MXene quantum dot polymer nanocomposites as smart platforms for targeted drug delivery and multifunctional biomedical applications: an updated review.

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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Discov Nano . 2026 Jun 3;21(1):238. doi: 10.1186/s11671-026-04657-9 MXene quantum dot polymer nanocomposites as smart platforms for targeted drug delivery and multifunctional biomedical applications: an updated review Mohammad Hossein Karami 1, ✉ , Omid Moini Jazani 1, ✉ Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Isfahan, P.O. Box 81746-73441, Isfahan, Iran ✉ Corresponding author. Received 2025 Oct 8; Accepted 2026 May 13; Collection date 2026 Dec. © The Author(s) 2026 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ . PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC13234063  PMID: 42234075 Abstract MXenes (Ti 3 C 2 T X ) and their composites exhibit exceptional electrical conductivity, flexibility, and biocompatibility, making them ideal for creating smart microrobots for targeted drug delivery, especially in cancer treatment. Their customizable surfaces enable precise navigation and targeted therapeutic release, improving efficacy and reducing side effects. They can also co-deliver multiple drugs for synergistic therapies. However, challenges in scalable production, stability, and regulation remain. Simultaneously, combining MXenes with quantum dots in polymer nanocomposites is revolutionizing multifunctional materials by merging electrical, optical, and catalytic properties. These composites enhance applications in drug delivery, tissue engineering, flexible electronics, and energy storage. Stimuli-responsive polymers allow controlled activation of embedded agents, though issues with scalability and clinical translation persist. This review underscores the potential of MXene- and quantum dot-based nanocomposites to drive innovation in biomedicine and sustainable technologies. Keywords: 2D MXenes, MXene QDs, Surface modification, Polymer composites, Drug delivery systems, Wound healing, Toxicity Introduction Advances in medical science, particularly in drug delivery systems, have significantly improved healthcare by enabling the effective treatment of a wide range of diseases. Despite the progress that has been achieved, there are still several challenges that hinder patients from fully benefiting from these innovations. These challenges may include issues related to the efficacy, accessibility, and safety of new drug delivery methods, which need to be addressed to enhance patient outcomes [ 1 – 3 ]. Drug delivery systems, particularly those utilizing nanoparticles, have shown significant effectiveness in treating a range of ailments, with cancer being a notable example. These systems enhance the physicochemical properties of pharmaceuticals, which contributes to their potential in biomedical applications. This innovative approach allows for more targeted and efficient delivery of therapeutic agents, improving treatment outcomes [ 4 – 6 ]. Nanoscale systems, owing to their unique physicochemical properties, improve the delivery of therapeutic agents by enhancing drug absorption and distribution. Advances in nanomedicine allow precise dosage control, minimizing side effects while maximizing therapeutic outcomes, particularly in cancer treatment. Smart two-dimensional nanosheets have enabled targeted delivery of therapeutic compounds to tumors, increasing the accuracy and effectiveness of cancer therapies [ 7 – 9 ]. The advanced nanosheets referenced are designed to release therapeutic agents in response to specific triggers such as temperature shifts, light exposure, or pH fluctuations. Despite their potential, a major obstacle persists: inefficient or inaccurate loading of bioactive molecules onto these nanocarriers. This limitation can undermine their targeting precision, increasing the risk of off-target interactions with healthy tissues instead of focusing on diseased cells. Overcoming this challenge is essential to improve both the therapeutic effectiveness and the safety profile of these delivery platforms [ 10 , 11 ]. MXene is indeed a notable example of a two-dimensional transition metal carbide that serves as a smart nanocarrier in the field of nanomedicine. Its unique properties, such as hydrophilicity due to surface functional groups, enhanced biocompatibility, and efficient photothermal conversion, contribute to its effectiveness in drug delivery. These characteristics enable MXene to effectively transport poorly hydrophilic drugs, utilizing various polymer coatings to specifically target cancer cells. This capability positions it as a promising tool in the advancement of targeted cancer therapies [ 12 ]. MXene demonstrates significant versatility beyond drug delivery, particularly in the fields of photoacoustic imaging and photothermal therapy. This comprehensive review emphasizes its potential as an effective carrier for poorly hydrophilic drugs, showcasing its multifunctional applications in cancer treatment. Additionally, it provides critical insights into the design and therapeutic potential of MXene, reinforcing its promise in advancing cancer therapies [ 13 – 15 ]. In this review, we focus specifically on MXene quantum dot (QD) polymer nanocomposites as smart platforms for targeted drug delivery and multifunctional biomedical applications. While numerous studies have summarized the broad properties, synthesis methods, and diverse applications of MXenes (Ti 3 C 2 T X ), this review provides a distinct perspective by systematically highlighting the unique advantages of combining QDs with polymer matrices. Such integration enhances drug loading capacity, improves cellular uptake, enables stimuli-responsive release, and augments photothermal and photoluminescent performance compared to conventional MXene or MXene QD systems alone. Additionally, we offer a quantitative and comparative evaluation framework , examining key performance metrics, including cytotoxicity, biocompatibility, therapeutic efficacy, and multifunctional capabilities, while also addressing potential limitations such as stability and synthesis complexity. By emphasizing these novel aspects, this review delineates the rationale for focusing on MXene QD polymer nanocomposites and provides a coherent framework for their assessment in advanced biomedical applications. This study provides a focused overview of MXenes, covering their synthesis techniques and key properties, including cytotoxicity, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and stability under in vitro and in vivo conditions. Surface modification strategies aimed at enhancing MXene functionality are also discussed. Applications in biomedical fields, such as drug delivery, wound healing, and tissue engineering, are briefly highlighted. Finally, current challenges in MXene synthesis and potential future research directions are outlined to accelerate the development of this versatile two-dimensional material (Fig. 1 ). Fig. 1. Open in a new tab Vital concepts and core innovations in the biomedical field Synthesis It appears that Fig. 2 illustrates the various synthesis methods of MXene. Each of these methods will be detailed in the subsequent sections of the document [ 16 ]. Fig. 2. Open in a new tab Methods for synthesizing MXene particles Top-down methods Hydrofluoric acid (HF) etching In the context of HF etching, the removal of A from the MAX phase occurs through a chemical reaction rather than mechanical shearing. This is due to the metallic characteristics of the M-A molecules, which make mechanical methods impractical for this process. The chemical reaction effectively facilitates the etching by selectively targeting and removing the A component from the MAX phase material [ 16 , 17 ]. Chemical etching, which employs substances like HF (hydrofluoric acid) and HCl (hydrochloric acid), is viable because of the chemically active characteristics of M-A, in contrast to the more resilient M-X. The effectiveness of HF in this process is depicted in Fig. 3 [ 18 ]. Fig. 3. Open in a new tab Schematic representation of acid etching synthesis, involving various stages including etching and intercalation, to produce delaminated Mxene In-situ HF etching The new in-situ HF etching method utilizing fluoride salts such as LiF, NaF, and KF in conjunction with HCl presents a promising alternative to traditional HF etching techniques, particularly in terms of reducing environmental impacts. This method is characterized by a brief intercalation duration and the ability to perform concurrent etching, which can enhance efficiency. The established HCl/LiF etching technique, as highlighted in the study by Cockreham et al. on T3C2TxMXene using CoF 2 and HCl, further supports the viability of this approach in industrial applications [ 19 ]. Titanium nanoparticles have demonstrated effectiveness in photocatalytic processes, including benzene removal, and contribute to the formation of heterojunctions that enhance reaction efficiency. These findings highlight promising directions for future research in environmental remediation and materials science [ 20 ]. Molten salt etching method The molten salt method is an effective technique for separating MXene layers, demonstrating significant stability in Tin + 1Nn structures. This method also successfully removes nitride-based layers from the MAX phase. Developed by Gogotsi, this technique was utilized to create the initial MXene nitride, specifically Ti4N3Tx, through an etching process conducted at 550 °C for 30 min using a salt blend of KF, LiF, and NaF [ 21 ]. The method described involves redox reactions to selectively etch the A-site within MAX phases, leading to the formation of MXenes. Subsequent research has focused on improving this technique, particularly highlighting the impressive solar energy absorption capabilities of MXene nanofluids, which can achieve photothermal efficiencies of up to 91.9%. Additionally, it is noted that modifying surface terminations can enhance the conductivity and electrochemical properties of these materials [ 22 ]. Electrochemical etching The MAX phase, when utilized as an electrode, undergoes an electrochemical process that selectively extracts layers of MXene molecules, including compounds like HCl, NaCl, and NH4Cl. This process results in the incomplete removal of titanium, while carbon from the carbides accumulates on the surface of the MXene. Consequently, this leads to the formation of functional groups such as chlorine (Cl), hydroxyl (–OH), and oxygen (–O) instead of fluorine (–F) terminations in Ti2CTx [ 23 ]. This method has proven effective in the preparation of MXenes, resulting in fluoride-free MXene with enhanced performance in electrochemical capacitors. An electrochemical etching technique has been employed to produce Cl-containing MXene in an alkaline environment, achieving an impressive efficiency of 92.2% [ 24 ]. Furthermore, a more reliable approach has been identified that utilizes diluted hydrochloric acid for the synthesis of Ti2CTx MXene on porous Ti2AlC electrodes; however, issues related to over-etching have been noted [ 25 ]. The production of lithium-ion batteries utilizing electrochemical etching has demonstrated enhanced cycling stability, which is linked to the fluorination of Ti 3 C 2 Fx. Additionally, nanocarbon structures that are produced from the etching of Ti 3 AlC2 in hydrofluoric acid contribute to this process. This indicates that fluorinating certain materials, along with employing hydrofluoric acid during the etching process, can substantially enhance the performance of lithium-ion batteries [ 26 ]. Bottom-up methods MXene synthesis can be carried out using several techniques such as Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD), templating strategies, and Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD). Generally, MXenes are fabricated via two main approaches: top-down and bottom-up. The top-down approach entails breaking down bulk precursors into individual nanosheets, often leading to smaller crystallite dimensions and the introduction of structural imperfections. Conversely, the bottom-up strategy builds MXenes atom-by-atom or molecule-by-molecule, typically resulting in superior crystalline quality and reduced defect density, making it more suitable for specific uses [ 27 ]. Variations are present in the precursors, synthesis conditions, and surface properties, with Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) and Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) utilizing controlled temperatures for the fabrication of MXenes. CVD is a technique that employs high temperatures and specific chemicals (such as Cu, Mo, and CH 4 ) within a controlled environment to produce MXenes, whereas PLD is utilized to create a Mo 2 C layer. CVD typically results in higher crystallinity and conductivity, while PLD enables the production of MXene crystals at lower temperatures [ 28 ]. The synthesis is progressing steadily. Template synthesis is a bottom-up technique employed to synthesize Mxene [ 29 ]. As illustrated in Fig. 4 , the precursor requires the addition of salt crystals, followed by a coating process. The combination of the precursor and salt undergoes an ammoniating process (NH3-based), ultimately resulting in the production of MoN sheets after a subsequent washing process [ 30 ]. Fig. 4. Open in a new tab Template Mxene synthesis methods, using crystals of salts for the production of MoN sheets In chemical vapor deposition (CVD), methane is introduced onto a Cu/Mo substrate to synthesize ultrathin Mo 2 C at temperatures above 1085 °C. This method yields high-quality Mo 2 C; however, defect-free growth strongly depends on precise control of temperature and growth time. The resulting films, typically 10–100 μm in size, are unsuitable for medical applications, where surface engineering and nanoscale dimensions are critical for effective cellular interaction and penetration [ 31 – 33 ]. Alternative synthesis techniques for MXenes have been explored, including template methods and plasma-enhanced pulsed laser deposition (PELPD), which successfully produced ultrathin Mo 2 C films using methane plasma. Scalable salt-template approaches have enabled the synthesis of 2D nitrides such as MoN; however, reports on bottom-up fabrication of biocompatible MXenes remain limited, highlighting the need for further study [ 34 ]. Both top-down and bottom-up methods require reliable and safe strategies for large-scale production. Figure 5 summarizes the key differences among MXene synthesis routes and their associated material properties [ 35 ]. Fig. 5. Open in a new tab Key differences in synthesis (advantages and disadvantages) To better evaluate the suitability of different MXene synthesis strategies for biomedical applications, it is essential to systematically compare top-down and bottom-up approaches. While both pathways have been widely explored, their relative advantages and limitations in terms of scalability, yield, defect control, environmental impact, and biological relevance are often discussed independently rather than critically contrasted [ 32 ]. Therefore, Table 1 provides a comparative overview of representative synthesis techniques, the types of MXenes obtained, production yield, inherent defects, and their implications for biomedical use. This comparison aims to clarify the trade-offs between practical feasibility and structural precision, thereby offering a clearer framework for selecting appropriate synthesis routes for specific biological applications[ 33 ]. Table 1. Comparison of MXene synthesis methods with relevance to biomedical applications Synthesis approach Technique MXene type Scalability Yield Defect control Environmental impact Key flaws Biological relevance References Top-down HF etching MXene Moderate High Poor–moderate High toxicity (HF) Structural defects, surface contamination Widely used in photothermal therapy, drug delivery [ 15 ] Top-down In situ HF (LiF/HCl) MXene High High Moderate Reduced toxicity versus HF Residual salts, oxidation risk Improved biocompatibility, antibacterial activity [ 20 ] Top-down Molten salt etching Various MXenes Low–moderate Moderate Better than HF High temperature, energy-intensive Limited biomedical validation Potential for controlled surface chemistry [ 23 ] Bottom-up CVD growth Few-layer MXenes Low Low Excellent Relatively clean Complex process, low yield Limited due to scalability issues [ 27 ] Bottom-up Template-assisted synthesis MXene-like structures Low Low–moderate High Depends on template removal Non-stoichiometry Mainly exploratory biomedical studies [ 29 ] Open in a new tab Toxicity In this section, we focus on the key influential factors involved in the synthesis of nanocomposites that incorporate MXene. We examine the issue of cytotoxicity from both in vitro and in vivo perspectives. Additionally, we discuss important aspects such as stability, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, as illustrated in Fig. 6 . This section discusses the toxicity of MXene quantum dot–polymer nanocomposites. Overall, these nanocomposites are reported to have low toxicity, though variations in material composition and surface properties can affect biocompatibility. Mechanistic factors such as surface interactions and cellular responses are highlighted, while limitations, including the scarcity of comprehensive in vivo studies, are noted. This overview provides a critical perspective on the safety considerations for biomedical applications [ 34 , 35 ]. Fig. 6. Open in a new tab Influential factors in the synthesis of MXene-based bionanocomposites Toxicity and biocompatibility of MXenes Toxicity and biocompatibility are critical parameters in evaluating the biosafety of MXenes for biomedical applications. Although these terms are frequently used interchangeably, they describe distinct biological concepts. Toxicity refers to the ability of a material to induce adverse effects at the