Toward practical atmospheric water harvesting technologies.

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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Sci Adv . 2026 Jun 3;12(23):eaef4164. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aef4164 Toward practical atmospheric water harvesting technologies Weixin Guan 1, † , Fangfang Deng 2, 3, † , Chuxin Lei 1, † , Zhihui Chen 2, 3, † , Ruzhu Wang 2, 3, * , Guihua Yu 1, * Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Materials Science and Engineering Program and Walker Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA. 2 Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China. 3 Engineering Research Centre of Solar Power and Refrigeration, MOE China, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China. * Corresponding author. Email: rzwang@sjtu.edu.cn (R.W.); * Corresponding author. Email: ghyu@austin.utexas.edu (G.Y.) † These authors contributed equally to this work. Roles Weixin Guan : Conceptualization, Visualization, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing Fangfang Deng : Conceptualization, Investigation, Visualization, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing Chuxin Lei : Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing - original draft Zhihui Chen : Conceptualization, Visualization, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing Ruzhu Wang : Conceptualization, Data curation, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing Guihua Yu : Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing Received 2026 Jan 12; Accepted 2026 Apr 24; Collection date 2026 Jun 5. Copyright © 2026 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works. Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial License 4.0 (CC BY-NC). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial license , which permits use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, so long as the resultant use is not for commercial advantage and provided the original work is properly cited. PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC13232559  PMID: 42234751 Abstract Atmospheric water harvesting (AWH) offers a promising solution to the escalating global water crises. Among its variants, sorption-based AWH (SAWH) is particularly notable for its adaptability across a range of climates. In this Review, we delve into the complexities of sorbent materials, discussing foundational sorption dynamics, advances in material design, and the strategies for scale-up processing. The analysis extends to system engineering, particularly the optimization of thermal and mass-transfer processes essential for effective operation across different scenarios. By synthesizing insights from materials, systems, and climate, we tackle the challenges of energy management, operational strategies, and multifunctional applications. We outline a strategic roadmap for the practical implementation of SAWH technologies, underscoring their potential to significantly enhance sustainable water solutions globally. A roadmap for turning sorption-based atmospheric water harvesting into scalable, energy-smart systems across real climates. INTRODUCTION Water is central to sustainability, underpinning both ecosystem function and socioeconomic development ( 1 , 2 ). Yet water scarcity threatens global stability. The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 6 seeks universal access to water and sanitation by 2030 ( 3 – 5 ), even as projections warn that freshwater demand could exceed supply by ~40% by that date ( 6 ). The burden is most acute where safely managed drinking water (SMDW) is lacking, underscoring the need for innovative, sustainable sources ( 7 – 10 ). Earth’s atmosphere, an accessible reservoir containing an estimated 12,900 trillion liters of water ( 11 ), offers one such source. Early atmospheric water harvesting (AWH) approaches relied on dewing and fog collection. Dewing condenses moisture by cooling a surface below the dew point, but large temperature–dew point gaps limit effectiveness in arid climates. Fog harvesting, which captures droplets on mesh nets, works in fog-prone coastal or mountainous areas but depends on specific meteorological conditions, including high wind speeds and frequent fog ( 12 – 14 ). By contrast, sorption-based AWH (SAWH) functions across broader climates with fewer meteorological constraints ( 15 – 17 ). Using advanced sorbents such as metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), hydrogels, and salt-based composites, SAWH can capture water over a wide range of relative humidity (RH) values ( 18 – 22 ), making it promising for regions with limited SMDW and lower RH, including large parts of sub-Saharan Africa, Central and South Asia, and portions of Latin America. SAWH proceeds through sorption, desorption, and condensation within a confined chamber for optimal operation ( Fig. 1A ). Sorbents first capture atmospheric moisture, typically with heat release, and then release it either by heating ( 23 ) or via a direct phase transition to liquid water ( 24 ), followed by condensation. The psychrometric trajectory governs these steps: In SAWH, the achieved dew point exceeds ambient temperature, enabling condensation via ambient cooling and improving energy use relative to conventional dewing. In practice, SAWH takes advantage of the diurnal cycle, with higher ambient RH often available at night for rapid uptake and higher incident irradiance available by day for desorption. The synergy between sorbent thermodynamics and moist-air psychrometrics thus underpins SAWH’s efficiency, allowing operation over a broad envelope of temperature, humidity, and available heat flux. Fig. 1. Psychrometric and system overview of SAWH. Open in a new tab ( A ) Psychrometric comparison of dewing and SAWH highlights the higher dew point in the SAWH cycle. During water release, air becomes warm and moisture-laden (step 2), then moves naturally to the condenser, is cooled, and condenses (step 3). The condensation temperature exceeds ambient during sorption (step 1). Right: Three