The chain mediating effects of psychological resilience and social adaptability on the relationship between physical activity and mental health in Chinese university students.

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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Sci Rep . 2026 Apr 13;16:17197. doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-48168-0 The chain mediating effects of psychological resilience and social adaptability on the relationship between physical activity and mental health in Chinese university students Wanxu Liu 1, # , Zilin Wang 2, # , Xinyi Hou 1 , Yuanxin Sun 1 , Ke Xu 1, ✉ Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 School of the Arts, Beijing Sport University, 48 Xinxi Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100084 China 2 School of Sport Science, Beijing Sport University, 48 Xinxi Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100084 China ✉ Corresponding author. # Contributed equally. Received 2026 Jan 26; Accepted 2026 Apr 6; Collection date 2026. © The Author(s) 2026 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ . PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC13234124  PMID: 41974915 Abstract Mental health issues among university students have attracted increasing attention, underscoring the need to identify modifiable protective factors. This cross-sectional study examined the association between physical activity (PA) and mental health (MH) among Chinese university students, with a focus on the mediating roles of psychological resilience (PR) and social adaptability (SA). A sample of 519 students from three universities in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region completed validated questionnaires assessing PA (Physical Activity Rating Scale-3), MH (12-item General Health Questionnaire), PR (Adolescent Psychological Resilience Scale), and SA (Social Adaptability Scale). Pearson correlation analysis and structural equation modeling with Bootstrap methods were employed to test direct and indirect effects. Results revealed that PA was positively correlated with PR, SA, and MH. PR and SA independently mediated the PA–MH relationship, and a significant sequential mediation pathway (PA → PR → SA → MH) was observed, indicating that PA was associated with better MH through the chain effects of PR and SA. These findings suggest that the MH benefits of PA may operate not only directly but also through an association with enhanced internal psychological resources and external SA. University health programs that integrate PA with resilience and social-skills interventions may help improve student MH. Keywords: Physical Activity, Mental Health, Psychological Resilience, Social Adaptability, Mediation, Chinese University Students Subject terms: Health humanities, Psychology, Psychology Introduction University students represent a vital human capital reserve, yet their mental health (MH) faces significant challenges. In China, individuals aged 18–24 are identified as a high-risk group, with a depression risk detection rate of 24.1% 1 . The rising incidence of suicide incidents among students underscores that MH impairment may act as a formidable barrier to holistic development 2 , 3 . During the transition to emerging adulthood, students encounter profound developmental tasks—identity formation and academic pressures—making them particularly susceptible to psychological maladjustment 4 . Consequently, identifying modifiable protective factors has become a research priority. Physical activity (PA) is widely acknowledged as an efficacious, low-cost intervention for promoting mental well-being 5 . A robust body of evidence indicates that PA directly enhances brain function and cognitive performance 6 and exerts significant salutary effects on MH 7 , 8 . Neurobiologically, PA facilitates the regulation of emotion-related neurotransmitters, alleviates symptoms of depression and anxiety 9 , 10 , reduces the frequency and intensity of negative affective states 11 , and—by satisfying health-oriented and social motivations—enhances subjective well-being and psychological satisfaction 12 . However, the psychological benefits of PA are unlikely to be attributable solely to direct physiological pathways; rather, they may operate through the cultivation of broader psychosocial capacities. Consistent with sport and exercise psychology frameworks, the effects of PA emerge from dynamic person–environment interactions 13 , within which psychological resilience (PR) and social adaptability (SA) have been proposed as two plausible mediating mechanisms. Importantly, the relationship between PA and MH may be influenced by contextual or individual factors—such as academic stress, socioeconomic constraints, or cultural pressures—that have received limited empirical attention, leaving the boundary conditions of this association underexplored 14 – 16 . PR