cellular, tissue, or organismal level, whereas biocompatibility denotes the absence of such harmful responses under specific application conditions [ 36 ]. Recent reviews and experimental studies published between 2024 and 2025 emphasize that this distinction is essential when interpreting MXene biosafety data, as materials exhibiting low short-term toxicity may still pose long-term biocompatibility risks. Williams defined biocompatibility as the ability of a material to elicit an appropriate host response in a particular application, highlighting the dynamic interplay between material properties and the biological environment [ 37 ]. In line with this definition, recent 2024–2025 studies demonstrate that the biological response to MXenes is strongly dependent on physicochemical parameters such as lateral size, thickness, surface terminations, oxidation state, and synthesis methodology rather than the MXene family alone. Accumulating experimental evidence indicates that the sharp edges of MXene nanosheets can mechanically disrupt cellular membranes, leading to cytoplasmic leakage and loss of membrane integrity [ 38 ]. Furthermore, recent in vitro investigations (2024–2025) report that smaller MXene flakes are more readily internalized via endocytosis, where they may interfere with intracellular organelles and metabolic pathways, thereby amplifying cytotoxic effects [ 39 ]. Beyond physical damage, MXenes have been increasingly shown to induce oxidative stress. Multiple 2024–2025 studies identify reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation as a dominant mechanism of MXene-induced cytotoxicity, particularly under near-infrared irradiation, which enhances their photothermal activity. This effect is further intensified by the presence of variable-valence transition metals that facilitate Fenton-like reactions, leading to elevated ROS levels and subsequent cell death [ 40 ]. The influence of synthesis and processing routes on toxicity has also been strongly supported by recent literature. Pandey et al. reported that Nb 2 C and Nb 4 C 3 MXenes significantly reduce intracellular glutathione levels in bacteria, directly linking their antimicrobial toxicity to oxidative stress pathways [ 41 ]. Importantly, follow-up studies published in 2024–2025 confirm that the magnitude of this effect is highly dependent on the exfoliation and purification procedures. Conventional hydrofluoric acid–based etching remains a major safety concern, as even trace residues of unreacted HF can induce severe cytotoxicity. Consequently, recent reports stress the necessity of rigorous washing and post-synthesis treatment to ensure biosafety [ 42 ]. In response to these challenges, fluorine-free etching strategies and bottom-up synthesis approaches , such as chemical vapor deposition, have gained increasing attention in 2024–2025 studies due to their improved control over surface chemistry and reduced toxicological risks. Moreover, comparative analyses indicate that MXene composition plays a decisive role in biological responses; for example, Ti 3 C 2 has been consistently reported to exhibit higher cytotoxicity than Ti 2 C, a trend attributed to differences in surface reactivity and oxidation behavior [ 43 ]. Recent systematic studies reinforce that such compositional effects must be considered when designing MXenes for biomedical use [ 44 ]. Overall, evidence from recent 2024–2025 literature confirms that MXene toxicity is not an intrinsic material property but a multifactorial outcome governed by composition, synthesis route, surface functionalization, and exposure conditions. Therefore, future research should prioritize standardized toxicity assessment protocols, long-term in vivo evaluations, and cross-comparative studies among different MXene families. Such evidence-based approaches are essential to accurately define the biocompatibility limits of MXenes and to support their safe and responsible translation into biomedical and clinical applications [ 45 ]. Biodegradability of MXenes Biodegradation refers to the gradual breakdown of substances through specific biological processes. Despite advancements that enhance the stability of MXenes in biological environments, they still undergo degradation [ 44 ]. MXene-PEG, which possesses a defect structure, exhibits deterioration over time when exposed to various solutions such as H 2 O, PBS, and RPMI medium at a temperature of 37 °C. Additionally, it is noted that MXenes, including MXene-PEG, are typically administered either orally or intravenously, allowing them to circulate through the bloodstream and reach different organs [ 45 ]. MXene cellular uptake occurs primarily via endocytosis, including caveolae/lipid-mediated pathways and macropinocytosis, as demonstrated using inhibitors such as amiloride and nystatin. The localization of MXenes within endocytic vesicles has been confirmed using RB-labeled V 2 C. Biodistribution studies show that MXenes derived from early transition metals mainly accumulate in the liver, with lower levels detected in the spleen, kidneys, lungs, and heart. These concentrations decrease over time, accompanied by increased excretion through feces and urine [ 46 ]. The half-life of altered MXenes in plasma varies significantly between different types. For example, Nb 2 C-PVP has a half-life of 3.8 h, whereas GdW10@ MXene has a much shorter half-life of 49.5 min. The biodegradation of MXenes primarily occurs in the gastrointestinal tract, with the liver playing a critical role in their metabolic elimination. Kupffer cells, which are macrophages located in the liver, are instrumental in the phagocytosis and subsequent lysosomal breakdown of nanomaterials larger than 200 nm. Additionally, Nb 2 C-PVP MXene can be degraded by human myeloperoxidase in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ), an enzyme predominantly found in neutrophils [ 47 – 49 ]. Hydrogen peroxide–driven myeloperoxidase activity in Kupffer cells may enable lysosomal biodegradation of MXenes in vivo. MXenes also accumulate in clearance organs such as the spleen, where particles larger than ~ 100–200 nm are excluded by splenic sinus endothelial gaps, influencing biodistribution and clearance [ 51 ]. Table 2 provides a comparative overview of the cytotoxic effects of MXene-based nanomaterials in various biological models. Table 2. Comparative toxicity profiles of MXene-based nanomaterials across biological models Mxene type Dose/Concentration Model system Primary toxicity endpoint(s) Biodistribution/Half-life Strengths/Limitations of Evidence References MXene nanosheets 25–500 μg/mL HUVECs (in vitro) Dose-dependent metabolic shifts; increased glycolysis and lipid accumulation; cell viability > 70% at lower doses Not reported Well-characterized in vitro; lacks long-term assessment; sublethal effects highlighted [ 41 ] MXene QDs 10–50 μg/mL HUVECs (in vitro) Cytotoxicity increases with dose; > 70% viability at 25 μg/mL Not reported Compared to Nb 2 C QDs; limited to short-term exposure; clear structure–toxicity correlation [ 43 ] Nb 2 C QDs 10–50 μg/mL HUVECs (in vitro) Minimal cytotoxic effects even at higher doses Not reported Demonstrates lower toxicity versus T 3 C 2 QDs; only in vitro data [ 25 ] MXene nanosheets 50–100 μg/mL hMSCs (in vitro) Dose-dependent inhibition of cell growth; significant cytotoxicity at 100 μg/mL Not reported Highlights stem cell sensitivity; short-term study; no biodistribution data [ 45 ] MXene nanosheets 25–50 μg/mL NSCs (in vitro) Dose-dependent cytotoxicity Not reported Neural stem cell-specific effects; limited sample size [ 47 ] MXene nanosheets 50–100 μg/mL Zebrafish embryos (in vivo) LC 50 = 257.46 μg/mL; 21% mortality at 100 μg/mL; normal development at 50 μg/mL Accumulation not detailed; early-stage transparency allows observation Relevant vertebrate model; short exposure (96 h); limited chronic data [ 49 ] MXene 30 µg/embryo Chicken embryos (in vivo) 46% mortality; angiogenesis inhibition; gene downregulation Not reported Highlights developmental toxicity; limited to embryonic model [ 53 ] Nb 2 C T x nanosheets 5–50 mg/kg Kunming mice (in vivo) No significant hematological or biochemical changes; low inflammation Organ accumulation not significant; histology normal Supports low in vivo toxicity; short-term study; organ-specific clearance not fully characterized [ 55 ] MXene films – ICR mice Bone regeneration; low inflammatory response Accumulation in lungs and liver observed Functional evaluation; biodistribution highlights potential risks; long-term effects not assessed [ 57 ] Ti 3 AlC 2 nanosheets 100–1000 μg/mL Arabidopsis seedlings (plant model) ROS generation; stomatal opening increase; reduced biomass at higher doses – Demonstrates ecological and phytotoxic effects; plant-specific; relevance to mammalian toxicity indirect [ 60 ] Open in a new tab MXene stability By 2021, the theme of “stability” became central in MXenes research, highlighting a growing focus among scholars on this aspect. The chemical stability of MXenes is influenced by various factors, and degradation occurs gradually at room temperature when MXenes are exposed to light, water, and oxygen. This exposure can lead to a decline in their structural integrity and unique properties, making their vulnerability notable when compared to more stable compounds [ 52 ]. For example, maintaining MXene in water-based colloidal solutions at room temperature in open vials results in complete structural degradation within 20 days. After one week of exposure, oxidation begins at the edges of the nanosheet, leading to the formation of “branches” of anatase (TiO 2 ) and transforming MXene into aggregates composed of anatase and disordered carbon, which ultimately results in total structural failure [ 53 ]. It is believed that exposure to light accelerates the degradation process by promoting chemical reactions; however, the stability of MXenes can be improved through optimized storage conditions, thereby extending their lifespan. The key factors that affect their longevity include ambient temperature, light exposure, availability of oxygen and water, pH level, and solution concentration [ 54 ]. Zhang C. and colleagues showed that maintaining MXene at 5 °C in airtight vials filled with argon, which removes oxygen, greatly improves its stability and prolongs its shelf life to two years. In comparison, MXene stored in open vials experienced degradation rates of 42%, 85%, and 100% after 5, 10, and 15 days, respectively. These results suggest that lower storage temperatures significantly reduce degradation, consistent with the principles described in the Arrhenius equation [ 55 ]. MXenes can undergo various modifications with stabilizing agents, which enhance their stability in aqueous and biological environments while also improving their biocompatibility. Well-known antioxidants, including ascorbic acid, sodium ascorbate, citric acid, and tartaric acid, form chelates with the surfaces of titanium atoms, creating a redox barrier that protects against oxidation. However, some compounds, such as malic acid and 2,4-hydroxyphenyl ethanol, have been shown to be ineffective, while others, like 4-hydroxyphenyl, demonstrate positive effects [ 56 ]. Table 3 summarizes the impact of stabilizing agents on the stability of MXene. Table 3. The effect of stabilizing agents on MXene stability Composite (Mxene with stabilizing agent) The effect of a stabilizing agent References MXene-Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) PVP-modified MXene exhibited excellent dispersibility and long-term colloidal stability in H 2 O, phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), and [ 22 ] Ta 4 C 3 -Soybean phospholipid (SP) Prevention of toxicity, improvement of biocompatibility, physiological and photothermal performance stability of nanosheets in H 2 O, PBS, SBF, saline, and DMEM [ 25 ] Nb 2 C-PVP PVP increased the stability of MXene, improved its biocompatibility and decreased cytotoxicity [ 30 ] Nb 2 C-Methoxylpolyethylene glycol-silane (mPEG-silane) Improved stability of MXene/mesoporous silica/NO donor composites was tested under physiological conditions [ 34 , 35 ] MXene-Extracted bentonite Prevention of oxidation of MXene based composite by preferential adsorption of O2 molecules, ensuring resistance to temperatures over 400 °C for several hours [ 40 ] MXene sodium L-ascorbate Prevention of oxidation and aggregation of MXenes by interaction with the edges of the nanosheets and blocking of reactive sites [ 31 ] V2C PVA PVA improved MXene stability in various physiological solutions, including H 2 O, PBS, FBS, cell culture medium, and prevented obvious aggregatio [ 44 ] MXene cellulose Construction of MXene-based hydrogels with better biocompatibility to tissues and cells. Also cellulose provided the possibility to modify mechanical properties of MXene-based hydrogels and load drugs [ 47 ] MXene PVP Improvement of biocompatibility, physiological stability and biodegradability without any apparent toxicity [ 52 ] MXene with defect structure 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-polyethylene glycol (DSPEPEG) DSPE-PEG improved dispersibility of MXene and stability in various physiological solutions, including H 2 O, PBS, and 0.9% NaCl [ 54 ] MXene PDA PDA improved the biocompatibility of doxorubicin (DOX) conjugated (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (APTES)-functionalized MXene [ 57 ] MXene sodium ascorbate and dopamine Prevention of MXene oxidation, improvement of stability in oxidizing and hydration environments, increasing of available functional groups, provision of bioapplicability [ 19 ] Cationic porphyrins Prevention of MXene oxidation and obtaining highly stable and functional nanosheets for promising applications in biomedicine, optoelectronics, and sensors [ 16 ] MXene L-ascorbic acid Prevention of oxidation by redox shielding and improvement of thermal stability of MXene /polypropylene nanocomposites [ 8 ] MXene polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) Stability improvement of MXene in PBS [ 34 ] MXene polydopamine (PDA) PDA improved the biocompatibility of MXene-based nanocatalytic hydrogel, increased ability to tissue adhesion, and showed photothermal properties [ 41 ] MXene SP Improvement of colloidal stability and prevention of aggregation of MnOx/ MXene composite nanosheets in physiological solutions, such as DMEM, saline, PBS, and SBF [ 9 ] MXene amino-(polyethylene glycol)2000 (NH2-PEG2000) and bovine serum albumin Improvement of GdW10@ MXene composite dispersion in various solutions including H 2 O, saline, simulated body fluid (SBF), PBS, andm DMEM [ 57 ] MXene Polyethylene glycol (PEG) PEG increased dispersion of MXenes in PBS, prevented the formation of aggregates and decreased surface negative charge [ 58 ] MXene, Ti 2 C-Citric, tartaric, and oxalic acids Prevention of oxidation due to chelation of antioxidant molecules on surface atoms [ 59 ] Open in a new tab Invitro toxic effects of MXenes Concerns regarding the toxicity of MXenes extend beyond their synthesis routes to include their prospective medical applications. Consistent with current nanotoxicology practices, preliminary safety evaluations of engineered nanomaterials are predominantly conducted using in vitro cell-based assays. Among the MXene family, MXene nanosheets have been the most extensively investigated, providing a foundational understanding of MXene–cell interactions [ 57 ]. Recent studies published in 2024–2025 increasingly emphasize that such in vitro assessments, while informative, must be interpreted in a dose-, time-, and cell-type–dependent manner. Zhang et al. reported that MXene nanosheets at concentrations ranging from 100 to 500 μg/mL did not induce acute cytotoxicity in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). However, metabolomic analyses revealed significant alterations in cellular metabolism at higher doses, including enhanced glycolysis and lipid accumulation, despite unchanged cell viability [ 58 ]. These findings, corroborated by more recent 2024–2025 studies , suggest that conventional viability assays alone may underestimate sublethal metabolic stress induced by MXenes. In contrast, Gu et al. demonstrated that Ti 3 C 2 quantum dots (QDs) exhibited markedly higher cytotoxicity than Nb 2 C QDs in HUVECs. Although Ti 3 C 2 QDs maintained over 70% cell viability at 25 μg/mL, a dose-dependent decline in viability was observed at higher concentrations, whereas Nb 2 C QDs showed minimal cytotoxic effects across the tested range [ 59 ]. This comparative evidence highlights the critical role of MXene structure, composition, and dimensionality in governing biological responses—a conclusion that aligns with recent 2024–2025 literature emphasizing structure–toxicity relationships in 2D nanomaterials. Cell-type–specific toxicity has also been reported. MXene nanosheets exhibited pronounced cytotoxic effects on human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) at concentrations exceeding 50 μg/mL, with severe inhibition of cell proliferation observed at 100 μg/mL. Similarly, primary neural stem cells (NSCs) displayed dose-dependent sensitivity, with lower concentrations being relatively well tolerated, while significant cytotoxicity emerged at 25 μg/mL [ 60 ]. These observations reinforce recent findings (2024–2025) that stem cells are particularly sensitive to nanomaterial-induced stress due to their high metabolic activity and limited antioxidative capacity. Importantly, MXenes demonstrate selective cytotoxicity, exhibiting stronger inhibitory effects on cancer cells compared to normal cells [ 61 ]. This phenomenon has attracted increasing attention in recent oncological nanomedicine studies , as it suggests potential therapeutic windows for anticancer applications. Scheibe et al. confirmed that various MXene morphologies induce elevated cytotoxicity in HeLa cells. While oxidative stress is commonly implicated in the toxicity of two-dimensional materials, their work revealed that MXenes generate higher levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) than their MAX phase precursors. Notably, this enhanced toxicity was attributed not only to ROS generation but also to direct physicochemical interactions with cellular membranes, underscoring the multifaceted nature of MXene-induced cytotoxicity [ 62 ]. Overall, evidence from both earlier and recent 2024–2025 studies indicates that MXene toxicity is highly context-dependent, governed by material structure, dose, exposure duration, and cell phenotype. These findings underscore the necessity of integrating metabolic, oxidative, and membrane-interaction analyses into future toxicity assessments to support the safe design and biomedical translation of MXene-based materials. Table 4 summarizes the in vitro toxic effects of MXenes. Table 4. Toxic effects of MXenes (in vitro) Type of MXene Dose (µg mL −1 ), type of tumor cells Time (h) Conclusion References Nb 2 CTx 0–200, Breast 4T1 and glioma U87 cells 24 At 200 µg/mL, cell viability remained unaffected; however, higher laser intensity significantly killed cancer cells [ 42 ] MXene 0–500, HaCaT cells, MRC-5, A549 and A375 24 Cytotoxicity increases against cancer cells compared to normal cells [ 35 ] MXene 0–100, human mesenchymal stem cells 7days > 50 µg mL −1 , obvious cytotoxicity was shown [ 10 ] Ti 2 N QDs 0–80, U87, 293T, and 4T1 24 Irradiating with lasers after incubating with Ti2N quantum dots effectively kills cancer cells [ 34 , 35 ] MXene (TiC, Ti 2 AlC, and Ti 3 AlC 2 ) 10–400, HeLa cells and normal fibroblasts (MSU1.1) 24–48 MXene structures exhibit better cell viability than MAX phases [ 50 ] Ti 2 CTx 0–500, 3D HeLa cell culture system 24 The adhesion of Ti2CTx MXenes to microtissues reduced growth and cell viability [ 31 ] MXene 100 and 500, human umbilical vein endothelial cells 48 No acute cytotoxicity was observed, and the cell ratios matched the control patterns for viability [ 46 ] Ti 2 NTx 62.5–500, Melanoma, keratinocytes, breast cancer, and epithelial cells. 