SAWH stages and the role of comprehensive system design. ( B ) Cross-scale view from molecular functional units to system-level optimization. Responding to the water crisis, this perspective connects SAWH fundamentals with application ( Fig. 1B ). We discuss materials and device design, highlight bottlenecks, and propose strategies to enhance intrinsic sorbent performance while enabling scalable production and practical integration. Building on advances in materials and thermal engineering ( 25 ), we then examine device-level modifications to intensify mass and heat transfer. Our goal is to accelerate real-world SAWH deployment and deliver tangible benefits to water-scarce regions. MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT Mechanisms underlying sorbent functionality In SAWH, net sorption is driven by the difference in the chemical potential (or activity) of water between the surrounding moist air and the water in the sorbent ( Fig. 2 ). For the gas phase, the water chemical potential is set by the vapor partial pressure, whereas, for the sorbent, it is set by the equilibrium vapor pressure over the sorbent at its temperature and loading. When the air-side water activity exceeds the sorbent-side equilibrium activity, adsorption proceeds until equilibrium is reached. Because RH is referenced to the saturation vapor pressure at the local temperature [RH = p w / p sat ( T )], temperature differences between the sorbent and the bulk air can create a local interfacial RH that differs from the ambient value. Here, “surface RH” refers to this interfacial RH of the air immediately adjacent to the sorbent surface (or pore entrances), evaluated at the sorbent surface temperature; localized cooling can therefore increase surface RH and enhance the adsorption driving force ( 26 , 27 ). At the molecular level, water uptake reflects sorbent structure and intermolecular interactions: van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding, and, most strongly, chemisorption. Because both water and many sorbents are polar, uptake often involves hybrid surface adsorption and bulk absorption, shaping water-vapor isotherms. Fig. 2. Sorption and desorption mechanisms in sorbent materials. Open in a new tab Schematic of sorption and desorption from macro- to microscale. Right: Material-level strategies for mass- and heat-transfer optimization. Bottom: Water evolution in sorbents. In microporous MOFs (e.g., MOF-303), water first binds at polar sites, then clusters, and fills pores, producing a steep isotherm step characteristic of micropore filling ( 28 ). The position and sharpness of this step are sensitive to the identity of the hydrophilic sites and the pore environment, offering a precise handle to match the step to target RH bands. Larger pores (>20 Å) often show type IV isotherms with capillary condensation and hysteresis; this can trap water and reduce reversible working capacity, requiring higher temperature or longer regeneration to fully release water, and is therefore generally less desirable for SAWH ( 29 ). For hygroscopic salts, the pathway proceeds from anhydrous salt to hydrates and then solution; deliquescence causes an abrupt uptake increase followed by near-linear absorption, with kinetics governed by ion diffusion and solution viscosity. In hydrogels, water initially adsorbs onto functional groups and within voids; with increasing activity, water plasticizes the network, enabling bulk absorption and swelling ( 30 , 31 ). Their sigmoidal isotherms resemble type IV profiles but arise from multilayer adsorption coupled with polymer chain stretching. Hence, polymer flexibility and segmental mobility are pivotal yet underexplored levers for boosting swellability and capacity, especially under fluctuating temperatures. These distinct uptake pathways—micropore filling in MOFs, ion hydration/deliquescence in salts, and adsorption-coupled swelling in hydrogels—naturally produce step-like, multistep, or sigmoidal isotherms, thereby influencing whether multicycle or reservoir-style operation is more favorable, as discussed in the “Operation mode selection” section. Desorption is driven macroscopically by heating, which raises the equilibrium vapor pressure (water activity) of the sorbent and establishes a vapor-pressure/chemical-potential gradient that promotes water release to the surrounding air, and microscopically by two mechanisms. First, thermal energy increases molecular motion and weakens water-sorbent interactions; once the binding barrier is overcome, water desorbs. Accordingly, the regeneration temperature and heating profile should be set only as high as needed to achieve the desired working capacity and desorption rate while remaining within the sorbent’s thermal/chemical stability window; overheating both wastes energy and can accelerate sorbent degradation. Second, some sorbents undergo temperature-triggered phase transitions: domain-scale hydrophilic-to-hydrophobic shifts that expel water ( 32 , 33 ) or bulk transitions that directly expel liquid ( 24 , 34 ). These effects can be engineered to create “on-off” release thresholds that narrow the desorption temperature window and reduce parasitic heating. Pressure-swing desorption provides an alternative when temperature control is limited, at the expense of vacuum hardware complexity. Enhancing AWH hinges on improved mass and heat transfer at the material level. For mass transfer, two strategies dominate: pore engineering and dimension reduction. Increasing porosity creates interconnected pathways and short diffusion routes ( 35 , 36 ); converting bulk sorbents into microparticles or thin films further reduces transport resistance and accelerates kinetics ( 32 , 37 ). In highly confined pores, distinguishing between Knudsen and bulk diffusion regimes can inform optimal pore sizes that balance rapid uptake with capacity. At practical sorbent loadings, however, simply packing fine particles can reduce bed permeability, increase tortuosity/pressure drop, and create stagnant regions, leading to an apparent deterioration in effective mass