context of Chinese education and healthcare. Wen et al. [ 10 ] confirmed its validity among counselors, and Chen et al. [ 11 ] verified its stability among healthcare professionals. However, counselors exhibit a distinct "two-dimension dominant, natural acting absent" pattern due to stringent role norms [ 4 ], which require active emotional regulation for ideological education, crisis response, and student services—leaving little room for spontaneous expression. They employ both strategies: surface acting to maintain composure during crises and deep acting to foster professional resonance in educational settings [ 12 ]. Prolonged surface acting induces emotional dissonance, depletes self-cognition, and increases the risk of emotional exhaustion [ 13 ]. The relationship between emotional labor and emotional exhaustion Emotional exhaustion is a common consequence of occupational stress, characterized by physical and mental fatigue, emotional detachment, and diminished work performance resulting from the excessive depletion of internal psychological resources [ 14 ]. This concept is particularly relevant to university counselors who possess multiple professional identities and face sustained, high-intensity demands for emotional investment and regulation [ 15 ]. Furthermore, unlike regular faculty members, counselors must continuously navigate various role conflicts, such as the tension between the value-driven nature of ideological and political education, efficiency-oriented demands of administrative work, and conflict between the professional requirements of psychological counseling and the burdensome nature of routine administrative management. These challenges lead to significantly higher levels of emotional labor and a markedly increased incidence of emotional exhaustion among counselors [ 16 , 17 ]. Existing studies [ 18 , 19 ] have confirmed a dual-path relationship between emotional labor and emotional exhaustion, wherein surface acting is positively correlated with exhaustion, while deep acting is negatively correlated, a mechanism grounded in Conservation of Resources (COR) theory [ 20 ]. COR Theory posits that individuals strive to protect and acquire resources and that exhaustion occurs when resource depletion exceeds replenishment. Surface acting contributes to exhaustion by creating emotional dissonance (i.e., a misalignment between internal feelings and external expressions), which leads to ego depletion and impedes resource replenishment from social feedback [ 21 ]. In contrast, deep acting promotes a "resource gain spiral" [ 7 ] through cognitive reappraisal. Although it entails initial resource expenditure, it elicits positive student feedback and strengthens professional identity, thereby replenishing psychological resources and reducing exhaustion [ 9 ]. Despite this foundational evidence, critical gaps in the literature remain. First, most studies [ 18 , 19 , 22 , 23 ] have focused solely on the direct effects of emotional labor, neglecting systematic investigations of resource restoration mechanisms. Second, few studies have rigorously validated the simultaneous operation of dual pathways (surface/deep acting → exhaustion), instead relying on single-path analyses or independent comparisons. Third, research has insufficiently focused on counselors, a population characterized by high emotional labor. Finally, no studies have quantitatively analyzed the differential effects of moderating variables on the two pathways, limiting the academic community’s ability to explore targeted intervention strategies for emotional exhaustion. These gaps are particularly pronounced in the Chinese context. Although Zhao et al. [ 17 ] and Tao et al. [ 19 ] confirmed independent dual-path correlations among counselors, they did not explore the synergistic mechanisms underlying these two pathways. Chinese research on moderators has focused primarily on traditional variables. Fang [ 16 ] found that perceived organizational support buffers the negative effects of surface acting. Li et al. [ 5 ] demonstrated that high emotional intelligence enhances the protective role of deep acting. Psychological detachment, which is a key factor in resource recovery, has been overlooked. Lu [ 24 ] examined its moderating role in nursing interns, but did not focus on counselors or quantify its differential effects on dual emotional labor pathways. Thus, domestic research has yet to address the core issues of dual-path coexistence and the distinct moderating roles of psychological detachment, presenting clear opportunities for localized scholarship. Theoretically, this study is grounded in the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory [ 20 ] and the Boundary Condition Theory of Emotional Labor [ 25 ]. COR Theory emphasizes that exhaustion results from an imbalance between resource depletion and replenishment, indicating that focusing solely on emotional labor (the source of depletion) without considering replenishment mechanisms is insufficient. The Boundary Condition Theory further suggests that the effects of emotional labor are conditionally dependent on moderators such as psychological detachment [ 25 ]. This assertion is preliminarily supported by findings showing that counselors engaging in similar levels of surface acting experience varying degrees of exhaustion [ 18 ]. This nonlinear relationship underscores psychological detachment as a critical variable likely to exert differential moderating effects on the dual pathways of emotional labor. The moderating role of psychological detachment In the digital era, the distinction between professional and personal lives has become increasingly indistinct, making a clear boundary setting a universal imperative [ 26 ]. However, achieving authentic psychological detachment is often difficult. To address this issue, Sonnentag and Bayer [ 27 ] introduced the concept of "psychological detachment," mental disengagement from work; merely leaving the physical workplace does not ensure genuine detachment. Psychological detachment is defined as "a state in which individuals completely disconnect from work-related thoughts, emotions, and behaviors during non-work hours" [ 28 ]. As a fundamental component of recovery experiences, psychological detachment is distinct from "passive rest" (e.g., falling asleep due to exhaustion) [ 29 ], which necessitates the active avoidance of work-related cognitive interference (such as refraining from responding to work messages or ruminating on student conflicts) and the deliberate redirection of attention toward non-work activities (e.g., exercising, reading, or spending time with family). According to the Effort-Recovery