24 Greater toxicity to cancer cells compared to normal cells [ 41 ] MXene 12.5–100, Neural stem cells and their derivatives 24 MXene nanosheets induce cytotoxicity, impacting numerous genes [ 32 ] MXene QDs, Nb 2 C QDs 0–100, HUVECs 24 MXene quantum dots reduced cellular viability more than Nb2C quantum dots [ 12 ] Open in a new tab MXenes and MXene QDs generally show low to moderate cytotoxicity in standard cell culture models, with viability remaining high at lower concentrations. However, toxicity depends strongly on dose, material type, surface chemistry, and cell type, and ultrafine quantum dots often exhibit higher cytotoxicity than larger nanosheets [ 62 ]. For example, Ti 3 C 2 and Nb 2 C MXene QDs internalize in human endothelial cells and can induce autophagy‑related stress responses, though inflammatory signals do not always increase, suggesting complex toxicity mechanisms beyond inflammation alone.Surface functionalization (e.g., coatings and polymer conjugation) can improve biocompatibility and reduce adverse cellular responses, highlighting the importance of engineering surface properties for safer use [ 63 ]. Toxic effects of MXenes in vivo Zebrafish ( Danio rerio ) have emerged as a widely accepted in vivo model for nanotoxicity assessment due to their high genetic homology with humans, small size, rapid development, and optical transparency during early life stages [ 64 ]. These characteristics enable sensitive evaluation of developmental, neurological, and systemic toxicity. In a study by Nasrallah et al., MXene nanosheets were evaluated in zebrafish embryos, revealing no mortality at 50 μg/mL, whereas exposure to 100 μg/mL resulted in a 21% mortality rate. The calculated LC 50 after 96 h was 257.46 μg/mL [ 65 ]. At lower concentrations, embryos exhibited normal locomotor behavior and preserved neuronal and muscular function, leading to the classification of MXene as “essentially nontoxic” under these conditions. Recent 2024–2025 in vivo nanotoxicology studies emphasize that such dose-dependent responses highlight the importance of defining safe exposure thresholds rather than relying on binary toxic/nontoxic classifications[ 66 ]. Contrasting results have been reported in other embryonic models. Alhussain et al. investigated MXene exposure in chicken embryos and observed a markedly higher mortality rate of 46% at a dose of 30 μg per embryo, accompanied by significant inhibition of angiogenesis. This effect was attributed to the downregulation of genes critical for vascular development [ 65 ]. The discrepancy between zebrafish and avian models underscores findings from recent 2024–2025 literature , which stress that species-specific developmental pathways and exposure routes can substantially influence nanomaterial toxicity outcomes. Rodent studies provide additional insight into systemic toxicity. In vivo evaluation of Nb 2 C T x nanosheets in Kunming mice revealed no significant alterations in hematological or biochemical parameters, indicating minimal inflammatory responses. Histopathological analysis further confirmed the absence of notable tissue damage across major organs [ 66 ]. These results suggest that certain MXene compositions may exhibit favorable biosafety profiles in mammalian systems. However, other investigations have reported organ-specific accumulation. For instance, MXene MXene films demonstrated promising performance in targeted bone regeneration with low inflammatory responses, yet biodistribution studies in ICR mice revealed preferential accumulation in the lungs and liver [ 67 ]. This observation aligns with recent 2024–2025 reports identifying the reticuloendothelial system as a primary site for nanomaterial sequestration, raising concerns regarding long-term pulmonary and hepatic effects. Beyond animal models, environmental and ecological toxicity has also been documented. Studies on Ti 3 AlC 2 nanosheets demonstrated that concentrations of 100 and 1000 μg/mL significantly inhibited plant seedling growth through ROS-mediated oxidative stress. At 100 μg/mL, stomatal opening increased to 78.6% and trichome density doubled, effects attributed to the release of titanium ions. At higher concentrations, severe abiotic stress was observed, including membrane damage, reduced biomass, and decreased chlorophyll content, ultimately impairing plant growth [ 68 ]. These findings, increasingly discussed in 2024–2025 environmental nanotoxicology studies , highlight the broader ecological implications of MXene release [ 69 ]. Despite these insights, current in vivo toxicity assessments of MXenes remain limited. Only a small number of studies systematically investigate long-term exposure, environmentally relevant doses, or realistic administration routes. As summarized in Table 3 , the existing literature provides fragmented and model-dependent evidence, restricting comprehensive risk evaluation [ 69 ]. Recent studies suggest that Ti 3 AlC 2 nanosheets may pose potential in vivo toxicity risks, raising concerns regarding both their biomedical applicability and environmental safety in agricultural contexts [ 70 ]. Overall, evidence from recent 2024–2025 studies indicates that MXene in vivo toxicity is highly dependent on material composition, dosage, exposure duration, and biological model. These findings underscore the urgent need for standardized long-term in vivo studies, integrated biodistribution analyses, and environmentally relevant exposure assessments to ensure the safe and responsible development of MXene-based technologies. In Table 5 , the toxic effects of MXenes in vivo are summarized. Table 5. Toxic effects of MXenes (in vivo) Type of MXenes Dose and type of models Toxicity effects References MXene 20 mg kg-1, ICR mice MXene nanosheets accumulate in the liver and lungs, negatively impacting respiratory function [ 55 ] MXene 30 µg for 5 days in chicken embryos Early embryonic toxicity: downregulation of genes affecting cell growth and angiogenesis [ 44 ] Ti 3 AlC 2 0.1–1000 µg mL −1 , Rice Ti 3 AlC 2 nanosheets inhibited seedling growth and increased both stomatal aperture and the number of trichomes [ 25 ] MXene 25–200 µg mL −1 , Zebrafish embryos The LC50 was 257.46 µg/mL, and there was no observed toxicity at 50 µg [ 69 ] MXene 20 mg Kg −1 , Kunming mice There is no inflammation or histological abnormalities; Nb2CTx is biocompatible [ 70 ] Open in a new tab In vivo studies indicate that MXene materials can be biocompatible and practically nontoxic at moderate exposures, with low acute mortality in zebrafish embryos and minimal organ inflammation in mice following systemic administration. However, at higher doses, developmental toxicity has been reported in some animal models (e.g., chicken embryos), and potential organ accumulation warrants further investigation. Functional applications such as MXene QD-mediated photothermal therapy for cancer show potent tumor inhibition with minimal harm to mice and good biocompatibility without surface modification, suggesting promise for therapeutic use [ 71 ]. Analysis of nanoparticle physicochemical properties and toxicity outcomes To address the reviewer’s concerns regarding the relationship between nanoparticle physicochemical properties and toxicity outcomes, we have summarized key findings from recent studies (2024–2025) in Table 6 . This table highlights how variations in particle size, surface chemistry, synthesis pathway, dose/exposure, and biological model influence toxicity endpoints. The aim is to provide a clear overview and emphasize common design principles such as stimuli responsiveness, polymer integration, and surface functionalization [ 72 ]. Table 6. Effects of nanoparticle size, surface chemistry, dose, and biological model on toxicity Nanoparticle type Particle size Surface chemistry/Termination Dose/Exposure Biological model Observed toxicity outcome Key insights References Nanoplastics – Surface charge Mass concentration varied Mouse/mammalian model Wide range of toxic effects influenced by size, type, concentration Toxicity depends on particle properties and exposure conditions [ 62 ] Various NPs Smaller < critical Surface charge, functionalization – General Enhanced reactivity & ROS generation Smaller, highly reactive NPs often more toxic; surface chemistry is a determinant [ 64 ] SiO 2 NPs 10–100 nm – Inhalation model Computational inhalation model Deposition varied 10→100 nm Size influences deposition and likely toxicity pathways [ 38 ] Various NPs (ML analysis) Size as feature Surface charge Dose, exposure time Machine learning meta-data Oxygen atoms, size, surface area, dose key predictors Supports importance of physicochemical features on toxicity [ 55 ] ENPs in agroecosystem Smaller versus larger Coated versus uncoated Environmental context Plants and soil microbes Smaller higher phytotoxicity Surface coatings modulate dispersion and toxicity [ 68 ] Open in a new tab This table demonstrates that particle size, surface chemistry, dose, and biological model are critical determinants of toxicity outcomes. It also clarifies the distinction between short-term cytotoxicity, long-term biodistribution, and environmental effects, providing a more analytical perspective rather than a purely descriptive discussion [ 73 ]. Properties Structural properties Once MXene was obtained from the MAX phase, the resulting substance exhibited surface groups including F, O, and OH. MXenes terminated with O and OH species are regarded as more stable, since F is typically replaced by OH when MXene comes into contact with water. M. Pogoreilov et al. presented a diagram of M 3 X 2 MXene, derived from its M 3 AX 2 precursor, highlighting the removal of a layer from titanium carbide (fcc lattice) along the (111) plane. The etching process removes the A-layer, leaving dynamic M atoms on the surface and X atoms positioned internally [ 70 ]. The produced MXene possesses a hexagonally close-packed (HCP) configuration, with stacking arrangements determined by the atomic sequence of metals, represented by the n values. Experimental fabrication has generated 100 stoichiometric structures, encompassing 20 distinct configurations, such as Ti 2 N, Ti 3 C 2 , Nb 4 C 3 , V 4 C 3 , and Nb 2 C. Metal adsorption and thermal processing can modify surface groups, making their configurations more complex depending on the MXene's fundamental material and type [ 71 ]. Electrical properties MXenes exhibit hydrophilic properties and high electrical conductivity, which can enhance the performance of polymer-based nanocomposites for targeted drug delivery. These properties can be optimized through control of defects, surface terminations, and flake size [ 72 ]. As the temperature rises from 77 to 300 K, the resistance decreases, exhibiting a behavior also seen in Ti 3 CNT x MXene. Fluctuations in resistance are associated with inherent characteristics, surface terminations, and defects introduced during processing. MXenes, including those based on graphene oxide, exhibit high electrical conductivity, which can be tailored to enhance the performance of polymer nanocomposites for targeted drug delivery [ 73 ]. Mechanical properties MXene exhibits exceptional mechanical properties, making it ideal for various applications. Its remarkable physicochemical characteristics—including stability, scalability, and durability—along with a multilayered structure similar to that of 2D graphene, make it suitable for use in supercapacitors and lithium-ion batteries [ 74 ]. The tensile strength of MXene ranges from 81.71 to 561.4 N/m, exceeding that of many other two-dimensional materials. Recent research indicates that the variety of MXene compositions is limited; however, many options remain uninvestigated [ 75 ]. The mechanical properties of MXenes depend on specific combinations of transition metals and X elements, but research on this topic is limited [ 76 ]. Understanding three-dimensional binary transition metal nitrides and carbides could further deepen our knowledge of MXenes. Importantly, nitrogen and carbon exist in the interstitial spaces, forming an M–X rock salt structure, where the bonding exhibits covalent, ionic, and metallic characteristics among M, nitrogen, and carbon [ 77 ]. Recent research has demonstrated advanced MXene composites, including one developed by Y. Xue et al., which incorporates phenyl phosphonic diaminohexane within the MXene layers, leading to enhanced stiffness and remarkable thermal stability. A separate study conducted by M. Wu and colleagues showed that adding MXene to polyacrylamide organohydrogels significantly improved their mechanical properties across different temperatures [ 78 ]. Electrochemical properties Ti 3 C 2 MXene shows great potential for energy storage in electrochemical systems and batteries, but its performance is limited by restacking, which hinders ion transport and reduces electrolyte access to active sites. Incorporating metal ions (Li⁺, K⁺, Na⁺, Mg 2 ⁺, NH 4 ⁺) and polar carbon-based compounds into the MXene layers can help overcome this issue. MXene electrochemical performance is strongly influenced by surface functional groups and flake size. Using sonication and density gradient techniques, MXene flakes ranging from 0.1 to 5 μm were produced. Flakes around 1 μm exhibited an optimal capacitance of 290 F g⁻ 1 at 2 mV s⁻ 1 , highlighting their potential for electrochemical actuator applications [ 79 ]. Bioactive properties The beneficial aspect ratio of MXenes enhances their antimicrobial properties and biocompatibility. MXene (Ti 3 C 2 ) doped with polyvinyl fluoride exhibits stronger antimicrobial effects against E. coli than Ti 2 C. Oxidation generally reduces the effectiveness of 2D nanomaterials against bacteria; however, MXenes demonstrate robustness and retain their antimicrobial properties. J. Yoon and colleagues documented a biocompatible, oxidation-resistant MXene featuring a halogen-free surface termination, created through traditional hydrofluoric acid (HF) etching. Their research highlighted the harmful effects associated with traditional methods [ 80 ]. HF- MXene flakes produced through NaOH etching exhibit a significant red shift, high levels of –O and –OH terminations, improved biocompatibility, and minimal cytotoxicity, making them promising for biomedical applications [ 81 ]. Thermophysical properties of MXene compounds The thermal stability of MXenes significantly influences their prolonged lifespan. Thermal stability is affected by factors such as chemical composition, terminal groups, and environmental conditions. Evaluating thermal stability involves examining degradation behavior, chemical reactivity in different states (gaseous, liquid, solid), and self-crosslinking mechanisms [ 82 ]. The decomposition characteristics, particularly during heat treatment under vacuum, provide insights into the thermal stability of different MXene type s[ 83 ]. Initial degradation occurs in two stages: the detachment of surface terminal groups, followed by a phase transition triggered by the desorption of water, both of which influence charge transfer [ 84 ]. The stability of Ti 3 C 2 TX flakes under electron-beam irradiation depends on surface stability influenced by terminal groups and reveals the presence of Ti vacancies. Heating to 500 °C results in the formation of monolayered Ti 3 C 2 flakes, while higher temperatures, such as 1000 °C, significantly enhance the development of h-TiC, producing larger regions of Ti 5 C 4 and Ti 4 C 3 [ 85 ]. Mo 2 C exhibits a thermal conductivity of 48.4 W/m·K at room temperature, which can be enhanced by increasing the temperature or through doping. Ti 3 C 2 MXenes remain stable up to 800 °C under inert conditions but oxidize in oxygen-rich environments [ 86 ]. Additionally, studies on MXene-CNT membranes reveal the possibility of forming innovative chemical bonds and self-crosslinking mechanisms, resulting in efficient ion rejection and minimized swelling. These studies highlight the diverse characteristics of MXenes shaped by thermal factors and chemical interactions, which are essential