Alternative Approaches and Plant-Based Remedies for Livestock Health Management Among the Batswana of Southern Africa: A Review.

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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Chem Biodivers . 2026 Apr 17;23:e03248. doi: 10.1002/cbdv.202503248 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Alternative Approaches and Plant‐Based Remedies for Livestock Health Management Among the Batswana of Southern Africa: A Review Tswelelopele G Mpolokeng Tswelelopele G Mpolokeng 1 Indigenous Knowledge Systems Centre, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North‐West University, Mmabatho, South Africa 2 South African Research Chairs Initiative in Indigenous Knowledge‐Driven Medicinal Plants Utilisation and Conservation Strategies for Human, Animal, and Crop Health (IK‐Medplants4HAC), Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North‐West University, Mmabatho, South Africa 3 Agricultural Research Council – Vegetable, Industrial and Medicinal Plants, Pretoria, South Africa Find articles by Tswelelopele G Mpolokeng 1, 2, 3 , Ndzalama Shikwambana Ndzalama Shikwambana 3 Agricultural Research Council – Vegetable, Industrial and Medicinal Plants, Pretoria, South Africa 4 Phytomedicine Programme, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa Find articles by Ndzalama Shikwambana 3, 4 , Mompati V Chakale Mompati V Chakale 1 Indigenous Knowledge Systems Centre, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North‐West University, Mmabatho, South Africa 2 South African Research Chairs Initiative in Indigenous Knowledge‐Driven Medicinal Plants Utilisation and Conservation Strategies for Human, Animal, and Crop Health (IK‐Medplants4HAC), Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North‐West University, Mmabatho, South Africa Find articles by Mompati V Chakale 1, 2 , John A Asong John A Asong 5 Unit For Environmental Sciences and Management, Faculty of Natural and Agriculture Sciences, North‐West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa Find articles by John A Asong 5 , Lyndy J McGaw Lyndy J McGaw 4 Phytomedicine Programme, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa Find articles by Lyndy J McGaw 4, ✉ , Stephen O Amoo Stephen O Amoo 3 Agricultural Research Council – Vegetable, Industrial and Medicinal Plants, Pretoria, South Africa 5 Unit For Environmental Sciences and Management, Faculty of Natural and Agriculture Sciences, North‐West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa Find articles by Stephen O Amoo 3, 5 , Nqobile A Masondo Nqobile A Masondo 1 Indigenous Knowledge Systems Centre, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North‐West University, Mmabatho, South Africa 3 Agricultural Research Council – Vegetable, Industrial and Medicinal Plants, Pretoria, South Africa Find articles by Nqobile A Masondo 1, 3, ✉ , Adeyemi O Aremu Adeyemi O Aremu 1 Indigenous Knowledge Systems Centre, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North‐West University, Mmabatho, South Africa 2 South African Research Chairs Initiative in Indigenous Knowledge‐Driven Medicinal Plants Utilisation and Conservation Strategies for Human, Animal, and Crop Health (IK‐Medplants4HAC), Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North‐West University, Mmabatho, South Africa 6 School of Agriculture and Science, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu‐Natal, Durban, South Africa Find articles by Adeyemi O Aremu 1, 2, 6, ✉ Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Indigenous Knowledge Systems Centre, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North‐West University, Mmabatho, South Africa 2 South African Research Chairs Initiative in Indigenous Knowledge‐Driven Medicinal Plants Utilisation and Conservation Strategies for Human, Animal, and Crop Health (IK‐Medplants4HAC), Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North‐West University, Mmabatho, South Africa 3 Agricultural Research Council – Vegetable, Industrial and Medicinal Plants, Pretoria, South Africa 4 Phytomedicine Programme, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa 5 Unit For Environmental Sciences and Management, Faculty of Natural and Agriculture Sciences, North‐West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa 6 School of Agriculture and Science, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu‐Natal, Durban, South Africa ✉ Corresponding author. Revised 2025 Dec 29; Received 2025 Oct 9; Accepted 2026 Mar 9; Issue date 2026 Apr. © 2026 The Author(s). Chemistry & Biodiversity published by Wiley‐VHCA AG. This is an open access article under the terms of the http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC13090005  PMID: 41996606 ABSTRACT Due to limited access to, and the high cost of conventional veterinary services, Batswana communities often rely on ethnoveterinary practices for livestock health management. This review provides an in‐depth analysis on the ethnoveterinary uses, biological properties and safety assessment of plants utilised in livestock husbandry. A systematic literature search was conducted using scientific databases, focusing on articles published from 1997 to 2024. After generating the inventory of plants with ethnoveterinary