refers to an individual’s capacity to rebound from adversity, failure, or increased responsibility—a capacity conceptualized as malleable and developable rather than fixed 17 . Among university students, PR has been consistently associated with positive MH outcomes, including reduced depressive and anxiety symptoms 18 , enhanced subjective well-being 19 , and greater life satisfaction 20 , thereby functioning as a protective factor against maladaptive psychological and behavioral patterns 21 . Empirical studies have documented a positive association between PA and PR 22 ; students engaging in moderate-to-vigorous PA report higher resilience levels than their less active peers 23 , with moderate-intensity activity appearing particularly efficacious 24 . Moreover, PR has been shown to mediate or moderate the relationship between PA and emotional outcomes such as negative affect 25 . Notably, recent evidence suggests that PR levels among Chinese university students have exhibited a declining trajectory over the past decade (2007–2021) 26 , underscoring the urgency of identifying scalable interventions—PA among them—that may bolster this critical psychological resource. SA denotes an individual’s capacity to actively modify psychological and behavioral responses in accordance with environmental demands, thereby achieving harmonious and balanced person–environment transactions 27 . Insufficient interpersonal competence during adolescence has been linked to heightened feelings of inferiority, diminished self-efficacy, and avoidance behaviors in social contexts such as cooperative learning and group-based PA 28 . Adolescents with poor SA are more prone to approach–avoidance conflicts and sedentary behavioral patterns, which, over time, may reinforce negative self-perceptions and exacerbate physical and MH riskst 29 . Although SA is defined functionally, its expression is likely shaped by cultural context; within socialist country such as China, SA may place greater emphasis on group harmony, role fulfillment, and relational embeddedness than do Western conceptualizations 30 . Given that PR and SA are conceptually related yet distinct—the former capturing internal psychological resources, the latter reflecting external behavioral adaptation—it is plausible that they operate in tandem rather than in isolation 31 . If MH represents an overarching developmental goal, PA may function as a behavioral means through which individuals first cultivate internal resilience, which in turn facilitates more effective social adaptation, ultimately contributing to enhanced MH. In this sequential model, PR serves as a foundational resource that enables adaptive social functioning, with SA conceptualized as its outward manifestation. This hypothesized ordering (PA → PR → SA → MH) finds indirect support in Self-Determination Theory (SDT), which posits that satisfaction of basic psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—fosters internalization and well-being 32 , 33 . PA contexts are rich in opportunities for need satisfaction, which may cultivate resilience and facilitate social integration 34 . Within this framework, PR can be understood as a marker of need satisfaction, while SA reflects the behavioral outcomes of these processes in social domains. Although this directional assumption is theoretically grounded, reciprocal dynamics—whereby successful social experiences reinforce resilience—cannot be ruled out and warrant empirical examination in longitudinal designs 35 . Despite growing scholarly interest in the PA–MH relationship, existing research has largely examined PR or SA as independent mediators. Few studies, however, have integrated both constructs within a unified model to test their sequential mediating effects. Addressing these gaps, the present study employs a cross-sectional design to examine the associations among PA, PR, SA, and MH in a sample of Chinese university students, with the explicit acknowledgment that causal claims are not warranted. The hypothesized sequence (PA → PR → SA → MH) is presented as a theoretically plausible pathway rather than an empirically established temporal order. Based on the foregoing literature, the following hypotheses are proposed: H1: PA is positively associated with MH among university students. H2: PR mediates the relationship between PA and MH. H3: SA mediates the relationship between PA and MH. H4: PR and SA jointly form a sequential mediation pathway between PA and MH. By testing this integrated chain mediation model, the present study aims to provide a more nuanced understanding of how PA may confer MH benefits through the cultivation of internal psychological resources and external adaptive capacities. Such insights may inform the design of targeted, multi-component intervention strategies within university settings. Materials and methods Participants Participants were selected using