for their durability in various applications [ 87 ]. Magnetic properties MXenes, a family of two-dimensional multilayer materials, exhibit diverse magnetic properties that depend on their composition, structural configuration, and surface functionalization. While most MXenes are non-magnetic due to strong M–X and M–T bonds, certain types demonstrate magnetic order, including ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism [ 88 ]. Nitrogen-containing MXenes often show significant magnetic moments from partially filled d-orbitals, whereas other MXenes display varied magnetic behaviors depending on functionalization and oxygen content. These materials also show tunable magnetic properties under mechanical strain, with some MXenes increasing their magnetic moments while others experience reductions [ 89 ]. Surface terminations play a crucial role in modulating spin polarization and controlling transitions between magnetic phases, influencing both the ground state and overall magnetic response. Studies on a range of MXenes, including Cr-, Mn-, Ti-, and V-based compounds, reveal that functionalization can induce half-metallic ferromagnetism, metal-to-insulator transitions, and variations in magnetic anisotropy. The Curie temperature of MXenes varies widely and is strongly dependent on the chemical composition and surface modifications, demonstrating their potential for high-temperature magnetic applications [ 90 ]. The interplay between structure, composition, and surface chemistry allows MXenes to exhibit complex and tunable magnetic behaviors, which are important for designing advanced nanocomposites. This tunability, combined with their hydrophilic nature and high electrical conductivity, makes MXenes attractive candidates for functional polymer nanocomposites in biomedical applications, including targeted drug delivery [ 91 ]. Overall, understanding and controlling the magnetic properties of MXenes is essential for exploiting their full potential in multifunctional nanomaterials, where magnetic behavior can complement electronic, optical, and biocompatibility features in practical applications [ 92 ]. Optical properties of MXenes MXenes exhibit remarkable optical properties, including tunable absorption, reflectivity, and infrared response, which depend on their composition, surface terminations, and structural features [ 93 – 95 ]. Modifications such as strain, doping, or Janus-type engineering further enhance these properties. Such tunability makes MXenes highly adaptable for diverse applications, including polymer-based nanocomposites for biomedical purposes, where their optical characteristics can support imaging, sensing, or targeted drug delivery, highlighting their multifunctional potential in advanced nanomaterial designs [ 96 – 101 ]. Methods of surface functionalization Controlling surface terminations Modifying the surface of MXenes requires altering their termination (T) groups, which in turn adjusts properties such as concentration, electrochemically active sites, and electronic configurations [ 102 – 106 ]. Surface terminations like fluorine and oxygen can be introduced using fluoride-containing salts [ 107 ]. By controlling etching concentration and duration, the types of surface terminations can be tailored. One study investigated how different surface terminations impact physical properties, revealing that the presence of Ti–O bonds promotes favorable electronic scattering [ 108 ]. Heating the material to 380 °C under vacuum increased the work function from 3.9 to 4.8 eV, attributed to the removal of –OH groups and impurities. However, further heating between 500 °C and 750 °C reduced the work function due to fluorine release [ 109 ]. Density Functional Theory (DFT) analyses showed that surface terminations influence the density of states at the Fermi level, with a decrease in –F concentration at higher annealing temperatures. Additionally, Ti–C vacancies affect magnetization, underscoring the impact of structural changes on magnetic properties [ 110 ]. Small molecules Modifying MXene surfaces with small molecules such as C12E6 improves their mechanical stability, electrical performance, and solution stability. Xia et al. demonstrated enhanced molecular interactions via hydrogen bonding, confirmed by the appearance of a fan-shaped texture in microscopy images [ 111 ]. Lei et al. synthesized sulfonic acid-functionalized MXene, Ti 3 C 2 –SO 3 H, through a one-step reaction with diazonium salt; SEM images revealed granular formations, contrasting sharply with the layered lamellar structure of unmodified Ti 3 C 2 [ 112 ]. Jin et al. employed a basic solvothermal/hydrothermal method to functionalize Nb 2 C MXenes, enhancing their electromagnetic wave (EMW) absorption by increasing functional group density and interlayer spacing, which promotes multiple reflections and improved absorption [ 113 ]. Other small molecules, including bismuth ferrite and sodium aluminum hydride, have also been used for MXene functionalization. Wang et al. introduced amino groups to MXenes to enable biomolecule immobilization and addressed large-scale delamination by applying diazonium chemistry to disrupt M–X bonds, thereby facilitating cellulose cross-linking [ 114 ]. Surface-initiated polymerization MXenes, featuring multiple active surface groups, facilitate both ex situ mixing and in situ polymerization, thereby enhancing MXene/polymer composites through hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions. Sun et al. fabricated conductive MXene@polystyrene nanocomposites via electrostatic assembly followed by compression molding [ 115 ]. The surface functional groups on MXenes enable their assembly on polystyrene (PS) through van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding, and electrostatic interactions. Ling et al. developed Ti 3 C 2 /PVA and Ti 3 C 2 /PDDA composites utilizing these interactions [ 116 , 117 ]. Covalent bonding between MXenes and polymers is achieved through in situ polymerization of monomers such as ε-caprolactone and pyrrole, as demonstrated by Boota et al. In PPy/Ti 3 C 2 composites, hydrogen bonds form between Ti 3 C 2 ’s –O groups and pyrrole’s hydrogen and nitrogen atoms, while soybean phospholipid improves Ti 3 C 2 ’s biocompatibility and functionality [ 118 ]. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) helps maintain solution stability, whereas polydopamine (PDA) enhances Ti 3 C 2 ’s capacitive performance when combined with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) through various covalent and non-covalent interactions. Surface-initiated polymerization methods have been explored using V 2 C and PDMAEMA, employing –OH initiators and peroxide approaches to study polymerization within MXenes [ 119 ]. Functionalization of MXenes with macromolecules significantly enhances their properties. Silane compounds bearing functional groups form strong covalent bonds between organic and inorganic materials through silanol groups [ 120 ]. For instance, Ti 3 C 2 has been functionalized with AEAPTMS, which bonds to –OH groups, enabling reactions with epoxy resin curing agents and supporting surface-initiated polymerization [ 30 ]. These improved MXene composites have broad applications in energy storage, biosensors, fuel cells, catalysis, and drug delivery systems [ 121 ]. Single heteroatom method MXenes encounter electrochemical challenges in Na-ion and Li-ion batteries; however, increasing their interlayer spacing through single heteroatom doping significantly enhances their performance. For example, N-doped Nb 2 C MXene was synthesized via a hydrothermal method, maintaining its layered structure and uniform distribution of C, O, and Nb. Similarly, heat treatment with triphenylphosphine produced p-doped V 2 C with an expanded interlayer spacing of 1.03 nm [ 122 ]. Additionally, varying synthesis temperatures enabled the production of N-doped V 2 C with different nitrogen concentrations, achieving uniform elemental distribution. Further advancements include cation doping of Ti 3 C 2 and doping of boron, germanium, and silicon in various MXenes, all contributing to improved electrochemical properties [ 123 ]. Effect of surface functinalize on properties MXenes display diverse electronic behaviors that can shift from metallic to semiconducting depending on their surface functional groups. For example, MXenes terminated with fluorine or oxygen typically exhibit semiconducting properties, whereas their unmodified counterparts maintain metallic behavior. Similarly, magnetic properties are influenced by surface modifications; some alterations can convert ferromagnetic MXenes into antiferromagnetic semiconductors [ 124 ]. While certain modifications reduce magnetic responses, oxygen-containing groups often enhance ferromagnetism, resulting in half-metallic behavior. Surface terminations also significantly affect the mechanical properties of MXenes. Variants terminated with oxygen demonstrate higher stiffness compared to those with hydroxyl or fluorine groups [ 125 ]. Moreover, incorporating carbon nanotubes and polymers markedly improves tensile strength, toughness, and flexibility [ 125 ]. Optical characteristics are similarly impacted by functionalization. Pristine Ti 3 C 2 shows high transmittance across the visible spectrum, but Ti 2 C functionalized with oxygen, hydroxyl, and fluorine groups exhibits a notable reduction in transmittance, affecting absorption and reflectivity in both ultraviolet and visible ranges [ 126 ]. Finally, the hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity of MXenes depends on their surface groups. Hydrophilic terminations may lead to degradation in the presence of water and oxygen, but surface treatments can convert MXenes into hydrophobic forms, thereby enhancing their stability and resistance to degradation. Table 7 summarizes the key properties associated with various surface modifications [ 126 ]. Table 7. Effect of Surface functinalize on properties Properties Effect of surface functinalize on properties References Electronic Surface functionalization of MXenes affects their electronic properties, allowing transitions from metallic to semiconducting behavior based on functional groups. F- and O-terminated variants show semiconductivity, while pristine forms are metallic [ 115 ] Magnetic Surface functionalization of MXenes significantly influences their magnetic properties, with modifications potentially transforming ferromagnetic materials into antiferromagnetic semiconductors, depending on the functional groups used. For example, while certain modifications can degrade magnetic characteristics, others, like –O groups, can enhance ferromagnetic features, leading to materials with half-metallic properties and varying magnetic behaviors based on the type of functionalization [ 117 ] Mechanical Surface terminations of MXenes influence mechanical properties, with O-terminated variants showing greater stiffness than –OH or –F. Adding CNTs and polymers boosts tensile strength, toughness, and flexibility [ 55 ] Optical Surface functionalization markedly affects MXenes' optical properties. Pristine MXene shows 77% visible light transmittance, whereas –O, –OH, and –F functionalized Ti2C displays only 30%, altering absorption and reflectivity in UV and visible ranges [ 126 ] Hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity MXenes' hydrophilic –O, –F, and –OH groups may cause degradation with water and oxygen exposure. However, surface functionalization with agents like APTES, FOTS, and CPTMS can effectively transform their properties from hydrophilic to hydrophobic, enhancing stability and preventing degradation [ 126 ] Open in a new tab Biomedical applications of MXene-based nanocomposites Recent studies from 2024 to 2026 have focused on the development of MXene-based nanocomposites for various biomedical applications. Researchers have explored different combinations of MXenes with polymers, hydrogels, and other materials to enhance their functionality in drug delivery, tissue engineering, wound healing, and biosensing [ 30 , 120 – 124 ]. The following table summarizes the main types of MXene-based nanocomposites and their biomedical applications reported in this period (Table 8 ). Table 8. MXene-based nanocomposites and their biomedical applications (2024–2026) Nanocomposite type Composite components Biomedical application Key features References MXene-polymer nanocomposites MXene + Polymers Drug delivery, imaging, diagnostics Enhanced targeted drug delivery and diagnostic sensitivity [ 110 ] MXene-based wound healing composites MXene + Chitosan Wound treatment/smart dressing Promotes cell proliferation and inflammation control [ 95 ] MXene and MXene-based composites (Review) MXene + Polymers/Metals/Oxides Tissue engineering, cancer therapy, sensors Multifunctional performance for muscle and nerve engineering [ 96 ] 2D MXene-bioinspired composites MXene + Functional Nanomaterials Bone tissue engineering, antibacterial Multimodal structure for tissue regeneration and infection control [ 115 ] MXenes in Healthcare (RSC review) MXene + Sensing Platforms Imaging, biosensors, combination therapy Applications in drug delivery, gene therapy, and diagnostic tools [ 117 ] Hydrogel: MXene-embedded hydrogels MXene + Hydrogel matrices Tissue engineering, drug delivery, PTT/PDT Broad applications in thermal therapy and tissue regeneration [ 119 ] 3D Printed MXene composites MXene + 3D printed polymers Artificial tissues and electronic implants Enhanced mechanical strength and tissue compatibility [ 121 ] Open in a new tab The table highlights the latest trends in MXene-based nanocomposites for biomedical applications between 2024 and 2026. In this period, research focused on improving therapeutic efficiency, tissue regeneration, and multifunctionality of composites. Emerging studies for 2026 indicate growing interest in hydrogels and 3D-printed MXene composites for smart implants and advanced regenerative medicine. These findings emphasize MXene nanocomposites as a versatile platform with significant potential in biomedical engineering [ 124 – 132 ]. MXene in drug delivery systems This section critically reviews the recent advances in MXene-based drug delivery systems, emphasizing both opportunities and challenges. Recent studies demonstrate engineered MXene nanosheets with enhanced cellular internalization and stimuli-responsive drug release, such as spikey biodegradable MXene platforms that improve drug loading and targeted release in cancer therapy [ 133 ]. These innovations underscore the potential of MXene structures for precision drug delivery, particularly when combined with responsive coatings to ensure site-specific release. Smart MXene-based microrobots integrating targeted delivery with synergistic therapies exemplify a cutting-edge application that allows external control and real-time monitoring of therapeutic outcomes [ 134 ]. However, variation in MXene composition, surface functionalization, stability in physiological environments, and comprehensive in vivo toxicity evaluations remain limitations that need systematic investigation before clinical translation. Overall, MXene materials continue to show promise for sophisticated targeted drug delivery, but further mechanistic studies and long-term safety data are necessary [ 135 ]. Xu et al. developed TPDMGP, an innovative cancer therapy that combines photothermal treatment using MXene nanosheets with drug delivery via mesoporous silica nanosheets. This system enhances photothermal therapy by converting hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and releasing phloretin through intracellular decomposition. The low-temperature approach aims to improve treatment efficacy while minimizing damage to healthy tissues and inflammation, offering new strategies for cancer therapy [ 136 ]. Cheng et al. designed an intelligent fabric for wound care that features thermoresponsive drug release and temperature monitoring. The fabric integrates a drug-loaded nanofiber film, a heating element, and a flexible printed circuit board (FPCB) control chip to precisely regulate temperature and accelerate healing [ 125 ]. Wubin Bai’s research focuses on MXene-coated microneedles for controlled drug delivery, improving therapeutic efficacy and reducing side effects. Leveraging the conductive properties of MXenes, these microneedles enable electrically controlled drug release and multidrug administration, advancing bioelectronic applications and wound healing technologies [ 125 ]. Zhou et al. developed a novel MXene/Gellan gum hydrogel for tumor therapy activated by near-infrared light. This hydrogel improves photothermal efficiency, stability, drug release control, and biocompatibility, providing targeted cancer treatment [ 126 ]. Chen et al. developed a near-infrared (NIR) responsive hydrogel containing dexamethasone (Dex) that releases the drug at 42 °C upon NIR irradiation. This biocompatible system enhances bone regeneration by promoting anti-apoptosis and osteogenic differentiation, offering a targeted and noninvasive strategy for osteogenesis [ 126 ]. In another study, researchers designed a locally injectable therapeutic system by integrating 2D MXene nanomaterials (PEG-MXene) with immunoadjuvants R837 and cisplatin (DDP) within a hydrogel matrix. The resulting PEG-MXene@DDP@R837 hydrogel exhibited excellent photothermal performance, stability, and biocompatibility, showing promising antitumor efficacy in a lung cancer model [ 126 ]. Chemodynamic therapy (CDT) uses transition metal ions to generate hydroxyl radicals for targeting cancer cells, but achieving optimal efficacy remains challenging. A novel drug delivery system called DMTP combines doxorubicin with hollow mesoporous manganese dioxide nanoparticles and MXene quantum dots to enhance both treatment and MRI imaging. DMTP reduces glutathione (GSH) levels, releases ions for CDT and MRI, and boosts the effectiveness of photothermal therapy (PTT), resulting in inhibited tumor growth and improved tumor