Model [ 30 ], psychological detachment primarily disrupts work-induced stress responses and facilitates the restoration of psychological resources. Emotional labor and other job demands trigger physical and psychological stress reactions (e.g., elevated heart rate and cognitive tension). Persistent work-related rumination during non-work hours (e.g., dwelling on student-related issues) sustains these stress responses, thereby impeding resource recovery [ 29 ]. Effective psychological detachment replenishes resources through two mechanisms [ 30 ]: it prevents further resource depletion by eliminating work rumination (e.g., avoiding thoughts of unresolved students after work) and promotes resource regeneration by activating the brain’s default mode network through leisure activities (e.g., exercise and social interaction), which restores psychological energy. Empirical evidence [ 31 , 32 ] confirms that high-quality daily psychological detachment significantly enhances subsequent psychological resource levels. While studies [ 32 , 33 ] have identified psychological detachment as a critical protective factor that moderates the impact of emotional labor on exhaustion, they have treated it as a uniform buffering variable, overlooking potential variations in its moderating effects across different emotional labor pathways. Drawing on an integrated framework combining Conservation of Resources (COR) theory [ 20 ] and the Effort-Recovery Model [ 30 ], the primary moderating mechanism of psychological detachment involves altering the balance between resource depletion and replenishment during emotional labor [ 33 ]. Variations in the strength of this moderating effect arise from the fundamentally different resource dynamics inherent in the two emotional labor strategies. Surface acting is underpinned by a "resource depletion spiral’ [ 19 ]: Prolonged emotional pretense leads to emotional dissonance—a misalignment between internal feelings and external expressions. Each episode of surface acting directly consumes emotional regulation and cognitive resources. This depletion is cumulative and irreversible, and cannot be fully restored by rest alone; psychological detachment mitigates further resource loss [ 34 ]. As a form of "defensive loss prevention" [ 35 ], psychological detachment halts work rumination to prevent additional resource depletion but cannot recover resources already expended. Therefore, its moderating effect serves as a limited buffering mechanism, rather than a restorative mechanism. In contrast, deep acting is centered on a "resource gain spiral" [ 25 ]: cognitive reappraisal aligns individuals’ emotions with their professional roles, and positive outcomes (e.g., favorable student feedback, professional fulfillment) from this process are transformed into new psychological resources, creating a positive "expression–gain–re-expression" cycle. According to the Effort-Recovery Model [ 30 ], psychological detachment provides a critical "processing and consolidation window" for these gains. Non-work psychological relaxation activates the brain’s default mode network, facilitating the internalization and integration of positive experiences and their conversion into enduring psychological capital, thereby enhancing the protective effects of deep acting [ 36 ]. This "productive gain" moderating mechanism produces far more substantial effects than the "defensive loss prevention" associated with surface acting, forming the fundamental theoretical basis for the differential strength of psychological detachment’s moderating roles across the two pathways. Notably, existing research lacks empirical testing of these differential effects, with a focus on university counselor groups. Elucidating the distinct moderating roles of psychological detachment in the surface and deep acting pathways will not only advance the theoretical understanding of the moderating mechanisms of emotional labor, but also provide an empirical foundation for developing targeted interventions to alleviate emotional exhaustion among counselors. Research objectives and hypotheses Using Chinese university counselors as the research sample, this study systematically examined the relationships between emotional labor (surface acting and deep acting), psychological detachment, and emotional exhaustion. The primary objectives were to construct and test a dual-path association model involving these three variables, and to verify the differential moderating effect of psychological detachment. This study aimed to provide both theoretical and practical insights for safeguarding counselors’ emotional well-being. Accordingly, we propose the following hypothesis (see Fig. 1 ): Fig. 1. Open in a new tab Hypothesized dual-path model of counselors’ emotional labor (Surface Acting / Deep Acting) predicting emotional exhaustion and the moderating role of psychological detachment H1 Emotional labor is linked to emotional exhaustion via a dual-path mechanism. Surface acting was significantly and positively associated with emotional exhaustion (H1a), whereas deep acting was significantly and negatively associated with emotional exhaustion (H1b). Furthermore, the primary effects of both the pathways were supported by the model. H2 There are significant differences in the moderating effects of psychological detachment on these two pathways. Specifically, psychological detachment negatively moderated the positive relationship between surface acting and emotional exhaustion (H2a), and positively moderated the negative relationship between deep acting and emotional exhaustion (H2b). Furthermore, the strengths of these moderating effects differed between H2a and H2b. Methods Study design This study employed a cross-sectional survey design, using convenience cluster sampling. Full-time counselors from 18 higher education institutions across six cities (Fuzhou, Nanchang, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Chengdu, and Wuhan) were recruited in May 2025. The inclusion criteria were: (1) formally employed full-time counselors (excluding part-time staff and administrators with concurrent counseling responsibilities) and (2) a minimum of one year of counseling experience to ensure role adaptation and stable work patterns. Data were collected using Wenjuanxing ( https://www.wjx.cn ), an online survey platform that is widely used in Chinese academia. Questionnaires were distributed through custom QR codes, with the assistance of student affairs departments from collaborating institutions. Distributors received standardized training to avoid suggestive language and to clearly explain participants' rights. The ethical standards were rigorously