a convenience sampling method. One university was randomly selected from each of Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei, all accessible classes across different grades in the partner departments were included. The inclusion criteria for participants were as follows: (1) full-time undergraduate students; (2) voluntary participation with provided informed consent; and (3) ability to independently complete the questionnaire. Questionnaires were excluded based on the following criteria: (1) incomplete responses; (2) patterned responses (e.g., consistently selecting the same option for all items); and (3) excessively short completion time (less than 3 min). A total of 600 questionnaires were distributed, of which 551 valid questionnaires were returned, yielding an effective response rate of 91.83%. After excluding questionnaires with low completion rates or evident random responses, 500 questionnaires with consistent coding were retained as the final valid sample for analysis. The final sample consisted of 245 male students (49%) and 255 female students (51%). With respect to academic year, 127participants were first-year students (25.4%), 134 were second-year students (26.8%), 121 were third-year students (24.2%), and 118 were fourth-year students (23.6%). Detailed results are presented in Table 1 . Table 1. Basic Characteristics of the Participants ( n = 500). Grade Sex Total Male Female First-year 64 63 127 Second-year 63 71 134 Third-year 57 64 121 Final-year 61 57 118 Total 245 255 500 Open in a new tab Measures All instruments were validated Chinese versions of self-report scales. The specific scales employed in this study were as follows: Physical Activity Rating Scale-3 (PARS-3). The PARS-3, revised by Liang Deqing, was used to assess PA level across three dimensions: exercise intensity, duration, and frequency. This scale measures participation in PA 36 . A 5-point Likert scoring method was adopted, consisting of three items (intensity, frequency, and duration). The total PA score was calculated as: PA intensity × (PA duration – 1) × PA frequency. Higher total scores indicate greater exercise volume and a higher level of PA. In the present study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient of the scale was 0.80. 12-item Genera lHealth Questionnaire (GHQ-12). The GHQ-12, revised by Li Yimin et al. 37 , was used to measure adolescents’ MH from two dimensions: positive health and negative health. Items were rated on a 4-point scale ranging from 0 (“never”) to 3 (“often”), with negatively worded items scored in reverse. The total score ranges from 0 to 36, with higher scores indicating poorer MH status, that is, greater psychological distress. The Cronbach’s α coefficient for the overall questionnaire was 0.93, with subscale reliabilities of 0.90 and 0.95. Social Adaptability Scale (SAS). SAS, developed by Zheng Richang 38 , was used to assess adolescents’ SA from both positive and negative aspects. A 3-point Likert scoring method was applied. For odd-numbered items, responses of “yes,” “uncertain,” and “no” were scored as − 2, 0, and 2, respectively; for even-numbered items, “yes,” “uncertain,” and “no” were scored as 2, 0, and − 2, respectively. The sum of all item scores was used to evaluate participants’ SA. The Cronbach’s α coefficient for the overall scale was 0.95 in the present study, with subscale reliabilities of 0.87, 0.91, and 0.81. The resilience scale for Chinese adoles⁃cent (RSCA). The RSCA, developed with reference to the work of Hu Yueqin and colleagues 39 , was used to assess PR. The scale consists of five dimensions: goal focus, emotional control, positive cognition, family support, and interpersonal assistance. A 5-point rating scale (1–5) was employed, with higher scores indicating higher levels of PR. The sum of all item scores was used to evaluate participants’ overall resilience level. In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient for the overall scale was 0.96, with subscale reliabilities ranging from 0.88 to 0.90. Procedure This study employed a cross-sectional design and data were collected using a questionnaire survey. The survey was conducted online between February and April 2025. Prior to the main study, the questionnaire was pretested with several teachers from relevant academic backgrounds and undergraduates from non-sample schools to collect feedback on its content and layout. Using the online survey platform “Questionnaire Star,” the questionnaire was distributed by teachers who shared the survey link or QR code with their classes. Student participation was voluntary. To ensure the validity of the data, participants were informed before completing the questionnaire that their responses would be anonymous, that the data collected would be used exclusively for academic research, and that they were encouraged to answer truthfully. This study was approved by