data, further search was conducted to assess the documented biological activities, safety, and phytochemicals for the recorded plants. A total of 116 plants were documented as remedies for managing nine livestock conditions. The most cited health conditions were retained placenta (81 citations), diarrhoea (65), and wounds (44). The most prominent plants were Senna italica (10 citations), Terminalia sericea (8 citations), and Ziziphus mucronata (8 citations). Approximately 52% of the 116 plants with ethnoveterinary records have empirical data on their biological effect, safety, and phytochemicals. Antimicrobial screening was the most common assay conducted (36%), which dominantly used microbial strains such as Staphylococcus spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa , and Escherichia coli . We established the vital role of ethnoveterinary practices in Batswana livestock management and the potential of plants in sustainable veterinary care. Keywords: animal health, antimicrobial, bioactivity, one health, phytochemicals Abbreviations CC column chromatography DEPT distortionless enhancement by polarisation transfer EI‐MS electron ionisation‐mass spectrometry FTIR Fourier transform infrared GC‐MS gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry HPLC high performance liquid chromatography IR infrared LC‐MS liquid chromatography‐mass spectrometry NMR nuclear magnetic resonance TLC thin layer chromatography UHPLC‐qTOF‐MA ultra‐high performance liquid chromatography‐quadrupole time‐of‐flight mass spectrometer UPLC ultra performance liquid chromatography UV ultraviolet 1. Introduction Globally, livestock such as cattle, goats, sheep, chickens, and horses play crucial roles in human life by providing food, generating income, and supplying materials, while also symbolising wealth, and are linked to social standing and cultural heritage. Additionally, they contribute to tourism and employment opportunities [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Livestock husbandry is an integral part of the livelihoods of Batswana communities in southern Africa, providing economic support and cultural significance [ 4 , 5 ]. The Batswana are part of the Bantu‐speaking people and found across several countries in southern Africa [ 6 , 7 ]. Archaeological evidence suggests that livestock rearing took place from the later Stone Age in southern Africa [ 8 ], with historical link to east Africa [ 9 ]. Livestock have always been significant to the Bantu‐speaking agropastoral people of southern Africa, and still in present times, they remain important commodities used for wealth transfer and are valued in some cultures for their connections with ancestors [ 10 ]. The Batswana were selected as the focus of this review due to their wide geographical distribution across southern Africa, strong livestock‐based livelihoods, and well‐documented reliance on ethnoveterinary medicine [ 11 ]. Despite this, existing knowledge remains fragmented, necessitating a consolidated and critical synthesis. Livestock contribute greatly to food security in rural communities, provide invaluable ecological services, and are also used in traditional rituals [ 12 ]. However, limited access to conventional veterinary services, coupled with their high cost, has led to the widespread reliance on traditional methods for managing livestock health [ 13 ]. These methods, deeply rooted in indigenous knowledge systems, often involve the use of plant‐based remedies to manage a variety of livestock ailments [ 14 ]. Plant‐based remedies have long been recognised as an affordable and sustainable alternative to conventional veterinary medicine [ 15 ]. Among the Batswana, these remedies are employed to manage conditions ranging from reproductive disorders and gastrointestinal problems to respiratory infections and wounds. Veterinary phytomedicine has long been practiced by indigenous communities worldwide. In sub‐Saharan Africa, its effectiveness has largely been based on oral traditions and practical use rather than formal documentation [ 16 ]. In contrast, other regions such as India have preserved records of traditional veterinary medicine in Ayurvedic texts [ 17 ]. These remedies are believed to have developed through trial and error or by observing animal self‐medication [ 17 ]. Many medicinal plants used in traditional veterinary practices contain bioactive compounds with antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, and anti‐parasitic properties, making them valuable for treating infections, wounds, and other livestock health issues [ 18 ]. Southern Africa, which is recognised as a biodiversity hotspot, harbors numerous plant species with potential for veterinary applications [ 19 , 20 ]. The secondary metabolites in these plants contribute to animal health and provide a cost‐effective alternative to synthetic drugs. They also help address critical challenges such as antimicrobial resistance and drug residues in animal products [ 21 , 22 ]. Despite the widespread use and cultural significance of these remedies, scientific documentation and validation/valorisation of their efficacy remain sparse [ 23 , 24 ]. Furthermore, understanding the pharmacological properties of these plants presents an opportunity to develop affordable and accessible veterinary products with proven efficacy and safety [ 25 ]. The current review entails an appraisal of the existing ethnoveterinary knowledge, biological activities, and phytochemical profile of plants used for managing livestock health among the Batswana in southern Africa. By highlighting the strengths and gaps in the current knowledge, the review aims to contribute to the increasing body of evidence supporting sustainable livestock management practices in southern Africa. Additionally, it identifies opportunities for future research into the pharmacological potential of traditional remedies, emphasising the importance of preserving, valorising, and integrating indigenous knowledge into contemporary veterinary medicine. 