maintained. Participants first reviewed an electronic informed consent form outlining the study’s purpose, duration, risks, significance, data anonymization, and confidentiality protocols, and their right to withdraw at any time without providing a reason. Contact information for researchers was also provided. Only those who voluntarily consented were included; those who did not agree were excluded from the study. The questionnaire was anonymous and did not contain institutional or personal identifiers. IP verification is performed to prevent multiple submissions. Latent moderated structural equation Modeling (LMS) was employed to test the interactions among latent variables. The sample size was determined following Muthén and Muthén [ 37 ]: with 24 observed indicators, a minimum of 240 participants (10 per indicator) was required. To account for 10–20% of invalid responses, 300 questionnaires were distributed. Of the 292 responses collected, 37 were excluded (16 were incomplete and 21 had ≥80% homogeneous responses), resulting in a final valid sample of 271. This sample size met the LMS requirements (≥250 for moderately complex models [ 37 ]) and ensured reliable parameter estimation. Demographic characteristics of participants The demographic characteristics of the valid sample are presented in Table 1 . Table 1. Demographic characteristics of participants ( N = 271) Demographic Variables Form Number ( n ) Percentage (%) Gender Male 114 42.07 Female 157 57.93 Age < 30 years old 123 45.39 30–39 years old 113 41.69 40–49 years old 27 9.96 ≥ 50 years old 8 2.95 Marital status Married 177 65.31 Unmarried 91 33.58 Other 3 1.11 Tenure < 5 years 111 40.96 5–10 years 84 30.99 11–15 years 47 17.34 > 15 years 29 10.70 Professional rank Assistant Lecturer 43 15.87 Lecturer 171 63.10 Associate Professor 52 19.19 Professor 5 1.85 Student caseload① < 200 students 43 15.87 200–300 students 58 21.40 > 300 students 170 62.73 Total 271 100 Open in a new tab Notes: ① The term ‘student caseload’ refers to the number of students for whom counselors bear full administrative responsibility, excluding those students who they instruct in courses Survey tools General information questionnaire A self-designed Basic Information Questionnaire was used to collect counselors’ demographic data, including gender, age, professional rank, tenure, marital status, and student caseload. These variables were included as control factors to mitigate confounding effects, as prior research indicates that they independently influence emotional labor, psychological detachment, and emotional exhaustion [ 5 , 15 , 18 , 19 ]. Key justifications: Gender influences emotion regulation strategies, with females tending to favor empathy-linked deep acting and males more likely to use cognitive detachment-linked surface acting [ 5 , 38 ]. Age correlates with psychological resources and stress coping abilities, with younger counselors being more vulnerable to exhaustion [ 15 , 39 , 40 ]. Professional rank is associated with occupational autonomy and social support; those in senior positions have greater resources to buffer the depletion caused by emotional labor [ 3 , 16 , 41 ]. Tenure shapes the maturity of emotional labor strategies, with early-career counselors relying more on surface acting and senior counselors exhibiting more stable deep acting [ 10 , 17 , 19 ]. Marital status affects the quality of non-work social support, which in turn impacts psychological detachment and resource recovery [ 42 , 43 , 44 ]. The student caseload, a core workload indicator [ 1 , 4 ], directly determines the intensity of emotional labor. In this study, 62.73% of counselors were responsible for more than 300 students, exceeding the recommended ratio of 1:200 [ 2 ]—resulting in work overload, more frequent emotional regulation demands, increased surface acting, blurred work-life boundaries, and exacerbated exhaustion [ 13 ]. Notably, this study controlled only for the independent confounding effect of the student caseload. The interaction between caseload overload and emotional labor will be explored in future research. Emotional labor scale This study used the Chinese version of the Emotional Labor Scale revised by Bai [ 45 ] from the original instrument developed by Diefendorff et al. [ 8 ]. Two dimensions of the scale were employed to assess counselors’ emotional labor: surface acting (7 items) and deep acting (4 items). Responses were recorded on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 ("strongly disagree") to 5 ("strongly agree"). Each dimension was scored independently, with higher scores indicating higher levels of emotional labor. This version has been widely adopted by researchers [ 10 , 12 ] and has demonstrated strong reliability and validity. For the present sample, reliability and validity analyses yielded the following results: overall Cronbach’s α = 0.899, with 0.872 for surface acting and 0.885 for deep acting; composite reliability (CR) values of 0.894 and 0.902 for surface acting and deep acting, respectively (both exceeding 0.8); and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated good structural validity (χ²/df = 2.32, RMSEA = 0.061, CFI = 0.953, TLI = 0.946). All psychometric indicators met the established standards, supporting the scale’s efficacy in capturing counselors’ emotional labor characteristics and justifying its use in this study. Emotional exhaustion scale To evaluate counselors’ levels of emotional exhaustion, this study utilized the Emotional Exhaustion Subscale (comprising nine items) from the Chinese version of the Burnout Inventory, which was developed by Li and Shi [ 46 ] based on the three-dimensional theoretical model of burnout [ 47 ]. The subscale employs a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 ("never") to 7 ("every day"), with higher scores reflecting greater emotional exhaustion. This instrument has been extensively applied in prior research [ 17 , 18 ] and has demonstrated robust reliability and validity. In the present sample, the subscale exhibited excellent internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.871; composite reliability = 0.893), and CFA supported its structural validity (χ²/df = 2.457; RMSEA = 0.061; CFI = 0.933; TLI = 0.913). The three-dimensional theoretical model of burnout provides a comprehensive framework for understanding burnout, and the subscale derived from this model effectively measures counselors’ emotional exhaustion, thereby serving as a valuable tool for examining occupational health concerns in this population. Psychological detachment scale This study assessed counselors’ psychological detachment using the Psychological Detachment Subscale