the ethics committee of Beijing Sport University (Approval No: 2025032 H) and conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and relevant regulations. All participating schools and individual participants provided consent prior to participation. Data analysis Data were analyzed using SPSS 27.0 and AMOS 24.0. Prior to main analyses, data screening was conducted to ensure assumptions for parametric tests and structural equation modeling (SEM) were met. Specifically, normality was assessed by examining skewness and kurtosis values, multicollinearity was examined using variance inflation factors (VIF), and outlier detection was performed with Mahalanobis distance test. Harman’s single-factor test was conducted to assess the potential threat of common method bias, given that all variables were collected from self-reported questionnaires at a single time point. First, descriptive statistics, independent-samples t-tests, and one-way ANOVAs were calculated to examine demographic differences. Second, Pearson correlation analysis was performed to assess bivariate relationships among variables. Third, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted using maximum likelihood estimation to assess the measurement model. Following this, structural equation modeling was performed to examine the hypothesized pathways. In the model, PA was specified as an exogenous variable, PR and SA as mediators, and MH as an endogenous variable. To control for potential confounding effects, gender and grade were included as covariates in the model. Specifically, they were specified as exogenous observed variables allowed to directly influence all endogenous latent variables. A bias-corrected bootstrap procedure with 5,000 resamples was employed to test direct and indirect effects. Model fit was evaluated using (χ²/df) < 3, (RMSEA) < 0.08, (CFI) > 0.90, and (TLI) > 0.90. All statistical tests were two-tailed with α = 0.05. Finally, to assess whether the sample size provided adequate statistical power to detect the hypothesized indirect effects, a post hoc Monte Carlo power analysis with 5,000 replications was conducted. Power values above 0.80 were considered adequate. Results Common Method Bias, Normality, Multicollinearity, and Outlier Tests Harman’s single-factor test was conducted to assess common method bias. All items measuring PA, PR, SA, and MH were subjected to an unrotated exploratory factor analysis. The results showed that the first factor accounted for 30.232% of the total variance, which was below the critical threshold of 40%. This finding indicates that common method bias is not a significant concern in this study, allowing for further path analysis and mediation effect testing within the structural equation modeling framework. Normality checks showed that skewness values ranged from 0.002 to 1.730 and kurtosis values from 0.014 to 4.274, both within acceptable limits (skewness < 2, kurtosis < 7). Multicollinearity diagnostics revealed VIF values ranging from 1.857 to 7.499 for all predictors, all below the threshold of 10. Mahalanobis distance test detected no significant outliers. These results indicate that the data met the assumptions for subsequent parametric tests and structural equation modeling. Analysis of Demographic Characteristics Across Variables Independent-samples t -tests and one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) were used to examine differences in PA, MH, and SA across gender and academic year. The results indicated significant differences in PA, MH, and SA by both gender and academic year. Male students scored significantly higher than female students on PA, MH, and SA, with high statistical significance ( p < 0.001). With respect to academic year, third-year students achieved the highest scores in PA and MH and also demonstrated relatively strong SA, whereas first-year students showed comparatively lower levels on these variables. The differences across academic years were statistically significant ( p < 0.001). Detailed results are presented in Table 2 . Table 2. Analysis of Demographic Differences ( ). Variable PA MH SA PR Gender Male 51.709 ± 31.575 3.808 ± 0.880 3.350 ± 0.888 3.776 ± 0.739 Female 33.226 ± 31.294 3.516 ± 0.797 3.014 ± 0.930 3.388 ± 0.709 t 6.563 3.904 4.123 5.992 p <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 Cohen’s d 0.588 0.349 0.370 0.536 Grade Freshman 36.305 ± 31.408 3.539 ± 0.855 3.016 ± 0.914 3.462 ± 0.719 Sophomore 43.516 ± 31.432 3.676 ± 0.782 3.234 ± 0.864 3.611 ± 0.659 Junior 63.326 ± 31.488 4.114 ± 0.893 3.683 ± 0.917 3.983 ± 0.876 Senior 55.750 ± 43.186 3.990 ± 0.903 3.600 ± 1.155 3.731 ± 1.256 F 10.319 6.917 8.601 6.817 p <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 η 2 0.059 0.040 0.049 0.040 Open in a new tab Correlation Analysis Among Variables Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships among PA, MH, PR, and SA. The results indicated that PA, MH, PR, and SA were all significantly and positively correlated with one another ( p < 0.001). Detailed results are presented in Table 3 . Table 3. Correlations Among Variables ( ,r). Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 1.PA 41.876 32.723 1 2.PR 3.570 0.748 0.366** 1 3.SA 3.171 0.925 0.377** 0.303** 1 4.MH 3.653 0.849 0.447** 0.372** 0.343** 1 Open in a new tab Note: * p < 0.05,** p < 0.01,*** p < 0.001. Mediation Effect Analysis The results of the CFA indicated that the initial model showed a poor fit to the data (χ²/df = 5.868, p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.099, 90% CI [0.089, 0.109]; CFI = 0.935; TLI = 0.914; SRMR = 0.043). Modification indices suggested that the error terms of two indicators of PR—goal focus (PR1) and positive cognition (PR3)—were significantly correlated. Given the conceptual overlap between focusing on goals and maintaining positive cognition, this correlation is theoretically plausible. Allowing these error terms to covary in the revised model substantially improved model fit. The final revised model demonstrated acceptable fit across all indices (χ²/df = 2.875, p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.061, 90% CI [0.051, 0.072]; CFI = 0.975; TLI = 0.967; SRMR = 0.043). To assess discriminant validity, the square root of the AVE for each construct was compared with its inter-construct correlations. As shown in Table 3 , all values (PA = 0.807, PR = 0.817, SA = 0.938, MH = 0.722) exceeded the corresponding inter-construct correlations (maximum r = 0.447), confirming adequate discriminant validity. Convergent validity and internal consistency were also established. As presented in Table 4 , all constructs met the recommended thresholds: CR values ranged from 0.829 to 0.959 (> 0.70), and AVE values ranged from 0.522 to 0.879 (> 0.50), indicating satisfactory reliability and convergent validity. Detailed CFA results are presented in Table 4 ; Fig. 1 . Table 4. Fit Indices for the Measurement Model. Model χ 2 /df CFI TLI RMSEA90%CI SRMR Intital Model 5.868 0.935 0.914 0.099 (0.089, 0.109) 0.043 Revised Model 2.875 0.975 0.967 0.061(0.051, 0.072) 0.043 Open in a new tab Fig. 1. Open in a new tab CFA of the measurement model. Using structural equation modeling (SEM), the initial model showed a poor fit to the data (χ²/df = 4.969, CFI = 0.932, TLI = 0.907, RMSEA = 0.089). Based on modification indices, allowing the error terms of two indicators of PR (goal focus and positive cognition) to correlate significantly improved model fit. This modification was theoretically justified, as both indicators reflect the positive cognitive dimension of PR, and their residuals may share common variance. The final revised model demonstrated a good fit to the data (χ²/df = 2.662, CFI = 0.972, TLI = 0.961, RMSEA = 0.058). The standardized path coefficients of the final model are presented in Fig. 2 , and the fit indices are summarized in Table 5 . Fig. 2. Open in a new tab The Chain Mediating Roles of SA and PR in the Relationship Between PA and University Students’ MH. Table 5. Fit Indices for the Structural Model. Model χ 2 /df CFI TLI RMSEA Intital Model 4.969 0.932 0.907 0.089 Revised Model 2.662 0.972 0.961 0.058 Open in a new tab The path analysis results revealed that PA had significant positive direct effects on PR ( β = 0.251, p < 0.001), SA ( β = 0.372, p < 0.001), and MH ( β = 0.307, p < 0.001). PR significantly predicted SA ( β = 0.191, p = 0.015) and MH ( β = 0.179, p < 0.001). SA also significantly predicted MH ( β = 0.094, p = 0.002). Regarding control variables, gender significantly negatively predicted PR ( β = −0.175, p = 0.001), while academic year significantly positively predicted PR ( β = 0.086, p = 0.009) and SA ( β = 0.141, p = 0.004). Detailed path coefficients are presented in Table 6 . Table 6. Regression Analysis of Variables in the Model. Path β S.E. C. R . p PA→PR 0.251 0.039 6.375 < 0.001 PA→SA 0.372 0.062 5.961 < 0.001 PR→SA 0.191 0.079 2.423 0.015 PR→MH 0.179 0.051 3.537 < 0.001 SA→MH 0.094 0.031 3.041 0.002 PA→MH 0.307 0.045 6.821 < 0.001 Gender→MH 0.056 0.051 1.097 0.273 Grade→MH 0.041 0.031 1.318 0.187 Gender→PR −0.175 0.053 −3.267 0.001 Grade→PR 0.086 0.033 2.615 0.009 Gender→SA −0.052 0.080 −0.65 0.515 Grade→SA 0.141 0.050 2.841 0.004 Open in a new tab Using bias-corrected Bootstrap analysis with 5,000 resamples, the results showed that the total effect of PA on MH was significant ( p < 0.001). The direct effect accounted for 78.48% of the total effect, while the total indirect effect was significant as well, accounting for 21.68% of the total effect. The specific indirect pathways included: (1) PA → PR → MH, which accounted for 11.55% of the total effect; (2) PA → SA → MH, which accounted for 9.02% of the total effect; and (3) PA → PR → SA → MH, representing the chain mediating effect and accounting for 1.11% of the