transfer at the device scale. To mitigate this scale-up penalty, microscale sorbents are typically assembled into structured and permeable architectures, e.g., granulated/pelletized particles with controlled meso/macroporosity, porous monoliths/foams hosting the particles, so that short diffusion lengths are preserved while interparticle pathways remain open for vapor transport ( 38 ). These structuring strategies are further discussed in the “Bulk sorbent unit: Design and structural processing” section. For thermal management, efficient use of heat is critical. Eliminating contact resistance between sorbents and heaters improves heating rates and time-limited desorption ( 39 ). In photothermal desorption, engineering light-absorbing components with near-unity solar absorbance and low long-wave emissivity reduces reflection losses; rough or macroporous surfaces promote multiple internal reflections. Light penetration is typically shallow, so internal structuring is less influential ( 40 – 42 ). Pore-enabled heat confinement leverages porous media to suppress heat dissipation by limiting gas-phase convection/air diffusion and by promoting multireflection radiative/optical trapping, helping retain heat locally and accelerate desorption under a given heat flux ( 43 – 45 ); tailoring pore sizes and anisotropic morphologies can retain heat ( 46 , 47 ) and promote desorption. This strategy should also account for mass-transfer considerations to achieve balanced desorption performance. In hydrogels, thermal transport also couples to water content: as swelling increases, effective thermal conductivity often rises, which can either assist desorption (more uniform temperature) or accelerate unwanted heat leaks, depending on geometry. Desired sorbent properties and material design Optimal SAWH sorbents balance high water uptake, fast kinetics, energy-efficient release, and practicality. Uptake depends on hydrophilicity and architecture: Introducing polar functionalities and increasing porosity/surface area adds sorption sites. Fast sorption/desorption improves throughput; structural design that lowers transport resistance is key. Energy-efficient release requires tuning hydrophilicity, strong enough to capture water but not so strong as to render desorption costly. Thermoresponsive materials can lower release energy. Processability, sustainability, cost, and cyclability are essential for practical deployment ( 32 , 48 – 50 ). Long-term stability against hydrolysis, oxidation, ultraviolet (UV) exposure, and mechanical fatigue is likewise central, as is compatibility with binders, supports, and condensate chemistries. While liquid sorbents (ionic liquids and concentrated salt solutions) show promise ( 51 , 52 ), we focus on solid sorbents, including MOFs, hydrogels, and salt-based composites, each with distinct design rules ( Fig. 3 ). As a rough guide, state-of-the-art step-isotherm MOFs typically deliver a working uptake of <0.5 g g −1 at the low-RH step [e.g., MOF-303 of ~0.4 g g −1 ; ( 28 )] and are commonly regenerated at >90°C at the device level to achieve deep desorption ( 53 ). Hydrogels can show an uptake of ~0.5 to 1 g g −1 at ~30% RH (chemistry dependent) and >5 g g −1 near saturation via swelling, with thermoresponsive formulations enabling release around ~60°C ( 54 ), whereas deliquescent salt-based composites can approach the salt-solution limit (e.g., LiCl of ~1.9 g g −1 at 30% RH) but often still use >90°C regeneration to ensure near-complete drying and stable cycling ( 36 , 55 ). Fig. 3. Comparison and features of representative state-of-the-art AWH sorbents. Open in a new tab Salt-based composites ( 36 , 55 , 77 , 78 , 130 ), hydrogels ( 34 , 71 , 73 , 75 ), and MOFs ( 60 , 61 , 63 , 131 – 136 ). Radar values are qualitative. LCST, lower critical solution temperature. MOFs and COFs In MOFs, water interacts primarily via hydrogen bonding with hydrophilic secondary building units and functionalized linkers (e.g., μ-OH groups). Direct coordination to metal sites is often too strong for efficient cycling, so hydrogen bonding is preferred ( 56 , 57 ). Tuning hydrophilicity shifts the operative RH ( 28 , 58 , 59 ); pore properties strongly influence performance ( 60 , 61 ). Microporous MOFs are attractive because step-like isotherms allow targeting RH of <30% and minimal hysteresis supports complete, energy-efficient regeneration ( 62 , 63 ). Practical shaping of MOFs into pellets, foams, or coatings should preserve pore accessibility, avoid binder-induced pore blocking, and enhance thermal conductivity without suppressing capacity. Hydrothermal stability can be improved through steric shielding or by strengthening the coordination environment, while crystallite size and defect engineering can sharpen uptake steps and reduce mass-transfer resistances. COFs parallel MOF sorption behavior but use covalent networks without metals, potentially enhancing moisture stability and avoiding metal leaching while enabling tailored hydrophilic channels ( 64 – 66 ). Their light-element composition can also reduce density, boosting gravimetric productivity. Hydrogels and polymer networks Hydrogels, cross-linked hydrophilic polymer networks, exhibit dynamic uptake ( 67 – 69 ). Hydrogen bonding drives initial adsorption; at higher activity, water softens the matrix and promotes bulk absorption. Polyelectrolyte hydrogels can overcome thermodynamic limits on uptake through Donnan effects and strong ion-water interactions ( 70 – 72 ). Incorporating hygroscopic salts boosts low-RH capture ( 55 , 73 , 74 ), while engineered zwitterionic networks help immobilize ions for stable cycling ( 75 , 76 ). Thermoresponsive polymers can reduce desorption energy ( 33 ). Microstructure (meso/macropores and oriented channels) speeds water ingress/egress; interpenetrating networks and fiber reinforcement preserve mechanical integrity under swelling-deswelling cycles. Because many hydrogels are intrinsically low in thermal conductivity, embedding thermally conductive but hydrophilic fillers can accelerate desorption while maintaining