of the Recovery Experience Scale, originally developed by Sonnentag and Fritz [ 28 ]. The subscale comprises four items reflecting a unidimensional construct centered on the essential aspect of "disconnecting from work during non-work hours" (e.g., "After work, I do not think about work-related matters"). This measure corresponds well with counselors’ professional characteristics regarding work-life boundaries and exhibits strong cultural adaptability [ 24 , 48 ]. Responses were recorded on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 ("strongly disagree") to 5 ("strongly agree"), with higher scores indicating greater psychological detachment during non-work periods. In the present sample, reliability and validity analyses yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.862 and CR of 0.885. CFA demonstrated satisfactory structural validity, as evidenced by χ²/df = 2.137, RMSEA = 0.056, CFI = 0.968, and TLI = 0.952. These results confirm that the scale is a reliable and valid instrument for measuring counselors’ psychological detachment, and is appropriate for use in this study. Statistical analysis The data analysis for this study was conducted using IBM SPSS 23.0 statistical software and its affiliated AMOS 23.0, with the core implementation of estimating the latent moderated structural equation model (SEM) through the Latent Moderated Structural Equations (LMS) approach. All statistical tests were two-tailed with a significance threshold of α = 0.05. Prior to the formal analysis, the data quality was rigorously evaluated. Normality was assessed using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov (K–S) test, and common method bias was examined through Harman’s single-factor test and confirmatory factor analysis. Descriptive statistics (mean ± standard deviation) were calculated for all key variables. One-sample Z-tests were conducted against the theoretical midpoint to assess variable levels. Partial correlation analyses, controlling for demographic covariates, were performed to examine the net associations between emotional labor, psychological detachment, and emotional exhaustion. For moderation testing, the independent and moderating variables were mean centered to reduce multicollinearity. Item parcels were created to stabilize the model estimation: two for surface acting (seven items), two for deep acting (four items), and three for emotional exhaustion (nine items). A latent moderated structural equation model (SEM) was constructed using AMOS 23.0, with the Latent Moderated Structural Equations (LMS) approach employed to handle latent variable interaction effects. Psychological detachment was specified as the moderator, surface acting and deep acting as exogenous variables, emotional exhaustion as the endogenous variable, and the six demographic variables as control variables. Model fit was evaluated using χ²/df, RMSEA, CFI, and TLI with the following criteria for acceptable fit: χ²/df < 3, RMSEA < 0.08, CFI > 0.90, and TLI > 0.90. The moderating effects were determined based on the standardized path coefficients estimated using the LMS approach, 95% confidence intervals from 5,000 bootstrap samples, and simple slope tests at ±1 standard deviation of the moderator. The Wald test was used to compare the magnitudes of two interaction effects. Results Data quality assessment Test of normality This study employed the K-S test to evaluate the distributional properties of the primary variables, including emotional labor and its two dimensions: psychological detachment and emotional exhaustion. The findings indicated that the absolute values of kurtosis (ranging from 0.385 to 0.892) and skewness (ranging from 0.042 to 0.917) for all variables conformed to the normality thresholds established by Drezner et al. [ 49 ] (kurtosis < 10, skewness < 3). Consequently, the data were approximately normally distributed, justifying the use of subsequent parametric statistical analysis. Assessment of common method bias A three-stage approach was employed to assess the risk of common method bias in self-reported data. First, Harman's single-factor test indicated that the variance explained by the largest common factor was 31.58%, which is below the 40% threshold. Second, the CFA demonstrated that the five-factor baseline model (χ²/df = 2.345, CFI = 0.929, RMSEA = 0.057) was significantly superior to the single-factor model, as evidenced by a ΔCFI of 0.122, which exceeded the 0.10 criterion. Third, the inclusion of a method factor did not result in a significant improvement in model fit (ΔCFI = 0.008, below the 0.01 threshold). Taken together, these findings indicate that common method bias is unlikely to substantially influence study results. Descriptive statistics of key variables Descriptive analysis of principal variables Counselors reported high overall emotional labor, with surface acting (M = 3.42, SD = 0.81) and deep acting (M = 3.79, SD = 0.73) significantly exceeding the theoretical midpoint of 3 (one-sample z-tests: z = 14.826, p < 0.001 and z = 21.357, p < 0.001, respectively). A paired t-test confirmed that deep acting scores were significantly higher than surface acting scores (t = 2.513, p = 0.012), indicating that deep acting was the predominant strategy. Emotional exhaustion (M = 3.92, SD = 1.21) did not differ significantly from the theoretical midpoint of 4 (one-sample z-test: z = 1.683, p = 0.093). With 50.4% of participants scoring above the median, overall emotional exhaustion was moderate, showing no strong tendency toward high or low levels. Psychological detachment (M = 3.37, SD = 0.69) was significantly higher than the theoretical midpoint of 3 (one-sample z-test: z = 15.274, p < 0.001). Additionally, 63.8% of participants scored above the median, indicating that counselors generally exhibit high psychological detachment and a strong capacity for resource recovery during non-work hours. Partial correlation and multicollinearity analysis Partial correlation analysis (see Table 2 ) revealed that surface acting was significantly positively correlated with emotional exhaustion (r = 0.392, p < 0.01), whereas deep acting was significantly negatively correlated with emotional exhaustion (r = -0.435, p < 0.01). These findings initially support the dual-path hypothesis and provide a foundation for subsequent validation of the dual-path model. Table 2. Partial correlation matrix and assessment of multicollinearity among key variables ( N = 271) Variable M±SD 2 3 4 Multicollinearity analysis VIF value Tolerance 1. Deep acting 3.79±0.73 -0.318** -0.435** 0.147** 1.352 0.739 2. Surface acting 3.42±0.81 0.392** -0.128** 1.276 0.784 3. Emotional exhaustion 3.92±1.21 -0.523** 2.358 0.424 4. Psychological detachment 3.37±0.69 1.683 0.594 Open in a new tab Note: ** p <0.01 Multicollinearity was assessed using two criteria: the correlation coefficient and Variance Inflation Factor (VIF)/tolerance ( Table 2 ). The absolute values of all key variable correlation coefficients were below 0.80, indicating no severe multicollinearity. VIF values ranged from 1.276 to 2.358, well below the threshold of 10, and tolerance values ranged from 0.424 to 0.784, exceeding the 0.10 threshold [ 50 ]. These results confirm the absence of significant multicollinearity, thereby satisfying the assumptions for the subsequent regression analyses. Examination of moderating effects The integrated structural equation model (SEM) estimated using the Latent Moderated Structural Equations (LMS) approach exhibited a good fit (χ²/df = 2.513, RMSEA = 0.062, CFI = 0.918, TLI = 0.905). All indicators met psychometric standards, indicating that the integrated model with “dual paths + dual interaction terms” had a favorable data fit. The results in Table 3 indicate that none of the control variables had a significant effect on emotional exhaustion ( p > 0.05). At the main effect level, surface acting was found to significantly and positively predict emotional exhaustion (β = 0.308, p < 0.001), whereas deep acting significantly and negatively predicted emotional exhaustion (β = -0.347, p < 0.001). Additionally, psychological detachment was significantly and negatively associated with emotional exhaustion (β = -0.516, p < 0.001). Regarding moderation effects, the interaction between surface acting and psychological detachment was significantly negative (β = -0.142, p < 0.001), while the interaction between deep acting and psychological detachment was significantly positive (β = 0.167, p < 0.001). These findings support Hypotheses H1a, H1b, H2a, and H2b. This structural equation model (SEM) explained 56.8% of the variance in emotional exhaustion, demonstrating its substantial explanatory power [ 51 ]. Table 3. Parameter estimates of main effects and moderating effects in the integrated Structural Equation Model (SEM) based on the Latent Moderated Structural equations (LMS) approach Path relationship β 95% CI t p Control variables → Emotional Exhaustion - - - >0.05 Surface acting → Emotional Exhaustion (Main Effect) 0.308 [0.255, 0.361] 10.627 *** < 0.001 Deep acting → Emotional Exhaustion (Main Effect) -0.347 [-0.402, -0.292] -10.983 *** < 0.001 Psychological Detachment → Emotional Exhaustion -0.516 [-0.573, -0.459] -16.832 *** < 0.001 Surface acting × Psychological Detachment (Interaction Term) -0.142 [-0.198, -0.086] -4.753 *** < 0.001 Deep acting × Psychological Detachment (Interaction Term) 0.167 [0.104, 0.230] 5.219 *** < 0.001 Model R² 0.568 - - - Open in a new tab Notes: The dependent variable was emotional exhaustion; *** p < 0.001 The results of the simple slope analysis (Figs. 2 and 3 ) further corroborate the following: Fig. 2. Open in a new tab Moderating effect of psychological detachment on the relationship between surface acting and emotional exhaustion Fig. 3. Open in a new tab Moderating effect of psychological detachment on the relationship between deep acting and emotional exhaustion For the surface acting pathway, the path coefficient was β = 0.457 (95% CI [0.315, 0.599], p < 0.001) at a low level of psychological detachment (M − 1 SD) and β = 0.168 ( 95% CI [0.023, 0.313], p = 0.024) at a high level (M + 1 SD). Using the absolute value of the path coefficient at low psychological detachment as the reference point, the attenuation magnitude of the moderating effect for this pathway was calculated as (|baseline coefficient| - |coefficient at high psychological detachment|) / |baseline coefficient| × 100%. Specifically, the magnitude of attenuation was ( 0.457–0.168) / 0.457 × 100% ≈ 63.2%. For the deep acting pathway, the path coefficient was β = -0.179 (95% CI [-0.267, -0.091], p < 0.001) at a low level of psychological detachment (M − 1 SD) and β = -0.516 (95% CI [-0.620, -0.412], p < 0.001) at a high level (M + 1 SD). Applying the same calculation method, the magnitude of enhancement of the moderating effect for this pathway was approximately 188.3%, calculated as (0.516–0.179) / 0.179 × 100%. Furthermore, the Wald test indicated a significant difference in the absolute values of the two interaction term coefficients (χ² = 18.36, df = 1, p < 0.001), confirming that the moderating effect of psychological detachment on the deep acting pathway was stronger than on the surface acting pathway. This finding supports hypothesis H2. Discussion Characteristics of counselors’ emotional labor, psychological detachment, and emotional exhaustion Consistent with Wen et al. [ 10 ], counselors in this study reported a high overall level of emotional labor, with deep acting being more prevalent than surface acting. This pattern reflects counselors’ core responsibilities in ideological education, psychological support, and crisis intervention [ 3 ], which require genuine empathy and value alignment (deep acting) rather than superficial emotional regulation (surface acting) [ 5 ]. For example, supporting students facing academic challenges necessitates an authentic understanding of their distress rather than perfunctory patience, which explains why deep acting is predominant in this profession. Counselors’ emotional exhaustion was moderate, consistent with the findings of Zhao et al. [ 17 ] but differed from the higher levels reported by Ma [ 40 ]. This moderate level likely reflects recent improvements in institutional support, such as standardized supervision and flexible arrangements, which have helped mitigate resource depletion [ 39 ]. However, sustained vigilance is required. First, moderate exhaustion may indicate chronic, low-intensity but high-frequency stress resulting from around-the-clock student support and dual administrative-teaching roles, which can gradually accumulate into latent fatigue [ 19 , 52 ]. Second, 50.4% of the participants scored above the midpoint, revealing substantial heterogeneity and suggesting that a considerable subgroup is vulnerable to severe burnout without timely intervention. Counselors also reported relatively high levels of psychological detachment. From a recovery perspective, this indicates effective disengagement from work during non-work hours (e.g., limiting non-urgent responses and reducing rumination), which promotes resource replenishment and alleviates exhaustion [ 20 , 29 ]. High detachment may also reflect stronger professional boundaries and institutional policies that restrict after-hours duties [ 39 ], as well as the relatively young age