total effect. All indirect effects were significant because 95% CIs excluded zero, indicating that PR and SA each played a simple mediating role in the relationship between PA and MH, and that together they constituted a chain mediating pathway. Detailed results are presented in Table 7 ; Fig. 2 . Table 7. Bootstrap Analysis of Mediation Effects. Parameter Estimate Lower Upper p Effect PA→PR→MH 0.073 0.029 0.136 0.001 11.55% PA→SA→MH 0.057 0.017 0.119 0.002 9.02% PA→PR→SA→MH 0.007 0.001 0.022 0.019 1.11% Total indirect effect 0.137 0.070 0.229 < 0.001 21.68% Direct effect 0.496 0.326 0.648 0.001 78.48% Total effect 0.632 0.509 0.751 0.001 1 Open in a new tab Note: LLCI, lower limit of confidence interval; ULCI, upper limit of confidence interval. The results of the post hoc Monte Carlo power analysis showed excellent power for the total indirect effect (99.8%) and the PA→PR→MH pathway (99.7%). The power for the PA→SA→MH pathway was 72.5%, approaching the acceptable threshold of 80%. However, the power for the chain mediation pathway (PA→PR→SA→MH) was 52.8%, falling below the conventional criterion due to its small effect size (indirect effect = 0.0045). These findings are further addressed in the Limitations section. Discussion This study examined the associations between PA, PR, SA, and MH among Chinese university students. The results revealed that PA was positively associated with MH, and that this association was mediated both independently and sequentially by PR and SA. These findings provide empirical evidence that the MH benefits of PA may be related to the joint enhancement of internal psychological resources and external adaptive capacities, thereby extending existing research on resilience-oriented MH promotion in university settings. Direct Association between PA and MH Consistent with most previous research, the present study confirmed a significant positive association between PA and MH among university students 27 , 40 – 43 . This finding aligns with a substantial body of literature demonstrating that regular PA is associated with reduced symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress 44 , 45 , as well as improved emotional well-being and psychological functioning 46 – 48 . From a physiological perspective, PA has been shown to contribute to mood enhancement through mechanisms such as improved cerebral blood flow and neurotransmitter regulation 9 , 10 , 49 . In addition, PA often involves social interaction, which may be related to teamwork, group cohesion, and the establishment of social support networks, thereby being associated with reduced loneliness and psychological burden related to academic stress or interpersonal disengagement 50 – 52 . At the psychological level, exercise psychology models suggest that PA may be linked to MH by providing repeated experiences of successful mastery, enhancing self-efficacy, and facilitating emotional release 53 , 54 . Within the model proposed in this study, the persistence of the direct association indicates that PA remains a fundamental behavioral resource associated with maintaining and promoting MH, even after accounting for the mediating roles of psychosocial factors. Independent Mediating Roles of PR and SA Beyond the direct pathway, the findings revealed that PR independently mediated the association between PA and MH. PR is widely regarded as a key protective psychological resource that is associated with individuals’ ability to adapt to stress, adversity, and life challenges 17 , 55 . Participation in PA is often accompanied by physical exertion, exercise-induced fatigue, performance pressure, and goal pursuit, all of which require emotional regulation, behavioral persistence, and adaptive coping. According to resilience process theory, PR is a dynamic developmental outcome resulting from the interaction between life events and protective factors 56 . As a positive coping strategy, PA may provide university students with opportunities for emotional release and stress alleviation, thereby being associated with enhanced stress-coping capacity and PR. This process may be related to individuals’ ability to manage setbacks and pressures more effectively and to improved psychological adjustment 57 . Moreover, PA frequently involves explicit goal setting, such as skill mastery and performance improvement. Achieving these goals allows individuals to accumulate successful mastery experiences and strengthen self-confidence, which in turn may be associated with enhanced PR when facing other life challenges 58 . Beyond internal coping resources, the present study also highlights the importance of external adaptive functioning. SA emerged as a significant independent mediating factor in the association between PA and MH. Previous studies have demonstrated that PA is positively associated with individuals’ SA and may be related to its development 31 . Social