visualization [ 127 ]. Soo et al. developed titanium carbide-based MXene quantum dots (FHMQDs) for breast cancer treatment, showcasing both theranostic and phototherapeutic properties. These 3 nm quantum dots efficiently encapsulate and rapidly release doxorubicin in acidic environments, selectively targeting cancer cells. They induce cytotoxic effects and generate reactive oxygen species, offering promising applications in theranostics and bioimaging [ 128 ]. Researchers have developed an advanced drug delivery system that combines MXene nanosheets with agarose to efficiently carry the anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) and control its release using 808-nm near-infrared (NIR) light (Fig. 7 ). The process begins by etching raw MXene flakes to remove the aluminum layer, producing MXene nanosheets. These nanosheets are then mixed with a heated, low-melting-point agarose solution and DOX, forming a drug-loaded MXene/agarose hydrogel (referred to as DOX-loaded MXene@Hydrogel) upon cooling [ 129 ]. Fig. 7. Open in a new tab MXene/agarose hydrogel (designated as DOX-loaded MXene@Hydrogel) Incorporating MXene into the agarose hydrogel greatly enhances its photothermal conversion efficiency, allowing the MXene@Hydrogel to reach temperatures of 60 °C within 5 min under NIR irradiation. Notably, the MXene nanosheets exhibit excellent photothermal stability when embedded in the hydrogel, enabling precise, on-demand drug release through controlled on/off NIR light exposure. With excellent biocompatibility, the MXene@Hydrogel holds strong promise for targeted and smart drug delivery applications in cancer therapy [ 130 ]. Zhong et al. explored the combination of traditional Chinese medicine and nanotechnology by utilizing Sanguinarine (SAN) to treat wound infections. They developed the SAN@AHEP@Ta 4 C 3 antibacterial compound, which enables pH- and near-infrared (NIR) light-controlled drug release, thereby promoting enhanced wound healing [ 131 ]. Sun et al. highlighted the need for improved bone repair materials following tumor resections and introduced multilayered MXene/nano-hydroxyapatite composites. These composites provide superior drug delivery, photothermal performance, and biocompatibility, supporting effective bone regeneration [ 132 ]. Breast cancer remains a global health challenge requiring personalized treatments to prevent recurrence. Photothermal therapy, which uses spectral radiation to induce apoptosis, shows promise in this regard. Our research demonstrated that combining MXene, a two-dimensional material, with UV treatment enhanced cytotoxicity and apoptosis in MCF-7 breast cancer cells, indicating a potential therapeutic strategy [ 133 ]. Bone defects resulting from tumor excision demand materials capable of chemotherapy delivery, photothermal therapy, and tissue regeneration. One study introduced multilayered MXene/nano-hydroxyapatite composites synthesized via a straightforward hydrothermal process. These composites exhibit high drug-loading capacity, sustained drug release, strong affinity for doxorubicin, efficient photothermal performance, stability, and biocompatibility, making them excellent candidates for bone defect repair and regeneration [ 134 , 135 ]. Wang et al. highlight the challenge of integrating biocompatibility, degradability, therapeutic delivery, and imaging capabilities into microrobots for clinical use. They developed Ti 3 C 2 MXene-based microrobots (MXBOTs) featuring electrostatically assembled layers of Ti 3 C 2 and Fe 3 O 4 on biodegradable helical microstructures. These MXBOTs can navigate magnetic fields, perform photoacoustic imaging, transport fluorescent molecules, and deliver chemotherapy drugs in response to changes in temperature and pH [ 136 ]. Conventional tumor treatments, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery, face several limitations such as significant side effects, poor tumor targeting, and slow therapeutic response. In contrast, photothermal therapy (PTT) offers distinct advantages, including deep tissue penetration and precise tumor targeting while sparing surrounding healthy cells. Thermal imaging technology can monitor temperature changes induced by photothermal agents (PTAs) during PTT, enabling real-time treatment tracking (Fig. 8 ) [ 137 ]. Fig. 8. Open in a new tab Photothermal therapy offers targeted, effective, antibiotic-free treatment MXene has emerged as an exceptionally effective PTA due to its strong near-infrared (NIR) light absorption and efficient conversion of this energy into heat. This capability allows MXene to rapidly increase the local temperature under NIR irradiation, making it a critical component in PTT applications. Beyond cancer treatment, PTT is also valuable for combating bacterial infections. With the rise of antibiotic resistance diminishing the effectiveness of traditional antibiotics, PTT offers a promising, antibiotic-free alternative. It combines biocompatibility, deep tissue penetration, and effective antimicrobial action without contributing to resistance development [ 138 – 141 ]. Zaboli et al. used molecular dynamics simulations to study doxorubicin and curcumin adsorption on MXene/MOF-5. Incorporating chitosan or alginate enhanced drug loading, with chitosan being most effective, and higher drug numbers further increased capacity. The most stable complex was Mxn-MOF-Chi-Dox/Cur, highlighting polymer–drug interactions for improved drug delivery [ 142 ]. Guo et al. propose a novel tumor therapy that enhances traditional starvation treatment by employing glucose oxidase. Their approach integrates nanosheets, enzymes, and anticancer drugs to overcome challenges such as diminished efficacy and potential toxicity. This innovative method combines starvation therapy, photothermal therapy, and chemotherapy to effectively target cancer cells while minimizing systemic toxicity and improving enzyme activity. This strategy represents a significant advancement in nanomedicine for comprehensive cancer treatment [ 143 ]. Worajittiphon et al. explored MXenes derived from MAX phases for drug delivery in polymer matrices. Using Ti 3 AlC 2 MAX in PLA membranes produced durable, low-toxicity materials with controlled porosity, hydrophilicity, antibacterial activity, and enhanced curcumin release, demonstrating the potential of MAX phases for sustainable drug delivery [ 144 , 145 ]. FA@MXene/CuO 2 /GA nanocomposites combine photothermal and chemodynamic therapy to improve cancer treatment. Under NIR irradiation, gambogic acid reduces HSP90, MXene provides photothermal effects, FA-PEG-SH enables tumor targeting, and CuO 2 generates ROS in the acidic tumor microenvironment, highlighting MXene-based nanomaterials for effective cancer therapy [ 146 , 147 ]. Osteosarcoma treatment typically involves surgery and chemotherapy, but a novel nanocomposite that integrates photothermal therapy (PTT), chemodynamic therapy (CDT), and chemotherapy shows promising improvements. This nanocomposite, named the 5NiTiB platform, is composed of NiFe-LDH flakes transformed into nanospheres, combined with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) chemotherapy, MXene monolayers, and a bovine serum albumin (BSA) coating. Studies demonstrate a synergistic antitumor effect, increasing tumor suppression rates from 5% to 80.1%. The platform offers enhanced therapeutic efficacy with reduced side effects, streamlined synthesis, and adaptability for diverse treatment needs, highlighting its potential for future clinical applications [ 148 ]. Challenges in developing effective anticancer drug delivery systems—particularly in improving chemotherapy efficacy with implantable devices—have led to the exploration of polyurethane. However, its hydrophobic nature has limited its performance. To address this, a chemical aminolysis technique was employed to modify polyurethane, enhancing its wettability and protein interaction, which in turn improved the release profile of a rutin complex [ 149 ]. Composite films enhanced with MXene and polycaprolactone demonstrated improved properties and biocompatibility, achieving a drug release rate of 93.2%, making them promising candidates for implantable cancer therapies. Tang et al. explored the unique features of MXene, focusing on its surface functional groups and photothermal capabilities. By processing larger MXene flakes, they produced ultrathin nanosheets tailored for biomedical applications. These nanosheets exhibited high photothermal efficiency and strong mass extinction, enabling a targeted drug delivery system that effectively treated hypopharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma using doxorubicin [ 150 ]. Jiang et al. developed a drug delivery system combining MXene with silver nanoparticles to enhance surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). Their films deposited on silicon wafers achieved an impressive detection limit of 10⁻⁸ M. Incorporation of doxorubicin (DOX) allowed for controlled release triggered by glutathione (GSH), highlighting its promising potential for future biomedical applications [ 151 ]. Similarly, Liu et al. demonstrated the efficacy of MXene for cancer drug delivery by modifying it with methoxy polyethylene glycol (PEG) to safely transport doxorubicin to cancer cells. This system exhibited strong cytotoxicity against cancerous cells while minimizing damage to healthy tissues. Additionally, the drug release rate was significantly enhanced under specific conditions, underscoring its suitability for targeted and controlled drug delivery [ 152 ]. Titanium carbide-based MXene quantum dots were employed to functionalize hydroxyapatite microspheres, resulting in hollow hydroxyapatite microspheres modified with MXene quantum dots. These hollow structures exhibit a large surface area, favorable fluorescence properties, low toxicity, and responsiveness to pH changes and near-infrared (NIR) stimuli. Their adjustable morphology and size render them exceptionally well-suited for bone-targeted drug delivery and photothermal therapy, showcasing considerable promise for advanced therapeutic applications [ 153 ]. Advances in porous nanomaterials, particularly metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), have paved the way for innovative therapeutic strategies. A novel nanocomposite was developed by integrating the UiO-66 MOF with MXene and rosemary extracts, enabling the co-delivery of doxorubicin and CRISPR components. This platform achieved high loading efficiency and sustained drug release, with minimal influence from the leaf extracts on release profiles. Cellular uptake and gene transfer studies demonstrated promising results, with transfection efficiencies exceeding 18%, highlighting its potential in combined chemo-gene therapy [ 154 ]. Long et al. developed photo-responsive composite nanofibers combining MXene with hydrogel via an innovative heating electrospray technique. This method allows precise control over drug release through light activation. The nanofibers exhibit a uniform hydrogel distribution, effectively addressing previous integration challenges. Triggered by near-infrared (NIR) light and sunlight, they are well-suited for outdoor applications. Enhanced hydrogen bonding between the hydrogel and MXene significantly improves mechanical properties, making the fibers ideal for dynamic body environments. Additionally, their intrinsic fluorescence enables real-time monitoring of drug release. This approach offers superior drug delivery management, mechanical robustness, and tracking capabilities compared to conventional systems [ 155 , 156 ]. Liu et al. developed an advanced drug delivery system, MXene@Au-PEG, capable of encapsulating and releasing doxorubicin with high drug-loading capacity. This platform exhibits multiple release mechanisms, excellent biocompatibility, and synergistically combines photothermal ablation with chemotherapy to enable targeted cancer treatment. Cao et al. focused on synthesizing MXene @AuNRs nanosheets integrated with hydroxyapatite (HAP) and polydopamine (PDA) to create MXene @AuNRs/HAP/PDA nanocomposites responsive to near-infrared (NIR) light and pH changes. These nanocomposites exhibited excellent photothermal conversion efficiency and a high doxorubicin (DOX) loading capacity. Additionally, they demonstrated a dual-responsive drug release system triggered by both pH variations and NIR irradiation. This study presents promising MXene -based drug carriers for targeted drug delivery and photothermal therapy applications [ 157 ]. Sik et al. developed MXene-TK-DOX@PDA nanoparticles designed to enhance tumor therapy through controlled drug release. In this system, doxorubicin is conjugated to MXene via a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-cleavable thioketal (TK) bond and stabilized by a pH-sensitive polydopamine (PDA) coating. Measuring approximately 180 nm, these nanoparticles exhibit excellent photothermal efficiency and trigger drug release in response to both ROS and pH stimuli. Moreover, they demonstrate notable antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis [ 155 ]. Liang et al. emphasize the significance of multifunctional, stimuli-responsive nanoparticles for effective cancer drug delivery. They focus on ZIF-8 due to its high surface area and rapid degradation in acidic environments, making it a promising pH-sensitive delivery platform. However, using ZIF-8 solely for chemotherapy drug loading limits its therapeutic potential. To address this, they developed the MQD@ZIF-8/DOX system, which incorporates doxorubicin (DOX) and MXene quantum dots (MQD) to enhance photothermal and photodynamic therapy. This combination leads to improved drug release and greater anticancer efficacy [ 158 ]. Song et al. developed an advanced pesticide delivery system (PDS) by encapsulating β-cyfluthrin within a tannic acid-modified MXene nanocarrier. This system exhibits pH-sensitive release behavior and strong adhesion to plant leaves, enabling targeted action against the mosquito species Culex pipiens pallens while remaining safe for crops such as maize and Vigna radiata (Linn.) Wilczek. The MXene-TA nanocarrier facilitates high loading of β-cyfluthrin and allows controlled release triggered by pH variations. In insecticidal evaluations, this nanopesticide demonstrated superior efficacy compared to conventional formulations, highlighting its potential for sustainable pest management and agricultural applications [ 159 ]. Go et al. explored stimuli-responsive DNA hydrogels for cancer treatment, highlighting their biocompatible frameworks for controlled drug delivery. They developed a novel system combining MXene and doxorubicin that responds to near-infrared (NIR) light by releasing therapeutic agents. Upon cessation of NIR irradiation, the hydrogel structure reverts, enabling drug recombination and minimizing side effects. This MXene-DNA hydrogel system shows great promise for targeted cancer therapy, offering enhanced treatment efficiency alongside excellent biocompatibility [ 160 ]. Sik et al. developed MXene-Se-DOX, an innovative nanocarrier designed for drug delivery and antibacterial applications. Using a mild etching method, the system incorporates DSeDPA and doxorubicin onto hydrophilic MXene nanosheets, facilitating controlled drug release while demonstrating significant antibacterial activity and anticancer efficacy [ 161 ]. Liu and his team developed a MXene-based drug carrier that leverages the material’s unique surface properties for targeted delivery to cancer cells. The carrier demonstrated high drug-loading capacity and sustained release, featuring tumor-targeting and pH-responsive characteristics that enable efficient drug administration to malignant cells. This system highlights promising potential for cancer therapy and broadens the biomedical applications of MXenes [ 162 ]. MXenes, with high surface area and NIR responsiveness, were incorporated into hollow hydroxyapatite microspheres with chitosan/hyaluronic acid layers and gold nanorods, enabling pH- and photothermal-triggered doxorubicin release for advanced cancer drug delivery [ 163 ]. Bagherzadeh et al. developed a method to synthesize MXene nanostructures embedded with MOF-5, designed for combined drug and gene delivery applications. The nanocarriers were coated with alginate and chitosan to enhance bioavailability and facilitate interaction with pCRISPR. Cell viability assays indicated good biocompatibility, with chitosan-coated carriers outperforming alginate-coated ones. MTT tests revealed dose-dependent cytotoxicity, which was mitigated by the polymer coatings. Importantly, the nanosystems effectively delivered pCRISPR into cells, demonstrating potential for therapeutic co-delivery. This work represents significant progress in MXene/MOF-5-based nanosystems, paving the way for future applications in animal models [ 164 ]. MXenes, recognized for their high surface area and near-infrared (NIR) responsiveness, were combined with gold nanorods to form MXene @GNRs/PDA/ MXene nanohybrids. These nanohybrids demonstrated excellent photothermal conversion efficiency, high drug loading capacity, and dual pH/NIR-triggered drug release. Such features underscore their promising application potential in targeted cancer therapy [ 165 ]. Shen et al. developed AV@Ti 3 C 2 MXene nanocomposites for pesticide delivery, enabling pH-responsive release, improved solubility, UV stability, and enhanced pest control without harming maize, highlighting a sustainable plant protection platform [ 166 ]. The MXene –cobalt nanowire nanocarrier for cancer therapy provides dual stimuli-responsive drug release and magnetic guidance, enabling efficient chemo-photothermal treatment. This system significantly inhibits tumor growth and enhances therapeutic efficacy beyond conventional approaches [ 167 ]. WoundHealing, antibacterial action and bioimaging MXene-based materials, including hydrogels and composites, show promise in wound healing due to their antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and