2. Methods The review is based on published ethnoveterinary studies conducted amongst Batswana communities from January 1997 to June 2024. The systematic review is structured according to PRISMA guidelines [ 26 ]. Electronic databases such as Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and Scopus were used to search for literature. Furthermore, published literature from dissertations, theses, and ethnobotanical books retrieved from the North‐West University online repositories were used in the review. Diverse keywords and phrases were used to access eligible articles. These included “medicinal plants for livestock, livestock health management, Batswana, indigenous knowledge, livestock management, southern Africa, and ethnoveterinary practices”. The Boolean operators of ‘AND’ and ‘OR’ were included to extend the search. Bibliographies of selected articles were also examined to identify further references that might have been omitted from the initial searches. The articles included in this review focused on Batswana communities in southern Africa and explicitly reported the use of ethnoveterinary medicine in managing livestock health care. The collected information included Latin and local names of the plants, plant parts, diseases or conditions treated, preparation methods and mode of administration, and the classification of livestock conditions. Publications were excluded if they focused on modern or non‐plant‐based veterinary practices, were conducted outside southern Africa, did not focus on Batswana communities, or lacked sufficient details on the ethnoveterinary practices and plant species used. Studies not available in English were also excluded. All scientific plant names were verified using the “Plants of the World Online | Kew Science” ( https://powo.science.kew.org/ ). A total of 848 studies were recorded from various scientific databases (Figure 1 ), which included journal articles, theses, books, and dissertations on the ethnoveterinary studies conducted across southern Africa from 1997 until June 2024. During the screening phase, the titles and abstracts of all the articles were reviewed. A total of 591 duplicate articles were removed after applying the eligibility criteria. Following an additional individual screening of the remaining 257 studies, 105 articles were removed because their abstracts lacked the specified keywords, the studies focused solely on modern medicines, or did not explicitly relate to livestock management. A total of 140 articles were also excluded either because they are not available in English language, did not focus on Batswana, were not related to ethnoveterinary practices, such as those on modern or non‐plant‐based veterinary methods or the studies were conducted outside southern Africa, while the remaining 12 studies were eligible (Figure 1 ). FIGURE 1. Open in a new tab Flow diagram for selection of articles used for generating inventory of ethnobotanical practices and plant‐based remedies for managing livestock health conditions among the Batswana in southern Africa. To assess the biological activity and safety assessment as well as the phytochemical profiles of plants identified as being used in Batswana ethnoveterinary medicine, a further literature search guided by the generated plant inventory and using the target biological activities as search keywords was undertaken. Journals, books and reports that focused on animal health were considered. The literature was searched using specific keywords on international databases such as Scopus, Web of Science and ScienceDirect. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Literature Search Output In this review, the eligible studies covered two countries namely South Africa and Botswana. In terms of geographical distribution of the eligible ethnoveterinary studies, there were more studies among the Batswana communities in Botswana (58.33%) compared to eligible studies in South Africa (41.67%) (Table 1 ). Following a detailed analysis, 72.61% of the documented plants were from studies conducted in South Africa while 27.38% of the plants were from Botswana. Even though more studies were conducted in Botswana, the ethnoveterinary practices in South Africa contributed a higher portion in terms of diversity of plant species used for livestock health conditions. This could be attributed to several factors, such as ecological diversity in South Africa contributing to a broader range of medicinal plants, or more comprehensive