of most participants (87.08% under 40), who often engage in active recovery strategies such as exercise and leisure activities. These findings are consistent with those of Sonnentag and Fritz [ 29 ] who demonstrated that active detachment facilitates effective resource restoration. Dual-path model of emotional labor and its association with emotional exhaustion Although prior research has acknowledged the two-dimensional structure of emotional labor, most studies have examined surface acting and deep acting separately rather than systematically testing a dual-path coexistence model. This study addresses this gap by demonstrating that emotional exhaustion is jointly influenced by both pathways rather than being driven by a single strategy. In accordance with Wen et al. [ 10 ] and Chen et al. [ 11 ], surface acting is positively associated with emotional exhaustion. Consistent with the resource depletion spiral described in the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory [ 20 ], prolonged emotional pretense generates persistent affective dissonance between required emotional displays and genuine feelings. This dissonance depletes cognitive and emotional resources, undermines self-consistency and professional identity, and diminishes social support, thereby creating a vicious cycle that exacerbates exhaustion [ 53 , 54 ]. Deep acting negatively predicted exhaustion, supporting the findings of Chen et al. [ 11 ] and Tao et al. [ 19 ]. This protective effect reflects the resource gain spiral described in Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory [ 7 , 20 ]. Through cognitive reappraisal and authentic emotional engagement, counselors strengthen their rapport with students. Positive student feedback enhances the infusion of external resources, whereas professional accomplishments foster the regeneration of internal resources. This reciprocal positive cycle buffers against exhaustion, establishing deep acting as a key protective factor [ 55 , 56 , 57 ]. Notably, after controlling for demographic variables such as gender, age, and professional rank within the model, the main effects of the dual pathways remained statistically significant, with effect sizes of comparable magnitude (|β| ≈ 0.33). This finding further substantiates a fundamental consensus in the field of emotional labor research, as the impact of emotional labor on occupational health primarily depends on the type of strategy employed rather than on the intensity of emotional labor alone [ 13 ]. The established pattern—that surface acting is detrimental while deep acting is protective—not only broadly applies to professionals [ 53 ] but also confirms its validity among counselors, a distinctive group characterized by high emotional investment and advanced educational qualifications. This evidence supports the cross-occupational generalizability of emotional labor theory and suggests that the type of strategy determining the direction of impact constitutes the core mechanism underlying the relationship between emotional labor and exhaustion, rather than being an incidental phenomenon confined to specific occupations. Distinct moderating roles of psychological detachment A key finding is the bidirectional moderating role of psychological detachment: it negatively moderates the relationship between surface acting and emotional exhaustion, and positively moderates the relationship between deep acting and emotional exhaustion. This finding aligns with the resource management principles of Conservation of Resources (COR) theory [ 20 ] and supports the proposition that psychological detachment functions as a dynamic resource regulator for counselors [ 33 ]. Regarding the surface acting pathway, the negative interaction effect indicated that psychological detachment significantly weakened the positive relationship between surface acting and exhaustion. Simple slope analysis revealed that this association was reduced by 63.2% in groups with high versus low psychological detachment. According to Conservation of Resources (COR) theory [ 20 ], surface acting involves continuous resource depletion due to sustained emotional pretenses. Psychological detachment offers a resource recovery period by disconnecting from work during non-work hours [ 34 ], facilitating resource restoration through leisure activities, and interrupting the exhaustion-inducing cycle of resource depletion. Conversely, low psychological detachment perpetuates work-related rumination, impedes resource replenishment, and exacerbates the negative effects of surface acting. This finding refines previous perspectives by demonstrating that psychological detachment functions as a targeted buffer against resource depletion [ 58 ], which is particularly beneficial for counselors who must engage in mandatory emotional pretense (e.g., student discipline and administrative inspections) [ 59 ]. For the deep acting pathway, a positive interaction effect indicated that psychological detachment amplified the negative relationship between deep acting and exhaustion. Simple slope analyses revealed that this association was 188.3% stronger in groups with high psychological detachment than in those with low psychological detachment. Deep acting generates positive resources (e.g., professional achievement and student feedback) that require processing and consolidation to endure psychological capital [ 60 ]. Psychological detachment facilitates the reflection and internalization of these positive experiences during non-work hours, thereby reinforcing the resource-gain spiral [ 28 ]. Conversely, low psychological detachment disrupts this process through work-related distractions, diminishing the resource benefits of deep acting and its capacity to alleviate exhaustion [ 33 ]. Notably, the moderating effect was path-specific; the amplifying effect on the deep acting pathway (188.3%) far exceeded the weakening effect on the surface acting pathway (63.2%). This disparity arises from the different resource dynamics. Surface acting involves a resource depletion spiral [ 13 ], where psychological detachment exerts a “loss control” effect by cutting depletion sources without reversing prior losses [ 61 ]. By contrast, deep acting involves a resource gain spiral [ 28 ], where psychological detachment provides a “consolidation window” for positive experiences, promoting resource accumulation, and enhancing protection. This distinction between “loss control” and “gain enhancement” explains the gap in moderating effects and offers quantitative support for strategy-specific moderation. The bidirectional moderating effect is contextualized within China’s institutional and cultural settings