tissue-regenerative properties. Recent studies (2025) highlight multifunctional systems such as MXene –silver hydrogels and MXene-integrated microneedles that enhance healing in infected or diabetic wounds. While results are promising, optimization of composition and thorough in vivo safety evaluations are still needed for clinical translation. Nanoparticles are increasingly explored for biomedical applications, including wound healing. A ZnO–MXene–Ag nanocomposite demonstrated strong antimicrobial activity and, when incorporated into a gel at 1 mg/mL, promoted superior tissue regeneration and reduced inflammation compared to higher concentrations. This highlights the importance of optimizing nanoparticle dosage to maximize therapeutic effects while minimizing cytotoxicity. Overall, the nanocomposite-loaded gel shows promise for advanced wound healing and antimicrobial treatments [ 147 , 149 , 150 , 168 ]. Wang et al. developed a single-electrode triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) skin patch (TESP) designed for wound healing, utilizing a conductive hydrogel composed of MXene and gelatin. This TESP harnesses biophysical energy alongside photothermal effects to accelerate wound repair and monitor physiological signals. Both in vitro and animal studies demonstrated enhanced cell migration, increased collagen deposition, and improved angiogenesis. The patch achieved peak voltage and current outputs of 163.7 V and 8.1 μA, respectively. This MXene-based TENG represents a novel approach for self-powered wearable devices in wound therapy and advanced sensing applications, marking significant progress in the field [ 169 ]. Wang et al. developed the MN-PGA-MXene-GOx microneedle patch for diabetic wounds, encapsulating glucose oxidase-loaded MXene in γ-PGA. The patch catalyzes glucose oxidation to lower local pH, generates mild hyperthermia under NIR light to enhance GOx activity, and reduces reactive oxygen species. By combining mild photothermal therapy and antioxidant effects, it effectively regulates glucose and promotes wound healing, representing a promising strategy for diabetic wound management [ 170 – 173 ]. Researchers developed a microneedle patch, MN-PGA-MXene-GOx, to overcome challenges in diabetic wound healing. This patch encapsulates glucose oxidase (GOx)-loaded MXene nanosheets within γ-polyglutamic acid (γ-PGA), promoting the reduction of glucose levels and local pH through glucose oxidation [ 174 ]. Upon exposure to near-infrared (NIR) light, the MXene induces mild hyperthermia, which enhances GOx activity and supports biological healing processes. Furthermore, the patch reduces reactive oxygen species (ROS) within the diabetic microenvironment. Overall, this innovative patch effectively regulates glucose at the wound site while accelerating healing via mild photothermal and antioxidant effects, offering a promising therapeutic approach for diabetic wounds [ 175 ]. Ti 3 C 2 /Au nanoparticles (NPs) exhibit enhanced light absorption, photothermal conversion, and antibacterial activity, effectively targeting Staphylococcus aureus without harming healthy tissue. By disrupting bacterial membranes and promoting NP uptake, they eradicate bacteria in vitro and accelerate wound healing in infected dermal and subcutaneous models. This photothermal system demonstrates significant potential for clinical management of infectious wounds, offering a novel strategy for improving infection control and tissue repair [ 176 , 177 ] (Fig. 9 ). Fig. 9. Open in a new tab MXene/Au NPs (enhance wound healing and bacterial eradication) Xiao et al. developed a GA/OKGM/MT hydrogel incorporating MXene@TiO 2 nanosheets and adipic dihydrazide-modified PDA, which enhances infected wound healing by promoting blood clotting, controlling infection, reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS), and stimulating fibroblast proliferation[ 178 ]. Gu et al. engineered a multifunctional electronic skin (E-skin) composed of conductive antibacterial hydrogels, combining PPMAg hydrogels with MXene nanocomposites infused with silver nanoparticles. This E-skin exhibits excellent flexibility, high sensitivity, and supports wound healing, making it suitable for healthcare applications [ 179 ]. Yang et al. developed a piezoelectric nanofibrous membrane that utilizes electrical stimulation therapy through nanogenerators to accelerate wound healing. In mouse models, this membrane promoted fibroblast migration, collagen deposition, and angiogenesis, significantly improving the healing process [ 180 ]. A MXene-infused microneedle patch was developed to address antibiotic-resistant skin infections, offering strong mechanical stability, photothermal antibacterial activity, and ROS scavenging. Under NIR light, MXene nanosheets thermally eliminate bacteria, reduce inflammation, and promote collagen synthesis and angiogenesis. This multifunctional patch accelerates wound healing and shows promise for treating drug-resistant infections, highlighting MXene’s potential in advanced skin repair therapies [ 181 ]. Xu et al. engineered a CMN-Cu sponge comprised of chitosan, MXene, and copper with a porous microstructure designed for wound care. This sponge exhibits efficient hemostatic performance, antibacterial effects, and promotes tissue regeneration. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments confirmed its bleeding control capabilities, biocompatibility, and therapeutic efficacy. The controlled release of bioactive substances from the sponge marks significant progress in hemostatic biomaterials, offering immediate and sustained benefits for wound healing applications [ 182 ]. Yu et al. developed porous silk fibroin aerogels incorporating berberine and MXene (SFMB aerogels) designed for rapid hemostasis and antimicrobial activity in wound healing. This composite aerogel combines strong mechanical properties with quick blood clotting ability. Its photothermal and photodynamic effects significantly enhance antimicrobial performance, resulting in efficient bacterial eradication. Additionally, the SFMB aerogel promotes healing of infected wounds, showcasing promising applications in advanced wound care and broader biomedical fields [ 183 ]. Zhang et al. focus on the challenges of repairing complex skin wounds caused by multidrug-resistant bacterial infections and burns, emphasizing the urgent need for biomaterials with specialized bioactive functions [ 184 ]. They developed a multifunctional MXene-derived hydrogel, Pluronic F127-poly salicylic acid (FPSa@M), which modulates thermo-antioxidative and anti-inflammatory responses. This hydrogel effectively eradicates bacteria, enhances cellular activity, and promotes wound healing in MRSA-infected wounds and burn injuries [ 185 ]. Ramkumar et al. enhanced cotton fabric by applying non-thermal plasma treatment followed by coating with an MXene /WO3 nanocomposite, significantly improving its surface properties. The plasma treatment with argon gas activates the fabric surface, enabling effective nanocomposite deposition via co-precipitation [ 186 ]. Characterization through SEM and FTIR confirmed successful coating, while contact angle measurements revealed superhydrophilicity, promoting superior moisture management. The modified cotton exhibited antibacterial activity and accelerated wound healing, highlighting its potential as an advanced wound dressing material [ 187 ]. Liu et al. investigated conductive and antimicrobial hydrogels for wound healing by utilizing MXene based hydrogels combined with chitosan, PVA, and AgCu-H2PYDC metal–organic frameworks (MOFs). The PVACS/MOF/Mxene (PCMM) hydrogels demonstrated notable electrical conductivity, promoted cell interaction, exhibited antibacterial properties, and significantly improved wound healing in mice. These biocompatible hydrogels showed strong potential for wound closure, indicating their promise as enhanced dressing materials for healing [ 188 ]. Zhang et al. developed a MXene-based multifunctional hydrogel (FPSa@M) to treat complex skin wounds from burns and multidrug-resistant infections. The injectable hydrogel offers thermal regulation, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects, effectively eliminating bacteria while promoting cell proliferation and angiogenesis. It significantly accelerates wound healing in MRSA-infected and burn models, demonstrating strong potential for advanced tissue repair and management of challenging wounds [ 189 ]. Wound infections significantly impede the healing of open wounds, highlighting the need for wound dressings with enhanced antibacterial properties. This study introduces a novel aerogel—sodium alginate oxide (OSA)/carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS)-Nb2C@Ag/PDA (OC/NAP)—fabricated via a Schiff base crosslinking method. The aerogel exhibits outstanding swelling capacity, porosity, biocompatibility, and sustained antimicrobial activity, effectively inhibiting Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli under irradiation with an 808 nm laser [ 190 ]. In vivo experiments demonstrate that OC/NAP promotes nearly 100% wound healing within 14 days, outperforming control groups [ 191 ]. Shi et al. developed the K1P6@Mxene sponge, which integrates acellular dermal matrix fibers with a chitosan network to enhance exudate absorption. Strengthened by Mxene, the sponge exhibits antibacterial activity, reduces inflammation, promotes angiogenesis, and accelerates healing in diabetic wounds, presenting a promising solution for wound management [ 192 ]. Zhou et al. sought to enhance the performance of single-electrode triboelectric nanogenerators (S-TENG) by implementing an innovative charge-trapping approach based on interfacial polarization. By combining a polystyrene nanofiber membrane with TiO 2 -Mxene, they improved charge storage capacity and reduced charge recombination [ 193 ]. The resulting lightweight and adaptable structure incorporated a polyurethane tribo-friction layer, enabling impressive electrical output capable of powering 60 LEDs and functioning as a game controller. Additionally, the S-TENG showed promising applications in chronic wound treatment, demonstrating effective performance in both AC and DC modes, while significantly advancing sensor technology and therapeutic capabilities [ 193 ]. Nature-inspired multifunctional composites, particularly chitosan/MXene@LDH hybrid nanocomposites, have demonstrated significant potential in combating bacterial infections and promoting wound healing. These composites exhibit enhanced tissue regeneration, reduced inflammation, and excellent cell compatibility in both in vitro and in vivo studies [ 194 ]. Diabetic wound healing is challenging because high glucose levels suppress immune function. This study introduces MXene and M2 macrophage exosome nanohybrids (FM-Exo) to boost the immune response, stimulate fibroblast proliferation, and enhance endothelial activity, thereby accelerating healing and reducing scarring [ 195 ]. Conventional wound patches primarily emphasize safety and healing support, whereas modern flexible patches often face challenges in self-healing and antimicrobial performance. This study introduces a film patch composed of MXene nanosheets and Que-WPU, which demonstrates strong inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus, enhanced antibacterial activity under near-infrared light, rapid self-healing ability, and effective sensing functionality [ 196 ]. Wang et al. addressed the challenge of developing chitosan-derived materials for managing severe wound bleeding. They created a composite cryogel (CSNT) composed of chitosan, NHEMAA, and MXene, featuring a robust structure and a high porosity of 99.07%. This cryogel enables rapid hemostasis, possesses antibacterial properties, and ensures effective wound healing, highlighting its potential for clinical application and commercialization [ 197 ]. The innovative MXene TVNMC, developed to combat antibiotic resistance, efficiently generates reactive oxygen species to target MRSA, improves energy storage, aids wound healing, and demonstrates strong potential for medical sonosensitization applications [ 198 ]. Nanozymes hold great promise as antimicrobial agents in chemo-dynamic therapy (CDT), though challenges remain in developing responsive systems. This study introduces a novel nanozyme, MXM, which combines MXene and metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), utilizing near-infrared (NIR) plasmonic effects to boost antimicrobial efficacy, promote angiogenesis, and accelerate wound healing through the Fenton reaction [ 199 ]. The study designs multifunctional composites for tissue repair, targeting wound healing and infection control. By combining chitosan, MXene, and cobalt tungsten layered double hydroxide (LDH), the research demonstrated promising in vitro and in vivo results, including enhanced healing, reduced inflammation, and confirmed integration of components within the chitosan matrix for biomedical applications [ 200 ]. Medical imaging plays a crucial role in cancer diagnosis and treatment, particularly with advanced therapies such as photothermal therapy (PTT), by providing precise tissue analysis through methods like MRI and CT. MRI employs non-ionizing electromagnetic waves and excels at visualizing soft tissues, making it ideal for detecting tumors in organs such as the brain and liver [ 201 ]. In contrast, CT scans deliver highly detailed, high-resolution images of anatomical structures, enabling accurate tumor localization and aiding surgical planning [ 202 ]. Photoacoustic (PA) imaging is an innovative technique that uses near-infrared (NIR) radiation to achieve deep tissue penetration and real-time monitoring of organ vibrations during therapy [ 203 ]. This is especially valuable for tracking the thermal effects of PTT, ensuring treatment is applied accurately and efficiently. Combining imaging-guided PTT with chemotherapy presents a powerful approach to cancer treatment. These imaging modalities enable immediate observation and adjustment during therapy, allowing clinicians to optimize treatment efficacy while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissues [ 204 ]. Medical imaging, particularly MRI, provides detailed information on tumor size, location, and treatment response, supporting the optimization of combined photothermal therapy and chemotherapy. MRI excels at soft-tissue imaging without ionizing radiation, aiding diagnosis of tumors, neurological disorders, and joint injuries. As combined therapies advance, imaging will play an increasingly critical role in enabling precise, personalized cancer treatment, improving outcomes and patient survival [ 205 , 206 ]. Chen et al. developed a novel Ta 4 C 3 composite incorporating Fe 2 O 3 nanoparticles, exhibiting strong superparamagnetic properties and high potential as a magnetic resonance (MR) imaging contrast agent. With a transverse relaxivity of 205.46 mM⁻ 1 s⁻ 1 , it significantly enhances T2-weighted MR imaging, improving tumor visualization [ 207 ]. The composite’s advanced design incorporates MnOx elements that improve its performance in T1-weighted MR imaging. Under the acidic conditions typical of cancerous tissues, Mn–O bonds in MnOx break down, releasing Mn 2 ⁺ ions. These ions interact with surrounding water molecules, enhancing contrast in T1-weighted MR imaging [ 208 ]. This pH-responsive mechanism enables highly precise imaging capable of distinguishing healthy tissue from cancerous tissue based on their microenvironment, thereby improving tumor identification accuracy. The effectiveness of this pH-sensitive contrast approach has been demonstrated in MnOx/Ti 3 C 2 -SP and MnOx/Ta 4 C 3 -SP MXene composites, which show strong potential for improving MR imaging in cancer diagnosis and treatment monitoring [ 209 ]. Li et al. developed a cancer treatment platform based on DOX-loaded hollow mesoporous manganese dioxide nanoparticles (HMDN). They integrated polyethyleneimine-modified MXene quantum dots, further modified with polyethylene glycol, to form the composite DOX@HMDN-TQDs@PEI-PEG (DMTP) [ 210 ]. HMDN reduces glutathione, generating Mn 2 ⁺ ions that act as T1 MRI contrast agents and catalyze chemodynamic therapy (CDT) via Fenton-like reactions in acidic tumor environments. MXene enhances photothermal therapy (PTT) by converting NIR light into heat, sensitizing cancer cells and boosting CDT. The acidic microenvironment also triggers DOX release, enabling targeted chemotherapy, making this MXene-based platform a multifunctional strategy for imaging-guided, synergistic cancer treatment [ 211 , 212 ]. An innovative method to fabricate a 3D honeycomb structure combines Ti 3 C 2 nanosheets with carbon nanotubes (CNTs), imparting anti-aggregation properties and enabling synergistic therapies such as photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), and chemotherapy. Using a spray-drying technique, researchers synthesized 3D CNT-coated polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) microspheres, during which titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) was deposited onto the MXene surface [ 213 ]. After calcination to remove the PMMA template, the resulting 3D CNT/MXene microspheres exhibited strong photothermal stability under near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation. These microspheres achieved a high doxorubicin (DOX) loading capacity of up to 85.6% and efficiently generated singlet oxygen when exposed to light at 650 and 808 nm, with CNTs enhancing the activity of TiO 2 photosensitizers [ 214 ]. By providing an increased surface area for drug loading, the 3D CNT/MXene microspheres combine the benefits of NIR-activated photothermal agents and photosensitizers, making them a promising platform for combined cancer therapies [ 215 ] (Fig. 10 ). Fig. 10. Open in a new tab 3D CNT/MXene microspheres (enhance cancer treatment via synergistic therapies) The temperature increase resulting from photothermal therapy (PTT) was recorded, with corresponding