capacity. Salt-based composites These operate via deliquescence; design priorities are confining the salt solution during uptake (e.g., by capillary wicking, polymer cages, or porous carbons) and enhancing inherently slow kinetics through structuring ( 77 , 78 ). Cycling stability can be limited by salt aggregation/precipitation; some hydrates require >90°C for complete release, affecting desorption efficiency. Corrosion control is a practical concern when hot salt solutions contact metals; surface treatments and polymer barriers are often required. Matching salt choice to target RH bands and local climates can broaden operating windows while mitigating leakage. Standardized testing protocols Standard protocols are essential for comparable evaluation and iterative design. Sorption isotherms, generally measured at 25°C, map uptake versus RH and reveal mechanistic features [e.g., MOF step-RH and salt deliquescence RH (D-RH)] ( 19 , 79 ). When applications demand, isotherms should be measured at relevant temperatures to capture thermal shifts in step position and capacity. Preconditioning (drying history), sample geometry, and gas-phase impurities should be reported to ensure reproducibility. Static sorption-desorption tests quantify kinetics. For sorption, record time to equilibrium ( t e ) and an operationally optimal time ( t opt ) ( 32 , 37 ). In practice, sorbents rarely reach full saturation; cycling at ~70 to 80% of capacity often maximizes daily yield ( 80 ). Reporting uptake at fixed times (e.g., 10, 30, and 60 min) helps compare materials with different rate constants. For desorption, testing at several temperatures and fixed vapor pressures (matching dew points at the device’s condenser temperature) isolates intrinsic release barriers from mass-transfer bottlenecks. Cycling tests then assess durability by simulating the intended daily pattern (e.g., 8 to 12 cycles day −1 for step-isotherm MOFs versus 1 to 2 for linear-isotherm hydrogels). In addition to capacity retention, monitoring mechanical integrity, ion leakage (for salt-assisted systems), and changes in porosity informs lifetime projections. Bulk sorbent unit: Design and structural processing Translating high-performing sorbents into bulk sorption beds is a central challenge. Sorption kinetics depend on surface, diffusion, and reaction resistances. Thin films, MOFs, and microgels perform well at small scale but require higher loading for practical yield; simple packing increases effective diffusional resistance and can depress performance ( 81 ). Sorption beds should be tailored to sorbent type: structured arrays for films to maximize exposure, fluidized beds for particles to improve contact ( 82 ), or embedding particles within porous matrices to expand interfacial area and reduce diffusion barriers ( 83 ). Such configurations, however, are often not modular across devices and may complicate sealing and maintenance. Structured bulk units offer a more general path: directional freeze-drying can create hierarchical porous networks with vertical/radial alignment to shorten diffusion paths and lower tortuosity ( 84 ). Other pore-forming methods—cryo-polymerization ( 85 ), self-assembled templating ( 86 ), gas foaming ( 87 ), and controlled phase inversion ( 88 )—can also produce porous monoliths. Biomimetic architectures (e.g., tree-like branching channels) further improve daily output ( 89 ) by combining large external surface area with efficient internal conduits. Both gravimetric and volumetric productivity matter, so porosity must be balanced against loading; excessively airy structures can depress volumetric yield even if kinetics are fast. Effective desorption also requires even heat distribution. Adding thermally conductive phases can bridge particles and reduce interfacial resistances; for example, graphite within MOF pellets helps maintain uniform temperature ( 90 ). High porosity aids photothermal confinement but reduces bulk thermal conductivity; convective heat transfer (e.g., solar air collectors) can deliver hot air through the matrix to distribute heat evenly. Mechanical design should limit thermal contact resistance to the heater and minimize radiative coupling to the condenser during desorption. At scale, manufacturability and robustness dominate: Processes should tolerate dimensional variability, allow repair or replacement of sorbent modules, and avoid fragile geometries that complicate transport. Last, scale-up demands green, robust, and economical processes that preserve properties. Industrially informed approaches should emphasize abundant precursors, low-energy fabrication, and reproducible structure. Binder selection, solvent recovery, and waste minimization should be reported transparently to enable techno-economic comparisons. DEVICE DEVELOPMENT Classification of passive and active SAWH systems An SAWH device couples sorbent materials with mechanical subsystems, including heaters, supports, condensers, and fittings, to capture water, release it, and collect condensate. Depending on the use of secondary energy, devices are passive or active. Passive systems Passive SAWH uses only primary energy, predominantly sunlight due to ubiquity, cleanliness, and renewability ( Fig. 4A ). Typical modules include a solar absorber, sorbent bed, condenser, and collector. Their compact, off-grid nature suits remote supply and emergencies. In “top-down” layouts, sunlight is absorbed directly by the sorption bed, improving solar-thermal efficiency but forcing moist air to move downward against the buoyant density gradient, which hinders vapor transport ( 91 ). In “bottom-up” designs, sunlight passes through a transparent condenser; solar absorbance is lower, but vapor transport aligns with buoyancy, reducing resistance ( Fig. 4B ) ( 92 ). Fig. 4. Structure and performance strategies for passive and active SAWH. Open in a new tab ( A ) Passive working mechanism. ( B ) Passive layouts. ( C ) Novel passive structures for enhanced transfer. ( D ) Active performance enhancement via structural optimization. ( E ) Link-like assemblies that chain