participation has been shown to partially mediate the association between vigorous PA and MH 59 . PA, particularly group-based or cooperative sports, provides individuals with opportunities for social interaction, collaboration, and competition, which may be associated with the development of social skills, team cohesion, and social integration 60 , 61 . At the same time, the demands placed on attention, emotional regulation, and stress coping during PA may be related to improvements in individuals’ adaptive and regulatory capacities in daily life 62 – 64 . Empirical evidence indicates that university students who participate in PA exhibit higher levels of SA than those who do not, and that PA is a key correlate of SA 65 . Higher SA is associated with reduced interpersonal stress and enhanced social support, thereby being related to better MH 66 . Taken together, the present study indicates that PA is associated with better MH not only through its direct association but also through its associations with stronger internal PR and enhanced external SA, with both mechanisms jointly related to improved MH outcomes. Chain Mediating Role of SA and PR One of the core contributions of this study lies in identifying a significant chain mediating pathway through which PA is associated with MH via the sequential association of PR and SA. This finding is particularly important because it demonstrates that PR and SA, when examined together in a single model, form a coherent explanatory sequence rather than merely representing two separate mechanisms. This sequential process indicates that PA may be indirectly associated with MH by first being related to higher levels of PR—resources for coping with stress and adversity 22 – 24 , 67 — —which in turn are related to stronger SA in terms of environmental integration and interpersonal functioning 28 , 29 , 36 . It is important to note, however, that although this pathway is theoretically meaningful, the magnitude of the chain mediating effect was relatively small. Therefore, this study primarily focuses on the chain mediation effect as being of theoretical significance rather than being dominant in practice. This finding aligns with resource-based theory and system-oriented perspectives, which emphasize the dynamic interaction between internal psychological resources and external social functioning. According to the broaden-and-build theory, positive experiences generated through PA may broaden individuals’ cognitive and emotional repertoires, thereby building enduring psychological resources such as resilience 68 . This mechanism supports the mediating pathway from PA to PR. Higher levels of PR are associated with individuals’ ability to face social challenges with greater confidence and emotional stability, thereby being related to more effective social adaptation 69 . Successful social adaptation, in turn, may provide social support and positive feedback, further associated with psychological resources and MH 70 . Within the Chinese cultural context—and particularly within a socialist society—these processes may be especially salient, as collectivist values emphasize interpersonal harmony, role fulfillment, and relational embeddedness 71 . Consequently, PR and SA, as conceptualized in this study, may carry distinct connotations that reflect culturally embedded capacities. These qualities are particularly relevant for navigating the academic and social demands faced by Chinese university students. Thus, the chain mediation findings support an integrative perspective in which PR and SA do not operate in isolation but instead form a mutually reinforcing synergistic pathway potentially associated with PA. By integrating both constructs within a unified framework, this study provides empirical support for a more holistic understanding of how PA relates to MH—one that acknowledges the interplay between internal psychological resources and external social competencies. This suggests that MH promotion practices should emphasize the coordinated development of internal psychological resources and external social competencies, adopting multi-level and integrated intervention strategies. Practical Implications These findings have practical implications for university MH promotion. Campus programs should integrate structured PA with resilience training and social skills development. For example, group-based exercise programs may simultaneously strengthen coping skills and social integration. Limitations and future directions Several limitations of this study should be acknowledged. First, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences regarding the observed associations among PA, PR, SA, and MH. Although the hypothesized sequence (PA → PR → SA → MH) is theoretically grounded, the temporal ordering of these variables cannot be empirically verified with cross-sectional data. Future research employing