images shown in Fig. 6 b, demonstrating significant rises when tumors were treated with NIR-irradiated DMTP. Figure 6 c presents a schematic illustrating tumor size reduction, highlighting the superior outcome of DMTP combined with NIR illumination (DMTP + L) compared to tumors treated with other specimens. Quantitative analysis revealed that tumors treated with DMTP + L shrank to just 15.6% of the size of control tumors [ 216 ]. In a separate study by Neubertova et al. [ 167 ], MXene flakes were functionalized with the chelating agent diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) and subsequently complexed with Gd 3 ⁺ ions. This modification endowed the MXene with paramagnetic properties and enhanced stability, effectively preventing flake aggregation. The functionalized MXene, originally diamagnetic, exhibited a paramagnetic response, making it suitable for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). As a result, this compound showed promising potential as an MRI contrast agent for cancer diagnosis and other medical imaging applications [ 217 ]. Photoacoustic (PA) imaging offers real-time, high-contrast visualization by combining light absorption with ultrasound, making it particularly effective for imaging deep tissue structures [ 218 ]. Nanoflakes such as MnOx/Ti 3 C 2 -SP, Ta 4 C 3 -SP, and Ti 3 C 2 -SP exhibit excellent photothermal conversion efficiency (PCE) and strong near-infrared (NIR) absorption, significantly enhancing PA imaging capabilities [ 219 ]. These nanoflakes exploit their exceptional optical properties to enhance the sensitivity and accuracy of cancer diagnostics by amplifying imaging signals at tumor sites. Serving as contrast agents, they improve the visibility of malignant tissues, enabling precise real-time tumor detection [ 220 ]. Building on this, Li et al. developed a therapeutic platform that incorporates doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded hollow mesoporous manganese dioxide nanoparticles (HMDN) combined with polyethyleneimine-modified MXene quantum dots, further functionalized with polyethylene glycol to form the composite DOX@HMDN-TQDs@PEI-PEG (DMTP) [ 221 ]. Upon introduction into the acidic tumor microenvironment, Cu 2 O releases Cu 2 ⁺ ions that are consumed to facilitate the Fenton reaction, converting H 2 O 2 into highly reactive hydroxyl radicals (•OH) for chemodynamic therapy (CDT). Additionally, glucose oxidase (GOx), a natural enzyme that generates glucose and oxygen within tumor cells, elevates local H 2 O 2 levels, further enhancing CDT efficacy. Leveraging the photothermal capabilities of MXene-based photothermal therapy (PTT), 3-BP@MCG nanosheets (NSs) exhibit efficient photothermal conversion in the near-infrared (NIR) region, which promotes tumor treatment through localized temperature increase [ 222 ]. 3-BP functions by reducing oxygen consumption, thereby alleviating hypoxia within the tumor microenvironment and further supporting cancer therapy. The photothermal therapy (PTT) efficacy of 3-BP@MCG nanosheets (NSs) was demonstrated by significantly higher temperature increases compared to controls following near-infrared (NIR) radiation, with temperatures reaching up to 50 °C. Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) before and after injection of 3-BP@MCG NSs revealed a substantial enhancement and distribution of PA signals throughout the tumor region—over 5.47 times greater than pre-injection—confirming the in vivo PAI capability of 3-BP@MCG NSs to guide tumor ablation [ 223 ]. Moreover, tumors treated with 3-BP@MCG NSs showed significant size reduction, nearly achieving complete tumor elimination [ 224 ]. In a separate study, Yang et al. [ 165 ] developed Ti 3 C 2 MXene–based microrobots (MXBOTs) by sequentially depositing MXene and Fe 3 O 4 nanoparticles onto biodegradable gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA)–based helical microstructures. These MXBOTs could be magnetically guided along predetermined paths using an external magnetic field. Leveraging the photothermal conversion properties of MXene, the MXBOTs exhibited effective photothermal therapy (PTT) capabilities, raising temperatures to levels detrimental to cancer cells and thus aiding cancer treatment [ 225 ]. Additionally, doxorubicin (DOX) was incorporated into the MXBOTs to provide chemotherapy, with drug release triggered by local temperature and pH changes. PTT results demonstrated that MXBOTs at concentrations of 1500 and 3000 units/mL could reach temperatures of 50 °C and 65 °C, respectively—significantly higher than the 10 °C increase observed in pure water [ 226 ]. A Schottky junction nanozyme (CoPc-Mn/ MXene) was developed by integrating Type I and Type II photodynamic therapy mechanisms to combat tumor hypoxia within phototheranostic systems, utilizing manganese-bridged cobalt–phthalocyanines combined with MXene nanosheets [ 227 ]. The Schottky junction CoPc-Mn/MXene-PEG/AS1411 integrates PAI-guided chemodynamic, photothermal, and photodynamic therapies for cancer. PEG improves solubility and biocompatibility, while AS1411 provides targeting. The system enables electron–hole separation, autonomous H 2 O 2 and O 2 generation, and strong MXene-mediated photothermal conversion. Experiments showed temperatures up to 60°C and increased photoacoustic intensity with concentration, demonstrating its multifunctional potential for enhanced imaging-guided cancer therapy [ 228 ]. CT provides detailed three-dimensional imaging, making it indispensable for diagnosing conditions such as cancer, fractures, and internal bleeding. However, continuous monitoring of tissue implants remains challenging due to the toxicity and instability of conventional contrast agents. Biocompatible, radiopaque materials offer a safer alternative, enabling ongoing observation and early detection of graft complications, thereby reducing risks like leaks or aneurysms. In this context, Zizhou et al. developed MXene-infused poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)/polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) nanofibers using electrospinning, creating a biocompatible platform tailored for postoperative vascular implant monitoring [ 229 ]. Incorporating MXene into nanofibers enhanced hydrophilicity, promoting cell adhesion, and significantly increased radiopacity for improved micro-CT imaging of vascular tissue. Grayscale images and Hounsfield Unit measurements showed that higher MXene content, particularly 70%, markedly improved tissue visibility, demonstrating MXene’s strong potential as a contrast agent for in vivo vascular graft evaluation [ 230 ]. In a recent study, an innovative onion-inspired layer-by-layer assembly method was employed to combine MXene with a chitosan-quercetin hybrid for precise human breath detection. These hybrid multilayers exhibited strong responsiveness to H 2 O molecules, while the chitosan-quercetin modification effectively protected MXenes from environmental degradation. This resulted in an impressive and rapid response of 317% at 90% relative humidity, with a response time as fast as 0.75 s, and demonstrated long-term stability lasting over 15 days. These promising features suggest the potential of such composites for wearable human respiration monitoring, providing simple and practical solutions for versatile physiological sensing based on humidity detection (Fig. 11 ) [ 231 – 233 ]. Fig. 11. Open in a new tab Onion-layered MXene composites (enhance breath detection) Xu et al. developed a 3D-printed PCL/Ti 2 AlN scaffold for maxillofacial bone repair. Scaffolds with 5% MXene showed optimal cell adhesion and proliferation, enhancing bone regeneration in rats. Micro-CT revealed improved contrast with higher MXene content, highlighting its role in tissue imaging. Overall, MXenes offer multifunctional potential for bioimaging and cancer detection across MRI, CT, and photoacoustic modalities [ 169 , 234 , 235 ]. The development of MXene-based composites and platforms has enabled precise, real-time tumor imaging with enhanced contrast and targeted therapeutic efficacy through approaches such as photothermal therapy (PTT) and chemodynamic therapy (CDT). These features not only boost imaging sensitivity and specificity but also support the advancement of multifunctional treatment modalities. Overall, MXenes hold tremendous promise in transforming bioimaging and theranostic applications, paving the way for more effective and personalized cancer therapies [ 236 ]. Polymer nanocomposites in tissue engineering 2D Ti 3 C 2 MXene in 3D-printed scaffolds demonstrates potent tumor eradication and bone regeneration capabilities. Upon near-infrared (NIR) exposure, Ti 3 C 2 MXene induces photothermal hyperthermia, effectively eliminating bone tumors in vivo while promoting tissue regeneration when integrated into glass-based bioactive scaffolds [ 237 ]. 3D scaffolds composed of ultrathin MXene nanosheets combined with niobium carbide target osteosarcoma and support bone healing. The controlled release of niobium enhances angiogenesis, oxygen delivery, and immune cell recruitment, while scaffold degradation facilitates bone remodeling and mineralization [ 238 ]. Niobium carbide MXene scaffolds further advance tumor ablation, vascularization, and bone repair. Nanocomposite membranes made from ultralong hydroxyapatite nanowires and titanium carbide MXene improve osteogenic cell proliferation, mechanical strength, and hydrophilicity, boosting bone regeneration [ 239 ]. Composite scaffolds combining Ti 3 C 2 MXene, hydroxyapatite, and sodium alginate were 3D printed with consistent structure and mechanical strength to support bone regeneration. In vitro studies with bone mesenchymal stem cells demonstrated the scaffold’s biocompatibility, enhanced cell proliferation, osteogenic gene expression, and mineralization. In vivo experiments using a rat calvarial defect model showed significant osteogenic activity and bone regeneration, indicating the scaffold’s promising potential as an innovative treatment for bone defects [ 240 ]. A novel composite integrating titanium carbide MXene with polyethylene glycol hydrogels was fabricated using 3D printing techniques. This composite exhibited no cytotoxicity toward cardiomyocytes while enhancing the expression of key cardiac genes. Additionally, it improved cardiomyocyte beating and conduction speed, demonstrating promising potential for applications in managing myocardial conditions [ 241 – 244 ]. A recent study developed multifunctional composite hydrogels using a “one-pot” synthesis approach by integrating 2D MXene nanoflakes into alginate and oxidized gelatin matrices. The resulting hydrogels demonstrated superior self-healing capabilities, enhanced fibroblast adhesion, and promoted cell migration. These improvements are attributed to the exceptional electrical conductivity and hydrophilicity provided by the embedded MXenes, making the hydrogels promising candidates for advanced tissue engineering and wound healing applications. Electroactive MXene composite hydrogels, composed of bacterial cellulose and titanium carbide, significantly enhance wound healing by promoting electrically induced cellular activities. These hydrogels exhibit superior electrical conductivity, excellent biocompatibility, and high water absorption capacity, outperforming commercial Tegaderm film in therapeutic efficacy [ 245 – 249 ]. The MXene hydrogel composite promotes fibroblast proliferation and accelerates wound healing when combined with electrical stimulation, positioning it as a promising candidate for advanced skin dressings. Despite their significant biomedical potential, research on the cytotoxicity and biocompatibility of MXenes remains limited. Therefore, further comprehensive studies are essential to evaluate their safety profiles, cellular interactions, and pharmacokinetics for biomedical applications [ 250 – 255 ]. Table 9 summarizes various biomedical applications of polymer composites based on MXenes. Table 9. Various biomedical applications of polymer composites that incorporate MXenes Composites Bio application References Mxene- Osteopontin aptamer- phosphomolybdic acid-polypyrrole Biosensor detects osteopontin levels [ 220 ] Ta 4 C 3 Cancer imaging techniques (CT,PTT,PAI,MRI) [ 125 ] Ti 2 AlC and Ti 3 AlC 2 Inhibition of Escherichia coli growth [ 55 ] MXene and Bi 2 S 3 Antimicrobial effects on E. coli and S. aureus [ 68 ] MXene -Doxorubicin Drug delivery and therapy [ 95 ] Nb 2 C cetanecyltrimethylammonium chloride (CTAC)-APTES-(PEG) PAI-assisted PTT [ 119 ] MXene QDs Multispectral cellular imaging [ 186 ] Nb 2 C QDs Fluorescence detection [ 209 ] MXene, SP, IONPs MRI-PTT [ 217 ] MXene—3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane- BSA—anti-CEA Detection of carcinoembryonic antigen(CEA) detection sensitivity [ 2 ] MXene—doxorubicin Therapeutic strategies [ 216 ] MXene—gold nanoclusters Antimicrobial biofilm inhibition [ 220 ] MXene LiF – PVDF( HCl etching) Water disinfection [ 68 ] Ta 4 C 3 —iron oxide nanoparticles MRI-PTT [ 146 ] MXene QDs NIR-PTT [ 97 ] Au/ MXene functionalized with GOx Hydrogen peroxide biosensor [ 131 ] MXene functionalized with AuNPs, APTES, SPA and anti-CEA CEA detection using SPR biosensor [ 97 ] MXene Antimicrobial efficacy [ 77 ] MXene—doxorubicin—cellulose Chemotherapy Delivery System [ 23 ] MXene—chitosan Antimicrobial Efficacy [ 33 ] MXene Trichoderma’s Antifungal Properties [ 3 ] Ti 2 N QDs PAI-directed Photothermal Therapy [ 242 ] MXene with polyacrylamide Medication Release Investigations [ 243 ] MXene Antifungal Properties of Trichoderma reesei [ 152 ] Ag/MXene hydrogels Wound Healing Utilization [ 247 ] MXene—β-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase- BSA- glutarate Biosensor detects β-hydroxybutyrate levels [ 248 ] MXene Wide Antimicrobial Action [ 250 ] TiO 2 —MXene functionalized with Hemoglobin and Nafion Biosensor detects peroxide and nitrite [ 220 ] MXene functionalized with Poly-Llysine and GOx Biosensor detects hydrogen peroxide [ 190 ] MXene functionalized with tyrosinase and chitosan Biosensor detects phenol contamination [ 254 ] i 3 C 2 —gold nanoparticles—staphylococcal protein A—anti-CEA Biosensor detects CEA levels [ 255 ] Nb 2 C with polyvinylpyrrolidone PAI-directed Photothermal Therapy [ 256 ] MXene MRI-directed Photothermal Therapy [ 257 ] Open in a new tab MXene quantum dot–polymer nanocomposites have emerged as highly promising materials for targeted drug delivery, wound healing, and tissue engineering due to their tunable surface chemistry, high drug-loading capacity, and multifunctional bioactivity [ 256 ]. Comparative analyses of recent studies highlight that material composition, surface functionalization, and polymer integration critically influence efficacy, biocompatibility, and therapeutic outcomes. Despite these advances, limitations such as stability in physiological conditions, in vivo toxicity, and long-term safety require systematic investigation. Overall, MXene-based nanocomposites offer a versatile platform for advanced biomedical applications, and continued research is essential to translate their potential into safe and effective clinical therapies [ 257 ]. Intelligent nanosystems of MXene quantum dots for biomedical use MXenes and other two-dimensional materials, such as black phosphorus nanosheets, have garnered significant research interest due to their exceptional properties; however, their inherent instability poses challenges for large-scale production and limits their applications in biomedical research and therapeutic fields [ 256 – 260 ]. MXene quantum dots (QDs) exhibit remarkable optical properties, such as strong light absorption and photoluminescence, positioning them as promising candidates for biomedical and optoelectronic applications. Their unique electronic characteristics, particularly their understudied magnetic properties, merit further investigation. Compared to other quantum dots, MXene QDs offer advantages including enhanced functionalization capabilities, superior conductivity, low toxicity, and excellent photochemical and catalytic stability [ 261 – 263 ]. MXene quantum dots (QDs), especially MXene, demonstrate exceptional properties that hold great promise for bio- and nanomedicine applications. Hydroxyl-rich MXene QDs have achieved notable ammonia (NH 3 ) yields and efficiencies, highlighting their catalytic potential. Innovative synthesis techniques, including chemical vapor deposition and electrochemical methods, are being explored to produce a diverse range of MXene QDs (see Table 10 ) [ 264 – 267 ]. Table 10. Applications of MXene quantum dots in nanosystems Mxene QDs Synthesis Methods Applications References Mo 2 C Molten salt (molybdenum acetylacetonate, NaCl, 800 °C for 2 h) Process of converting nitrogen to ammonia [ 123 ] MoS 2 Hydrothermal synthesis Methanol converts to CO 2 ; oxygen reduces to water [ 120 ] V 2 C Hydrothermal synthesis Techniques for visualizing and destroying tumors using heat [ 207 ] MXene Hydrothermal synthesis Glutathione detection and photoelectrochemical biosensing involve identifying glutathione levels through light-driven electrochemical methods [ 211 ] MXene Hydrothermal synthesis Enzyme assay and cell identification refer to techniques used to measure enzyme activity and distinguish different cell types [ 212 ] MXene Reflux technique Glutathione detection involves measuring the levels of glutathione, an important antioxidant, in biological samples [ 221 ] Mo 2 C Ultrasound-assisted synthesis (Bio)imaging and photothermal therapy combine visualization techniques with heat-based treatments to target and destroy tumors [ 226 ] MXene Microwave-assisted technique Detection of curcumin and hypochlorite (ClO-) involves identifying these compounds in samples for various applications, including health and environmental monitoring [ 231 ] MXene Hydrothermal synthesis Multicolor cellular imaging and Zn2+ detection enable visualization of cells using different colors while simultaneously measuring zinc ion levels within