multiple auxiliary modules (e.g., heater-blower-bed-condenser with valves for mode switching/continuous operation). To mitigate this optical-transport trade-off, coaxial (side-by-side) arrangements place the sorption bed adjacent to the condenser, retaining direct solar absorption in the bed while enabling a more buoyancy-compatible lateral vapor pathway; the design challenge becomes minimizing lateral path length while limiting thermal cross-talk between hot and cold zones ( Fig. 4C ). Multilayer beds increase sorbent mass and can recover heat, enhancing solar utilization and overall yield ( 83 , 93 ). The efficiency of passive devices also depends on sealing (to suppress vapor leaks), optical durability of transparent covers, and resistance to dust fouling, which can degrade both solar absorption and condensation. Remaining challenges include variable irradiation, mismatched adsorption-desorption rates, and seasonal swings in day length and sun angle that alter the time-temperature profile available for desorption. Active systems Active SAWH adds secondary energy to intensify heat and mass transfer, increasing productivity at the expense of energy and complexity. Active systems are classified into four categories based on their optimization focus ( Fig. 4D ): 1) Hot side: auxiliary heating to reach higher desorption temperatures when solar input is insufficient ( 94 ). Controlled ramp rates and set points help avoid overshoot that wastes energy or induces sorbent aging. 2) Cold side: auxiliary cooling to accelerate adsorption/condensation heat rejection (e.g., thermoelectric coolers, heat pipes, and compression units) ( 95 , 96 ). Designs should minimize frosting, manage condensate removal, and exploit heat sinks already present in the environment. 3) Moist-air side: forced convection (fans) to boost vapor transport and kinetics. Ducting and baffles reduce dead zones; variable-speed control can match airflow to instantaneous desorption rates. 4) Mode switching: two-bed architectures enabling simultaneous adsorption and desorption for near-continuous operation, often with valves or actuators to steer airflow ( 97 ). Proper synchronization of bed switching, heat input, and condenser load avoids bottlenecks and improves daily yield. Active SAWH systems that incorporate only one auxiliary measure (e.g., a fan-assisted airflow module or a supplemental heater) are sometimes referred to as semi-active systems and typically feature compact integration. Here, we use “link-like assemblies” to denote modular active architectures that connect multiple functional units—such as a heater/regenerator, blower/ducting, valves for mode switching, and an actively cooled condenser—into a chained air/thermal loop ( Fig. 4E ) ( 98 , 99 ). A representative example is a forced-air regeneration loop in which heated air is driven through the sorption bed to desorb water vapor and then directed to an actively cooled condenser for rapid condensation; valves can further enable switching between beds for near-continuous adsorption/desorption ( 84 ). More generally, the same link-like principle can also be extended to staged beds or thermal cascades when multiple modules are deployed to broaden operating windows and/or recover heat. Evaluation criteria SAWH targets diverse applications, from irrigation and decentralized supply to portable drinking and industrial use, so evaluation must be application-aware. For agriculture, solar-driven passive systems align with photosynthetic schedules and land constraints; key metrics include water productivity per projected area (WPA), per cost (WPC), and solar thermal utilization efficiency (η thermal ), as summarized in Box 1 . For portable supply (disaster relief, military, and hiking), compact active systems that use electricity, biomass, or solar are favored for responsiveness; water productivity per volume (WPV) and per mass (WPM) are the primary metrics. For large-scale active systems, specific energy consumption (SEC) per unit water is critical for sustainability and market viability. Because SEC depends strongly on device architecture, heat recovery, condenser sink temperature, and auxiliary loads, it is best interpreted as a system-level metric rather than an intrinsic property of a sorbent class. Reporting should clarify whether SEC includes fans, pumps, and controls, not only heaters and coolers. Box 1. Nomenclature. WPA: water productivity per projected area of device. WPC: water productivity per cost of device. WPV: water productivity per volume of device. WPM: water productivity per mass of device. WPSM: water productivity per sorbent mass. SEC: specific energy consumption per unit of water production. η thermal : solar thermal utilization efficiency. Additional cross-cutting metrics include water productivity per sorbent mass (WPSM) to expose device-level kinetics, ratios of desorbed/adsorbed and condensed/desorbed water to quantify process efficiencies, and a normalized water recovery ratio for fair comparison across sorbent types. Time-of-day resolved productivity illuminates how operation maps onto variable irradiance and ambient RH. Reliability metrics—mean time between maintenance, resilience to dust or salt spray, and performance under tilted or shaded conditions—aid real-world assessment. These outcomes depend on intrinsic sorbent properties, device-level heat/mass transfer, mechanical design, and capital/operational costs. System-level mass- and heat-transfer enhancement for SAWH devices System-level heat- and mass-transfer deficiencies often result in suboptimal water productivity and slow system-level kinetics, which are long-standing challenges in SAWH. While active energy and power units can improve performance, they add energy consumption, cost, and complexity. Strategic management of heat and mass transfer therefore offers a sustainable path to high device-level efficiency. Thermal management strategies Because adsorption, desorption, and condensation have distinct thermal demands, careful heat-transfer design is central to performance. Thermal confinement for