and is supported by three mechanisms: (1) family and colleague support facilitates disengagement from work-related rumination [ 28 , 62 , 63 ]; (2) counselor professionalization, characterized by clear work boundaries, flexible schedules, and supervision, provides institutional guarantees for psychological detachment [ 64 , 65 ]; and (3) the “fostering virtue through education” orientation enhances positive feedback from students and institutions, while collectivist values promote the transformation of positive experiences into enduring resources [ 66 , 67 , 68 ]. These localized mechanisms confirm the contextual adaptability of the dual-path model and contribute to a Chinese sample to the study of emotional labor in non-Western contexts. Study summary Research conclusions Based on the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory [ 20 ], this cross-sectional study of Chinese university counselors examined the relationships among surface acting, deep acting, psychological detachment, and emotional exhaustion, with a focus on the moderating role of psychological detachment. It is important to note that the conclusions were drawn from cross-sectional correlational data; therefore, causal inferences require validation in future longitudinal studies. The key findings are as follows: Counselors reported experiencing high emotional labor, demonstrating a strong preference for deep acting over surface acting, along with relatively high psychological detachment and moderate emotional exhaustion. Emotional labor strategies were bidirectionally associated with emotional exhaustion; surface acting was positively correlated with emotional exhaustion, whereas deep acting was negatively correlated with it, with comparable absolute main-effect sizes. Psychological detachment exerted a path-specific moderating effect: its amplifying effect on the deep acting–exhaustion link (188.3%) was substantially greater than its mitigating effect on the surface acting–exhaustion link (63.2%).Notably, the percentage effect sizes were provided solely for intuitive comparison of the magnitude of moderation. The true strength of the association should be comprehensively interpreted in conjunction with the raw slope data estimated using the LMS approach at different levels of psychological detachment (see Figs. 2 and 3 ) to avoid bias resulting from overreliance on ratio scores. Theoretical Contributions This study provides empirical evidence in the field of occupational health psychology by elucidating the distinct moderating role of psychological detachment in the relationship between emotional labor and emotional exhaustion. The specific contributions of this study are threefold. This study substantiated the applicability of COR Theory [ 20 ] within the counselor population. Empirical findings revealed that the enhancing effect of psychological detachment on the deep acting pathway (β interaction = 0.167, simple slope increase = 188.3%) was markedly stronger than its attenuating effect on the surface acting pathway (β interaction = -0.142, simple slope decrease = 63.2%). This differential moderating effect suggests that psychological detachment not only serves as a defensive buffer for the surface acting pathway by "interrupting resource loss" [ 58 ] but also provided constructive support for the deep acting pathway by "accelerating resource gain" [ 55 ]. These results offer robust empirical evidence supporting the application of COR theory in professions characterized by high emotional labor. This study contributes to the literature on the boundary conditions of emotional labor [ 25 ] by addressing a gap in prior research that has predominantly examined the uniform effects of moderating variables [ 10 , 18 , 53 ]. Drawing on the dual-path model of emotional labor, this study revealed a significant strategy-specific moderating effect of psychological detachment; its enhancing influence on deep acting was more pronounced than its buffering effect on surface acting. This heterogeneous pattern underscores the critical importance of differentiating emotional labor strategies in occupational health research, and offers a novel empirical perspective for understanding the boundary conditions governing the relationship between emotional labor and burnout. This study provides empirical insights into counselors’ occupational health in an indigenous context. Focusing on Chinese university counselors as a distinct population, this study integrated their unique professional roles with indigenous institutional and cultural backgrounds to examine the validity of the "dual paths of emotional labor → emotional exhaustion" model and the moderating role of psychological detachment. Addressing the existing gap concerning the limited attention to "resource recovery variables" in indigenous research, this study offers a replicable empirical framework for future investigations. Moreover, it contributes valuable "Chinese samples" and empirical evidence supporting the application of the COR theory [ 20 ] and the boundary condition theory of emotional labor [ 25 ] in non-Western cultural settings. Importantly, this research mitigated the prevalent issue of cultural decoupling in theoretical transplantation [ 69 ], thereby enhancing both the explanatory power and practical relevance of these theories within local contexts. Practical implications Based on the finding that counselors experience high emotional labor, increased psychological detachment, and moderate emotional exhaustion (with latent risks), practical interventions are proposed across three domains to safeguard occupational health: university administration, psychological detachment strategies, and local resource integration. At the university management level, priority should be given to guiding the transformation of emotional labor strategies. Given the inherently high emotional investment required for counseling [ 1 ], reducing the intensity of emotional labor is impractical. Instead, universities should implement systematic training programs (e.g., situational simulations) to help counselors transition from surface acting to deep acting [ 70 ]. Additionally, they should establish repositories of positive student feedback accompanied by regular learning sessions to enhance counselors’ recognition of the value of deep acting [ 71 ], thereby mitigating the risk of resource depletion and exhaustion. Therefore, targeted safeguarding mechanisms against psychological detachment are essential. Universities should first implement a strict work-life boundary system that restricts non-work hours to emergency matters only and prohibits non-essential work communication [ 39 ]. This