longitudinal designs or experimental interventions is needed to clarify causal mechanisms and temporal dynamics. Second, the generalizability of findings is limited by the sampling approach. Participants were recruited via convenience sampling from three universities in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region through class-based online distribution, which may also have introduced clustering effects (i.e., non-independence of observations within the same class) that were not accounted for in statistical analyses. Future studies should extend to more diverse regions, adopt probability sampling methods, and consider multilevel modeling or complex sampling design corrections to enhance external validity and address potential clustering effects. Third, all data were collected via self-report questionnaires, which may introduce common method bias. Although Harman’s single-factor test did not indicate severe bias, this diagnostic approach has limited sensitivity. Future research should employ multi-timepoint data collection, multi-source data (e.g., peer reports, objective measurements), or latent method factor techniques to control for common method bias at the design level. Fourth, the measurement of PR and SA relied on total scale scores rather than full second-order factor models. Although this approach is widely adopted and sensitivity analyses indicated consistency between first-order and second-order models, the use of total scores may obscure the unique contributions of specific dimensions. Future research with adequate sample sizes should employ multidimensional analyses to explore the distinct mechanisms of PR and SA subdimensions. Additionally, a correlated error term between “goal focus” and “positive cognition” was introduced based on modification indices to improve model fit. As such data-driven modifications may be sample-specific, future studies should cross-validate the factor structure in independent samples. Fifth, post hoc power analysis indicated that the chain mediation pathway had relatively low statistical power due to its small effect size. Therefore, this finding should be interpreted with caution and considered preliminary. Future research with larger samples is needed to validate this effect. Finally, this study focused on PR and SA as mediating mechanisms, leaving other potentially important correlates of MH unexamined. Future research should consider incorporating variables such as externalizing problems, which have been increasingly recognized as relevant to university student MH 72 . Additionally, future studies could examine different types of PA (e.g., aerobic vs. strength training, individual vs. group-based), employ objective measures of PA (e.g., accelerometers), and test contextual moderators such as campus environment, social support, and cultural factors. Cross-cultural comparisons would also be valuable for assessing the generalizability of the observed mechanisms across diverse cultural contexts. Conclusion Based on a resource-oriented perspective, this study examined the associations between PA, PR, SA, and MH among university students. The results indicated that PA was positively associated with MH, and that this association was mediated both independently and sequentially by PR and SA. Specifically, PR and SA functioned as independent mediators and jointly constituted a chain mediating pathway linking PA to MH. These findings suggest that the positive correlates of PA with MH may be reflected in the synergistic development of individual psychological resources and SA. Promoting participation in PA while simultaneously fostering PR and SA may provide a more systematic approach to supporting MH among university students. Acknowledgements We are very grateful for the support of the researchers who conducted these surveys and the participants who collaborated with us. Author contributions Ke Xu and Wanxu Liu conceived and designed the study. Wanxu Liu and Zilin Wang wrote the manuscript. Xinyi Hou and Yuanxin Sun were responsible for data analysis and manuscript formatting. Questionnaire distribution and data collection were conducted by Wanxu Liu and Zilin Wang. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Funding This study is a phased achievement of the 2024 Beijing Sport University Research Project on Ideological and Political Work for College Students, titled “Research on the Pathways of Gymnastics and Dance Programs to Enhance College Students’ Mental Health Level” (Project No. 2106056). Data availability The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Footnotes Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Wanxu Liu and Zilin Wang contributed equally to this work. References 1. Fu, X. L., Zhang, K. & Chen, X. F. Mental health blue book: report on national mental health development in China (2017–2018). 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