desorption Desorption requires heating the sorbent to overcome binding. For a given desorption enthalpy, the maximum desorption rate scales with input heat power; thus, confining heat within the bed accelerates kinetics. Heat is supplied by conduction, convection, or radiation ( Fig. 5, A to C ), but losses to the environment and condenser are inevitable. Strategies include (i) minimizing external losses by lowering contact resistance and adding insulation (air gaps, vacuum, and foam) ( 100 ), (ii) reducing internal losses by adjusting bed-condenser spacing or adding radiation shields, and (iii) regulating moisture transfer to curb sensible heat losses as vapor moves to the condenser. Spectral control coatings that absorb in the solar band while reflecting or suppressing mid-infrared emission can further reduce radiative losses during daytime operation. Concentrating heat in the bed both improves energy efficiency and strengthens downstream condensation by elevating dew points within the device. Fig. 5. Thermal management strategies. Open in a new tab ( A ) Sustainable heat sources for desorption. ( B ) Heat-transfer analysis across adsorption, desorption, and condensation. ( C ) Eco-friendly cooling enhancements for adsorption/condensation. ( D ) Feature evaluation of heat sources. Heat transfer for adsorption and condensation Adsorption is exothermic; rapid heat removal accelerates uptake (Le Châtelier’s principle), and lower sorbent temperature increases surface RH and the chemical-potential driving force ( 101 ). Condensation of 1 g of water releases ~2245 J; continuous operation demands efficient removal to a colder sink. Options include (i) radiative cooling and phase-change cold storage ( 102 ); (ii) natural/forced convection through channel design or fans/pumps; (iii) condenser fins and structured surfaces to increase area; and (iv) heat recovery, e.g., sorption-cooling loops or multilayer devices reusing condensate heat for subsequent desorption, or coupling the condenser to sewage/seawater evaporators ( 83 , 103 , 104 ). Designs should also prevent condensate accumulation that floods channels and degrades heat transfer; wicking textures and graded wettability can promote continuous drainage without pumps. Sustainable management of heat sources Typical SAWH desorption temperatures (50° to 150°C) can be reached with solar energy, industrial waste heat, electricity, or biomass-derived heat ( Fig. 5D ) ( 105 – 107 ). Selection depends on usable-heat conversion efficiency, heat density per area, and achievable temperature. Solar is broadly sustainable with high solar-to-heat efficiency; electricity offers high heat density and operational simplicity; biomass provides dense heat but entails fuel logistics; waste heat is attractive for emissions reduction but often low-grade and diffuse. For scale-up, simplicity favors electric or integrated solar designs; waste-heat or biomass systems require more complex hardware and safety controls. SAWH can also integrate with systems that must reject heat (e.g., base stations and data centers). A heat pump paired with a desiccant-coated heat exchanger is a promising route for water generation ( 108 ). For solar-driven devices, adaptive operation and thermal storage (e.g., sensible/latent media) can buffer intermittency without heavy electrical infrastructure. Mass-transfer management strategies At the device scale, structured three-dimensional sorption beds increase exposed area and establish primary vapor channels ( Fig. 6A ). Configured sorbents—hollow cylinders, cones, honeycombs, sinusoidal forms, and multilayer panels—can enlarge active surfaces and lower transport resistance. Established fabrication methods include freeze-drying, 3D printing, and templating ( 86 , 109 – 112 ). Channel dimensions should balance low pressure drop with high interfacial area; baffles can suppress bypass flows and stagnant zones. Fig. 6. Mass-transfer strategies. Open in a new tab ( A ) Structured 3D beds to accelerate vapor migration and internal diffusion. ( B ) Moisture migration for various bed-condenser arrangements. ( C ) Thermal buoyancy analysis for those arrangements. The gray strips represent the condenser. Moisture migration from bed to condenser is driven by vapor partial-pressure differences; migration speed strongly affects desorption and condensation ( Fig. 6, B and C ). Buoyancy arises from gradients in temperature and absolute humidity; its direction is opposite to gravity regardless of layout ( 113 ). Aligning geometry with buoyancy accelerates vapor transport. Bed-condenser spacing must balance mass transfer (shorter is better) against thermal separation (longer preserves temperature gradients). With forced convection, air-supply rates must balance moisture transport and heat carryover to avoid thermal disruption; variable-speed fans controlled by humidity/temperature sensors can maintain near-optimal conditions over a diurnal cycle. Condensation requires ample nucleation sites. Hydrophilic surfaces favor nucleation but can form films that impede heat removal; hydrophobic surfaces shed droplets but hinder nucleation ( 114 ). Mixed-wettability designs can provide both facile nucleation and rapid droplet departure ( 115 , 116 ). Tip-like microstructures on hydrophilic surfaces can induce droplet jumping to further enhance condensation ( 117 ). Surface robustness under UV, temperature swings, and mineral deposition is essential for lifetime; coatings should be repairable or self-renewing to maintain performance. Operation mode selection General strategies for operation mode selection Isotherm shape strongly informs operation-mode selection by defining the RH range over which working capacity changes most sharply, but it does not alone determine optimal cycling; achievable cycle timing is also governed by sorption/desorption kinetics and device-level heat/mass transfer. In general, step-like, low-hysteresis isotherms tend to favor multicycle operation when kinetics and transport permit, whereas near-linear/broad-RH uptake often favors longer adsorption and fewer, more