should be complemented by an "on-call plus flexible rest" mechanism to ensure complete psychological disengagement [ 65 ]. Second, tiered detachment activities should be designed according to demographic groups: outdoor team building for individuals under 30 years, family oriented activities for those aged 30–39 years, and mindfulness training or subsidies for those over 40 years. These measures minimize work interference, address group-specific needs, and enhance the buffering effect of psychological detachment. For effective local resource integration, universities should leverage family and colleague support systems through collective leisure and mutual-aid activities [ 43 ], facilitating quicker disengagement from work-related stress. Additionally, refining counselors’ core responsibilities [ 16 ] and eliminating non-essential administrative tasks will prevent work from encroaching on detachment time. This approach reinforces the amplifying effect of psychological detachment on deep acting, fostering a cycle of "high detachment, high deep acting, and low exhaustion. Notably, these interventions rely on cross-sectional data, which limits causal inference because reverse causation and unmeasured confounders cannot be ruled out. Therefore, universities should conduct follow-up validation prior to large-scale implementation. This validation should include longitudinal tracking with three to four waves of data to test causality using cross-lagged models, as well as small-scale randomized controlled trials to verify intervention efficacy, ensuring both cost-effectiveness and reliable outcomes. Research limitations Despite systematically elucidating the core mechanisms, this study has limitations stemming from the methodological and design constraints that future research should address. First, the representativeness of the sample and its ecological validity are limited. Sampling was restricted to six cities in the eastern and southern regions, excluding central, western, and underdeveloped areas. Additionally, no distinctions were made between institution types (e.g., vocational or private universities), and the gender distribution was imbalanced (57.93% female), which limits the generalizability of male counselors’ emotion regulation patterns. Furthermore, the moderating role of student caseload overload and its interaction with psychological detachment was not examined. Future research should expand the sample to include diverse regions and institution types, achieve gender balance, increase the sample size, and incorporate student caseload overload into analytical models. Second, the cross-sectional design limits causal inference and the ability to capture long-term dynamics, identifying only correlations among the variables. Future research should employ a longitudinal design with three to four waves of panel data, and use cross-lagged models to test causality. Additionally, exploring the applicability of the dual-path model across career stages enhances the robustness of the findings. Third, there are measurement and methodological limitations. Emotional labor and psychological detachment scales, which are based on Western frameworks, may not fully capture local contextual characteristics such as emotion regulation related to ideological and political education. Additionally, when the integrated structural equation model (SEM) incorporating dual interaction terms is estimated via the latent moderated structural equation (LMS) approach, the sample size of 271 is relatively limited, which may compromise the stability of parameter estimation. Future research should refine these scales by incorporating locally relevant items, increasing the sample size to over 350 participants, and conducting cross-cultural comparisons to delineate the cultural boundaries of the model better. Finally, method variance and data collection limitations remain. All variables were measured using self-reported questionnaires, which complicate the control of common method variance and identification of temporal interactions. Future research should employ experience-sampling methods (e.g., twice-daily measurements) to capture real-time dynamic changes, and incorporate multi-source data (e.g., assessments from students or colleagues) to reduce method variance and differentiate between immediate and delayed effects. Acknowledgements We would like to thank our participants who devoted their time to support this research. Clinical trial number Not applicable. AI use statement The authors utilized two specific artificial intelligence tools during the preparation of this manuscript. The Chinese content was translated into English using Doubao (version 10.5.0), an AI tool developed by ByteDance (https://www.doubao.com/chat/). Subsequently, the English text was proofread using the "Proofreader" mode of Wordvice.AI (https://wordvice.ai/proofreading/). The authors explicitly affirmed that no other AI tools were employed at any stage of manuscript preparation, including but not limited to the study design, data collection, data analysis, literature review, and drafting of content beyond the two aforementioned tools. All core research design, data analysis, and academic writing were completed independently by the authors. Authors’ contributions Gaoyun Zhang: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, and writing of the original draft. Kunjin Xu: Investigation, Writing - review & editing, Software. Tianlin Chen: Investigation, Software. Funding Not applicable. Data availability The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. https://orcid.org/0009-0004-1950-7909. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Participant recruitment adhered to the principles of voluntary participation and informed consent, with no procedures involving physical or psychological harm or potential risks. In accordance with Article 32 of the Interpretation of the Measures for Ethical Review of Human-Related Life Science and Medical Research in China, which states that scientific and medical research utilizing human information data or biological samples that do not cause harm to the human body and do not involve sensitive personal information or commercial interests may be exempted from ethical review to reduce unnecessary burdens on researchers, this study qualifies for exemption. Specifically, it posed no risks of physical or psychological harm, nor did it involve sensitive personal information or commercial interests. Consequently, the Ethics Committee of the Fuzhou Polytechnic formally granted exemptions from the ethical review process. Consent to Publish Not applicable. 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