documentation of plant species within South Africa [ 27 ]. TABLE 1. Overview of reviewed literature on ethnoveterinary plants used in livestock management by the Batswana in southern Africa. Author(s) Title of the study Country No. of plants No. of families Voucher specimen deposited? Participants Livestock treated Methodological framework Chakale et al. [ 76 ] Ethnoveterinary practices and ethnobotanical knowledge on plants used against cattle diseases among two communities in South Africa South Africa 64 32 Yes Community members Cattle Semi‐structured interview, field walk Gabalebatse et al. [ 56 ] Ethnoveterinary practices amongst livestock farmers in Ngamiland District, Botswana Botswana 11 9 Unspecified Farmers or cattle herders Cattle Structured questionnaires Gabanakgosi et al. [ 131 ] Ethnoveterinary medicine usage in family chickens in the selected four villages of Botswana Botswana 6 6 Unspecified Farmers Chicken Structured questionnaires Getchell et al. [ 109 ] Raising livestock in resource‐poor communities of the North West province of South Africa‐a participatory rural appraisal study South Africa 10 8 Unspecified Farmers Cattle, sheep, goats and chicken Questionnaire and focus group Lechani et al. [ 53 ] Participatory inventory of plant‐based ethnoveterinary medicine used to control internal parasites of goats in the Ngamiland region of Botswana Botswana 13 11 Unspecified Communal farmers Goats Structured questionnaires Moichwanetse et al. [ 52 ] Ethnoveterinary plants used for the treatment of retained placenta and associated diseases in cattle among Dinokana communities, North West Province, South Africa South Africa 25 18 Yes Farmers and herders Cattle Semi‐structured interview Moreki et al. [ 62 ] Potential use of ethnoveterinary medicine for retained placenta in cattle in Mogonono, Botswana Botswana 14 14 Unspecified Herd boys and stockowners Cattle Rapid Rural Techniques (RRA) Moreki [ 171 ] Small‐scale poultry production systems in Serowe‐Palapye sub‐district Botswana 5 3 Unspecified Poultry farmers Poultry Interviews, focus group, direct observation conference and a seminar Ndou et al. [ 64 ] Indigenous knowledge and use of medicinal plants for ethnoveterinary within the North West Province, South Africa South Africa 31 14 Yes Farmers, traditional healer, community members Cattle, sheep, goats and chicken Semi‐structured interview Setlalekgomo and Setlalekgomo [ 63 ] The use of ethnoveterinary medicine in goats in Lentsweletau village in Kweneng District of Botswana Botswana 13 12 Unspecified Farmers Goats Structured questionnaires Setlalekgomo [ 55 ] Snakebite management in cattle by farmers in Lentsweletau extension area of Kweneng District in Botswana Botswana 4 4 Unspecified Farmers and cattle herders Cattle Structured questionnaires Van der Merwe et al. [ 91 ] Use of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in cattle by Setswana‐speaking people in the Madikwe area of the North West Province of South Africa South Africa 45 24 Unspecified Farmers, extension officers, traditional healers, Knowledge holders Cattle Rapid Rural Techniques (RRA), group interviews, observation and field walk Open in a new tab The types of participants involved in each study has significant impact on the scope and depth of generated data [ 28 ]. Farmers (63.63%), community members (18.18%), traditional healers (18.18%), extension officers (9.09%), and knowledgeable elders (9.09%) provide first‐hand knowledge of plant usage in livestock health (Table 1 ). The expertise of farmers, community members, extension officers, knowledgeable elders, and traditional healers is largely derived from years of experience in livestock management, where they use traditional practices to address various health issues [ 29 ]. Such knowledge brings unique perspectives and practices to the preservation and application of indigenous health systems in managing livestock health. In many parts of Africa, these knowledge sources provide practical and accessible solutions for livestock health, serving as vital resources where modern veterinary services are lacking or not accessible [ 28 ]. Semi‐structured questionnaires (50%), rapid Rural Techniques (20%) and participatory research model (10%) were used to document the methodological framework of the studies in South Africa and Botswana (Table 1 ). The combination of semi‐structured questionnaires, rapid rural Appraisal (RRA) techniques, and participatory research approaches offers a comprehensive approach to studying ethnoveterinary practices [ 30 , 31 , 32 ]. These methods enable researchers to gather in‐depth, reliable data while fostering collaboration and inclusivity with Batswana communities [ 33 ]. The different methods provide an excellent opportunity to explore and experiment with various techniques, facilitating the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data [ 34 ]. The dual approach allows researchers to address contemporary theoretical issues surrounding the development, nature, and transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge [ 35 ]. 