reservoir-style desorption events. Sorbents with sigmoidal (step-like) isotherms exhibit a characteristic uptake step ( 118 ). When ambient RH exceeds this step, a large fraction of the working capacity becomes accessible over a relatively narrow RH interval; with adequately engineered transport pathways (e.g., thin coatings, small particles, and structured beds), uptake can proceed on short timescales, which has enabled rapid/multicycle demonstrations in several reports ( 78 , 119 ). However, “rapid” uptake is not universal: Time to (near-)equilibrium depends on loading, bed thickness, airflow, and thermal management, so step-like thermodynamics must be paired with device-scale transport design to realize short-cycle operation. Cycle schedules should therefore adapt to both climate and heat availability. During periods when RH is above the step (or when incremental uptake rate is high), shorter adsorption intervals and more frequent cycling can be advantageous, whereas, under lower RH, longer adsorption may be needed to accumulate useful uptake. On the regeneration side, stronger insolation (or higher heating power) generally increases desorption rate and can shorten the minimum regeneration time needed to reach a target working capacity; longer desorption windows are mainly required when heating is flux-limited, when beds have high thermal inertia, or when operating at lower peak temperatures to avoid degradation and reduce thermal losses. For nearly linear isotherms, capacity rises with RH but the chemical-potential driving force decreases steadily, slowing kinetics. Mono- or dual-cycle modes, or long adsorption followed by multiple desorption events in a day, can better use capacity ( 120 ), contingent on sufficient heat for effective desorption/condensation. Reservoir-style operation, collecting adsorbed water over many hours and releasing it during a concentrated desorption period, can simplify condenser design by scheduling peak thermal loads. Beyond these canonical modes, asynchronous cycling across multiple sorbent modules can address the diurnal mismatch between humidity peaks (often nighttime) and heat availability (daytime) and reduce transient peaks in vapor flux and condenser loading ( 120 ). In practice, one module desorbs while others adsorb, and then roles rotate. This multilayer-cyclic protocol maintains a steady vapor feed to the condenser, evens heat and mass fluxes inside the device, and works for both step-isotherm and near-linear-isotherm sorbents, provided that regeneration is sufficiently fast and hot/cold zones are thermally decoupled. The layer count and dwell times are set by measured sorption/desorption kinetics (rather than fixed ratios), and minimal assisted airflow may be used where geometry imposes vapor-transport penalties. The result is quasi-continuous operation without requiring heavy active subsystems. Typical operation modes for different sorbent systems MOFs (stepwise isotherms, fast kinetics, and modest equilibrium capacity) Multicycle operation with solar desorption is typically favored, especially in arid, high-insolation regions. Casting powders as thin sheets or coatings on heat panels can improve device-level heat/mass transfer and raise the ratios of desorbed/adsorbed and condensed/desorbed water ( 119 ). Adaptive scheduling that follows nightly RH peaks and varies daytime desorption according to cloud cover can outperform fixed multicycle timetables ( 121 ). Asynchronous cycling across modules potentially further stabilizes vapor delivery when insolation is intermittent. Hydrogels and hygroscopic salt composites (near-linear or broad-RH uptake and larger thermal inertia) These sorbents generally suit single-cycle schemes or long-adsorption/batched-desorption modes in medium-to-high RH climates. When salts are present, operation should guard against deliquescence and leakage; corrosion-resistant in situ heating components, 3D bed architectures to ease vapor transport, and thin monoliths to reduce diffusion distances can markedly improve productivity. Multilayer/asynchronous protocols are also applicable here when regeneration is sufficiently fast and mild, allowing multiple shorter daytime desorption events while other modules continue adsorbing. Because these sorbents store appreciable sensible heat and water, thermal inertia should be considered in scheduling to avoid late-day under-desorption. DISCUSSION AND OUTLOOKS Bridging materials, systems, and climates A common evaluation standard is essential. Current literature uses inconsistent criteria, complicating comparisons and obscuring translation from material metrics to device performance. Even high-performing sorbents may underperform in devices. These gaps often originate from heat/mass-transfer limitations, bed packing and contact resistances, and vapor leakage that reduce effective working capacity relative to equilibrium expectations under diurnal operation ( 38 ). Although many studies emphasize RH of <30%, real climates are variable; even arid regions can experience nighttime RH >50%. Mapping material isotherms and kinetic profiles to local diurnal humidity-temperature trajectories will help choose sorbents and operation modes that exploit natural cycles ( 122 ). Future material development should be linked to concrete use cases, from domestic water supply to military use, focusing on matching sorption/desorption rates, minimizing productivity losses during scale-up, and maximizing total device-level yield for practical benefit ( 123 ). Beyond yield, water quality must be considered. Airborne gaseous pollutants [e.g., Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and acid gases such as SO x /NO x ] may coadsorb alongside water, and, during regeneration, they might be released with the desorbed vapor stream; depending on volatility/solubility, these species may be exhausted with purge air or partially dissolve into the condensate. Some contaminants may also bind strongly or react with the sorbent (or dissolved salts), creating risks of gradual contaminant buildup and sorbent aging or