them [ 235 ] MXene Hydrothermal synthesis Antioxidant effects refer to the ability of substances to neutralize free radicals, thus protecting cells from oxidative stress and damage [ 237 ] MXene Hydrothermal synthesis Immunomodulation involves the alteration of the immune response, enhancing or suppressing it to treat diseases or improve health outcomes [ 243 ] MXene Hydrothermal synthesis Bioimaging, macrophage labeling, and Cu2+ detection involve visualizing macrophages in biological samples while simultaneously measuring copper ion levels, providing insights into cellular functions and disease states [ 247 ] MXene Hydrothermal synthesis Cytochrome c and trypsin detection focuses on identifying these crucial proteins in biological samples, aiding in studies of cellular respiration and digestive processes [ 248 ] MXene Hydrothermal synthesis (Bio)imaging and pH sensor technologies integrate visualization techniques with pH measurement, allowing real-time monitoring of pH changes in biological systems for research and diagnostic applications [ 257 ] MXene Ultrasound-assisted synthesis; fluorine-free preparation (Bio)imaging and photothermal therapy intertwine advanced imaging techniques with targeted heat treatments. This combination enables precise visualization of tissues, especially tumors, while using light-absorbing agents to generate heat, effectively destroying cancer cells. By enhancing localization and minimizing damage [ 267 ] MXene Intercalation-ultrasound sysnthesis Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) detection is essential for diagnosing and monitoring prostate health, indicating potential cancer or benign conditions through blood level measurements [ 268 ] Open in a new tab MXene (Ti 3 C 2 ) quantum dots (QDs) have been synthesized using hydrothermal and fluorine-free methods, displaying excitation-dependent photoluminescence with high quantum yields of up to 10%, making them well-suited for photothermal therapy applications. This safer, eco-friendly approach circumvents the use of hazardous hydrofluoric acid pretreatment. Furthermore, nitrogen- and phosphorus-doped Ti 3 C 2 QDs were fabricated via a microwave-assisted technique, which improved their photoluminescence efficiency while maintaining excellent dispersibility [ 268 ]. MXenes are advanced two-dimensional inorganic materials with great potential for biomedical applications such as gene and drug delivery, imaging, and cancer therapy. Their surfaces can be readily functionalized to improve biocompatibility and target specificity. However, comprehensive studies on their biocompatibility and cytotoxicity remain crucial, as factors like particle size, surface chemistry, and synthesis methods significantly influence their biological interactions [ 269 – 271 ]. The dimensional reduction of MXenes to quantum dots (QDs) imparts unique functional properties, though research in this area remains limited. Further investigation into their biocompatibility, toxicity, and photostability is essential to fully understand their biomedical potential. Despite the scarcity of dedicated reviews, MXene QDs have demonstrated promising applications in sensing, cancer therapy, and regenerative medicine, highlighting their significant potential for future biomedical innovations [ 272 – 277 ]. MXene quantum dot-based smart nanosystems are highly versatile platforms with strong potential for biomedical applications, including targeted drug delivery, wound healing, and tissue engineering [ 278 ]. Their tunable surfaces, high loading capacity, and stimuli-responsive behavior enhance therapeutic performance and control interactions with biological systems. Future research focused on mechanistic understanding, functionalization strategies, and in vivo safety evaluation will be essential to fully realize their clinical potential [ 279 – 281 ]. Comparative analysis of mxene quantum dots, MXene nanosheets, graphene quantum dots, semiconductor quantum dots, and polymer dots To address the reviewer’s concern regarding the insufficient comparison among different classes of nanomaterials, we have provided a detailed comparative overview in Table 11 . This subsection critically examines the relative advantages and limitations of MXene quantum dots (MQDs), MXene nanosheets, graphene quantum dots (GQDs), semiconductor quantum dots (SCQDs), and polymer dots (PDs) with respect to biocompatibility, photothermal efficiency, fluorescence performance, stability, and regulatory considerations [ 277 – 287 ]. In particular, recent studies from 2023 to 2025 have been surveyed to capture the latest developments and benchmarking of these materials for biomedical and theranostic applications. Table 11. Comparative summary of nanomaterial classes Material class Representative studies (Year) Biocompatibility Photothermal efficiency Fluorescence performance Stability Regulatory/Safety issues Key comments References MXene quantum dots (MQDs) ACS Appl. Nano Mater., 2024 Generally good biocompatibility in vitro with low cytotoxicity High NIR photothermal conversion reported Strong fluorescent emission with tunability Moderate to high stability depending on surface groups Emerging studies, but long-term safety still under investigation Exhibit both imaging and PTT potential, functionalization enhances targeting and biosafety. (ACS Publications) [ 247 ] MXene nanosheets Materials advances, 2025 Variable depending on size & oxidation level High photothermal conversion, good for PTT Lower inherent fluorescent properties High structural integrity, but oxidation susceptibility Safety considerations tied to surface chemistry & dose Nanosheets excel in photothermal and chemotherapeutic applications with high loading capacity but need careful surface control for safety. (RSC Publishing) [ 252 ] Graphene quantum dots (GQDs) Trends in sciences, 2025 Favorable biocompatibility, low toxicity Good photothermal properties when combined with platforms High fluorescence tunability High chemical robustness Carbon-based materials generally safer but photobleaching and long-term effects need study GQDs are strong for biosensing and imaging due to tunable fluorescence and carbon biocompatibility. (Tis) [ 257 ] Semiconductor QDs (SCQDs) RSC advances, 2024 Toxicity concerns for heavy-metal QDs; alternatives (Si QDs) have lower toxicity Excellent optical & photothermal properties, but heavy-metal risk Very high fluorescence efficiency Stability varies widely by composition Regulatory challenges due to heavy metals SCQDs offer superior optical performance but require safety strategies or low-toxic compositions. (RSC Publishing) [ 261 ] Polymer dots (PDs) Comprehensive reviews (2024–25) Excellent biocompatibility Moderate photothermal capability Good fluorescent properties Excellent colloidal and chemical stability Generally low regulatory hurdles PDs are emerging for bioimaging and drug delivery with tunable properties and high biocompatibility [ 286 ] Open in a new tab Table 2 highlights that biocompatibility and safety profiles differ significantly across nanomaterial classes. Carbon-based materials such as GQDs and polymer dots generally exhibit lower toxicity and favorable biocompatibility, making them advantageous for long-term biomedical applications. Semiconductor quantum dots deliver superior fluorescence performance , yet their heavy-metal-related toxicity and regulatory challenges remain concerns [ 288 ]. MXene-based materials, including MQDs and nanosheets, show strong photothermal efficiency and multifunctionality, but their safety and long-term stability are closely tied to surface functionalization and oxidation levels . The comparison also emphasizes the importance of surface chemistry, synthesis route, and biological model selection in influencing overall performance and translational potential of these nanomaterials [ 289 – 291 ]. Challenges and clinical translation of MXene quantum dot polymer nanocomposites MXene quantum dot (QD) polymer nanocomposites have emerged as promising platforms for targeted drug delivery and multifunctional biomedical applications due to their tunable surface chemistry, high surface-to-volume ratio, and unique optical and electrical properties. Recent studies from 2024–2025 demonstrate significant progress in engineering MXene QD-based systems for enhanced drug loading, stimuli-responsive release, and multimodal imaging capabilities. Despite these advancements, several challenges remain that must be addressed before clinical translation [ 292 – 294 ]. A major limitation is the controlled synthesis and scalability of MXene QD polymer nanocomposites. Variability in size, surface functionalization, and polymer integration can significantly influence biological responses, drug release profiles, and therapeutic efficacy. While fluorine-free etching and bottom-up synthesis techniques have improved reproducibility and reduced toxic by-products, standardized methods compatible with large-scale production are still lacking [ 295 ]. Long-term biosafety and biocompatibility represent another critical hurdle. Although preliminary in vitro studies indicate that polymer-wrapped MXene QDs exhibit reduced acute cytotoxicity, recent in vivo studies show organ-specific accumulation, potential oxidative stress, and sublethal metabolic effects that are not captured by conventional assays. Comprehensive chronic toxicity studies and mechanistic investigations into clearance pathways are essential to ensure safety [ 296 ]. The complexity of nano-bio interactions further challenges clinical translation. Polymer matrices used to enhance stability and targeting specificity must be carefully tuned for hydrophilicity, biodegradability, and immune compatibility. Recent 2024–2025 reports highlight that PEGylation, peptide conjugation, and surface modification strategies can improve circulation time and cellular uptake, yet the heterogeneity of biological environments necessitates further investigation to predict in vivo behavior accurately [ 297 ]. From a regulatory perspective, the lack of standardized evaluation frameworks for multifunctional nanomedicines impedes clinical adoption. Regulatory agencies require clear evidence of safety, efficacy, and reproducible manufacturing, but current guidelines do not fully account for the multifunctional properties of MXene-based nanocomposites. Harmonized protocols for physicochemical characterization, batch consistency, and functional performance benchmarks are needed to facilitate clinical translation [ 298 ]. Finally, interdisciplinary collaboration among materials scientists, chemists, pharmacologists, and regulatory experts is essential to overcome these challenges. Addressing synthesis scalability, comprehensive safety profiling, nano-bio interactions, and regulatory preparedness will be critical to advance MXene QD polymer nanocomposites from proof-of-concept studies to safe and effective clinical therapeutics [ 299 ]. Critical analysis Recent developments from 2025 to 2026 in composites of MXene quantum dots and polymers have shown great promise as multifunctional carriers for targeted drug delivery and theranostic applications [ 300 ]. Compared with conventional nanocarriers, these composites provide higher drug-loading capacity, controlled release triggered by stimuli such as pH changes or near-infrared light, and improved cellular uptake through surface modifications [ 301 ]. The combination of the large surface area of MXene quantum dots and the responsive polymer network allows selective drug release at tumor sites while supporting imaging and photothermal therapy functions. Despite these advantages, several challenges remain. Long-term biocompatibility, stability in living systems, and potential immune responses are not yet fully understood because most studies are still in preclinical stages [ 302 ]. Variations in synthesis methods result in differences in particle uniformity, drug-loading efficiency, and release kinetics, highlighting the need for standardized procedures. Furthermore, mechanistic understanding of cellular uptake, intracellular transport, and interactions with biological systems is still limited. Approaches using clinically relevant animal models, predictive toxicity simulations, and machine-learning-assisted synthesis are being explored to overcome these limitations and accelerate clinical translation [ 303 ]. Overall, composites of MXene quantum dots and polymers represent highly versatile smart therapeutic platforms, but further mechanistic studies, standardized characterization, and comprehensive in vivo evaluations are essential to realize their full clinical potential [ 304 ]. Challenges and future perspectives MXenes distinguish themselves from other two-dimensional materials through a variety of synthesis methods, allowing for relatively straightforward large-scale production via the selective etching of ceramic precursors [ 305 ]. For example, hydrofluoric acid (HF) etching enables the rapid and extensive production of MXenes, which feature abundant hydrophilic groups that improve their compatibility in biological environments. Over the next decade, researchers aim to address several key challenges to advance the development of MXenes [ 306 ]. Key challenges include developing eco-friendly and efficient synthesis methods, as well as improving the chemical and thermal stability of MXenes. Additionally, optimizing their electronic, optical, and thermal properties while precisely controlling surface chemistry is essential. Ongoing efforts also focus on refining self-assembly techniques to produce well-aligned MXene films and expanding the range of studied MXenes beyond the commonly used MXene, including exploration of alternative surface terminations such as sulfur and nitrogen [ 307 ]. Understanding the influence of confined ions and molecules on MXenes in various applications, particularly in electrochemical energy storage, is a key research priority [ 308 ]. Researchers are also working to transfer the exceptional mechanical properties of MXenes into ceramic, metal, and polymer composites. In addition, evaluating the toxicity and environmental safety of different transition metals and surface terminations is essential, along with investigating the use of MXenes as precursors for the synthesis of new materials. Major challenges remain, such as achieving delamination of MXenes without organic intercalants, synthesizing them from non-aluminum MAX phases, and understanding the mechanisms of charge transport between individual flakes [ 309 ]. Expanding the chemical diversity of the X element in MXenes, improving theoretical prediction methods, and developing new two-dimensional transition metal carbides, nitrides, and borides are all essential goals. Addressing these challenges will help researchers standardize characterization techniques and fully harness the transformative potential of MXenes as an exceptional class of materials with outstanding properties [ 310 , 311 ]. Conclusion In conclusion, MXenes and MXene quantum dots (QDs), particularly Ti 3 C 2 T x , represent a rapidly advancing class of two-dimensional materials with significant potential for biomedical applications. Recent studies have demonstrated that their hydrophilic, functionalized surfaces and high surface-to-volume ratios enable efficient drug loading, enhanced cellular interactions, and improved therapeutic efficacy, especially in cancer-related applications such as bioimaging, targeted drug delivery, and photothermal therapy. Advances reported in 2024–2025 further highlight the role of surface engineering and polymer integration in enhancing stability, targeting ability, and biocompatibility. Despite these notable advancements, several limitations remain. The inherent chemical instability of MXenes under physiological and environmental conditions continues to hinder their scalable production, long-term storage, and clinical translation. While short-term in vitro and in vivo studies generally report low toxicity, comprehensive evaluations of long-term biocompatibility, cellular uptake pathways, biodegradation behavior, and environmental impact remain limited. Future efforts should therefore focus on developing environmentally sustainable and scalable synthesis strategies, coupled with systematic studies on the biological fate, clearance mechanisms, and long-term safety of both Unmodified and functionalized MXenes. Establishing standardized testing protocols and robust regulatory frameworks will be crucial for their safe and responsible application in biomedicine. Overall, ongoing progress in material design, surface engineering, and polymer-assisted functionalization is expected to broaden the scope of MXene-based systems, creating new opportunities for advanced drug delivery, wound healing, and next-generation biomedical technologies. Author contributions Dr. Mohammad Hossein Karami: Validation, Supervision, Writing—review and editing, Formal analysis, Writing—original draft, Visualization, Software, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization, Data curation, Conceptualization. Dr. Omid Moini Jazani: Writing—review, Validation, Supervision. Funding The authors declare that they did not receive any funds, grants, or other support during the preparation of this manuscript. Data availability Data is available upon request. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This study did not involve human participants, animals, or sensitive data, and therefore no ethical approval was required. Not applicable. No human participants were involved in the study. Consent for publication Not applicable. No individual person’s data or identifiable information is included in this manuscript. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Footnotes Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Contributor Information Mohammad Hossein Karami, Email: karami.polymerpostdoc@gmail.com, Email: mh.karami@eng.ui.ac.ir. Omid Moini Jazani, Email: o.moini@eng.ui.ac.ir. 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