poisoning over long-term cycling. As one example, recent molecular simulations suggest MOF-303 exhibits a strong affinity for SO 2 but minimal uptake of NO/NO 2 , and that SO 2 can delay the characteristic water-uptake step, highlighting that contaminant effects are material specific and should be evaluated rather than assumed negligible ( 124 ). These considerations motivate a more integrated multibarrier SAWH design, combining particulate filtration with guard media (e.g., activated carbon/basic scavengers) and/or UV treatment, and also motivate expanded water-quality reporting beyond common ion/TN/TOC panels to include VOCs, nitrate/sulfate, and microbiological indicators, especially for long-duration field trials. Addressing factors affecting SAWH’s practical implementation Bridging research and engineering requires scalable sorbent manufacturing without property loss and device architectures amenable to scale-up ( 125 ). Material class–specific barriers and engineering paths differ across sorbent types. For MOFs, key hurdles include the cost of metal/linker precursors and solvent-/energy-intensive synthesis; greener, scalable routes (e.g., water-based or solvent-free synthesis and mechanochemical or continuous processing) could reduce cost and environmental footprint while enabling larger-batch production. Hydrogels often face swelling-induced mechanical fatigue and are commonly produced via batch reactions; reinforcing the gel within porous/fibrous scaffolds and shifting toward continuous manufacturing (e.g., casting or extrusion) can improve robustness and throughput. For salt-based composites, long-term performance is frequently limited by salt migration/leaching (and associated corrosion risk); improved encapsulation/confinement within porous hosts or polymer cages and replaceable sorbent cartridges can suppress leakage and extend cycling stability. Beyond manufacturing, field deployment also hinges on operational stability across climates, including consistent water quality and manageable maintenance. SAWH devices should integrate locally available sustainable energy: solar in much of the Middle East, Africa, and Oceania ( 15 ); and wind in parts of Europe, the Americas, and North Asia ( 126 ). Adaptive, modular devices that connect to variable renewables and adjust power draw to daily production are especially promising. Incorporating low-cost thermal storage can reduce peak power requirements and enable overnight desorption for specific sorbent types. Cost remains pivotal, but the lack of standard cost/performance definitions hinders robust techno-economics. Transparent reporting should include unit prices and dosages for sorbents, supports, condensers, heaters, and fittings; energy, labor, and equipment costs converted to monetary terms; and system-level analyses covering capital, operations and maintenance, lifetime, and benefits. Life-cycle assessment and carbon accounting are recommended. Designs should avoid marginal-cost “spillovers” (e.g., condenser area beyond efficacy thresholds) and instead target pinch points—the minimum approach temperature between desorbing air and condenser sink, or the mass-transfer bottleneck at the bed surface—that limit exergy efficiency. Because reliability drives fielded cost, ruggedization against sand, salt, and icing and provisions for easy cleaning and part replacement should be included in bill of materials and maintenance models. Although SAWH may not match the economics of seawater desalination today, owing to atmospheric moisture variability and lower technology readiness level, it uniquely offers location-independent access to water, unconstrained by proximity to water bodies. This option is particularly relevant for dispersed rural communities, islanded microgrids, emergency response, and critical infrastructure hardening. For these contexts, evaluation frameworks should weigh resilience and autonomy alongside cost per liter. Exploring the potential of hybrid systems Because desorption is energy intensive, hybridization can raise overall energy efficiency. Coupling SAWH to heat pumps, dehumidifiers, air conditioners, or photocatalytic hydrogen systems can share thermal resources. A heat pump can supply desorption heat at its hot side while SAWH condenser heat meets heating demands, benefiting, for example, greenhouses in colder seasons ( 127 ). Retrofitting air conditioners into heat-pump systems with desiccant-coated heat exchangers allows the condenser and evaporator to serve SAWH desorption and adsorption, respectively, managing latent and sensible loads independently ( 128 ); adding water- or air-cooled condensers enables water production. Pairing SAWH with photovoltaics offers two-way benefits: SAWH condensers or radiative coolers can cool PV modules to raise electrical output, while harvested water can clean modules to mitigate soiling losses. At the district scale, solar thermal collectors can feed multiple SAWH beds during the day, and waste heat from data centers or industrial processes can sustain nighttime desorption. Integrating passive radiative cooling yields all-day operation: nighttime sub-ambient condensation and daytime solar-driven desorption ( 129 ). Last, circular thermal architectures, in which the SAWH condenser rejects heat into processes that require it (e.g., domestic hot water) while those same processes back-feed low-grade heat for desorption, can enhance round-trip energy utility and reduce net SEC. Acknowledgments Funding: This work was supported by the Welch Foundation, award F-1861 (G.Y.); the Foundation for Innovative Research Groups of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 51521004) (R.W.); and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (R.W.). Author contributions: Conceptualization: W.G., G.Y., C.L., R.W., F.D., and Z.C. Data curation: G.Y., C.L., and R.W. Formal analysis: G.Y. and C.L. Funding acquisition: G.Y. and R.W. Investigation: G.Y., C.L., R.W., and F.D. Methodology: G.Y., C.L., and R.W. Project administration: G.Y. and R.W. 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