3.2. Ethnoveterinary Status of Plant Species Used by the Batswana to Manage Livestock Health Conditions Using the eligible literature, an analysis on the ethnoveterinary research that focused on the Batswana was conducted. Diverse aspect related to the identified plants and associated indigenous knowledge and practices are elaborated accordingly. 3.2.1. Diversity of Plant Species With Ethnoveterinary Records A total of 116 plant species from 44 families were recorded as being used in the management of livestock health conditions in South Africa and Botswana (Table 2 ). Senna italica , Terminalia sericea , Ziziphus mucronata , Peltophorum africanum , Drimia sanguinea , and Aloe ferox were the most cited plant species, representing 37.06% of the generated plant inventory. The plants are reported to be used as multifunctional medicine for the treatment of various livestock diseases, including gastrointestinal infections, respiratory disorders, wound healing, and ectoparasitic infestations. These conditions are among the most frequently cited in ethnoveterinary studies, highlighting the broad‐spectrum use of these plant‐based remedies. Additionally, the health benefits of some of the most cited ethnoveterinary plant species has been demonstrated in other African countries such as Cameroon [ 36 ], Namibia [ 37 , 38 ], Ethiopia [ 39 , 40 ], and Zimbabwe [ 41 ]. The prevalence of Aloe species in the disease management of Zimbabwean poultry (e.g., wounds, diarrhoea, and ectoparasites) was held to be indicative of efficacy for the plant [ 42 ]. Geographical distribution, availability and health benefits of Aloe species ( Aloe ferox , Aloe greatheadii , Aloe marlothii , Aloe vera , Aloe zebrina ) in different African regions could be the contributing factor in their common usage for disease management or conditions such as wounds, constipation and retained placenta. The dominance of the Aloe genus illustrates its pharmacological potential, adaptability and broad‐spectrum efficacy as the plants are frequently praised for their anti‐inflammatory, and laxative properties [ 43 ]. The patterns of findings on species such as Aloe sp. align with the patterns observed in South Africa and Botswana, suggesting a shared reliance on specific taxa across different regions of Africa. The relatively high citation frequency of other commonly used plants such as Senna italica and Terminalia sericea demonstrates their perceived effectiveness and suggests their broad applicability in managing livestock conditions. In terms of popularity, plants with high citation frequencies, availability, and versatility in managing multiple conditions emerged as key species across the surveyed regions. About 42% of the recorded plants ( Boophone disticha , Boscia albitrunca , Croton gratissimus , Entada elephantina , Gomphocarpus fruticosus , Grewia flava , Grewia flavescens , Hypoxis hemerocallidea and Vachellia karroo ) were identified as the most popularly used plants based on their high citation number (3‐5), availability and/or uses (2‐9) in the management of multiple livestock conditions. The high frequency of citation for most used plants could indicate their effectiveness in managing diverse livestock diseases/conditions, considering that these practices in indigenous knowledge have often been refined over time. TABLE 2. An inventory of ethnobotanical plants used in livestock management by Batswana across southern Africa. The botanical name and families were verified using the Plants of the World Online | Kew Science” ( https://powo.science.kew.org/ ). Plant species Family Local name Plant part(s) used Preparation method Administration mode Conditions References Acokanthera oppositifolia (Lam.) Codd Apocynaceae Serekolo Leaves Decoction Oral Internal parasites [ 53 ] Acrotome inflata Benth. Lamiaceae Mogato Leaves, Whole plant Decoction, Burn Oral, Topical Cough, wounds [ 76 ] Roots Infusion Oral Wounds, abscess in livestock [ 64 ] Aloe ferox Mill. Asphodelaceae Mokgwapha/ Sekgophana Leaves Chopped Oral NCD, coccidiosis and respiratory diseases [ 131 ] Infusion Internal parasites [ 53 ] Snakebite control [ 55 ] Unspecified Unspecified Diarrhoea, Cough [ 63 ] Unspecified Worms, Diarrhoea, Constipation [ 109 ] Aloe greatheadii Schönland Asphodelaceae Kgopane e nyane Leaves Decoction, Infusion Oral Constipation, diarrhoea, retained placenta, ticks, abscesses, wounds, muscle pain [ 76 ] Decoction Retained placenta, enhance blood circulation and treating diarrhoea [ 52 ] Kgophane Whole plant Unspecified Unspecified Burns, general ailments, blood cleansing, internal parasites, eye infections [ 91 ] Aloe marlothii A. Berger Asphodelaceae Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified [ 171 ] Mokgopa Leaves Gallsickness, internal and external parasites, diarrhoea, constipation, retained placenta, dystocia, maggots [ 91 ] Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Asphodelaceae Kgopane ya thaba Leaves Ground, decoction, infusion Topical, oral Abscess, wounds, retained placenta, diarrhoea [ 76 ] Decoction Oral Retained placenta, diarrhoea and gala [ 52 ] Aloe zebrina Baker Asphodelaceae Kgophane Leaves Infusion, roosted, Oral, topical Ripening of abscess, fleas, Gastrointestinal parasites, gala [ 64 ] Whole plant Unspecified Unspecified Burns, general ailments, blood cleansing, internal parasites, eye infections [ 91 ] Amaranthus blitum L. Amaranthaceae Modinakana Leaves Infusion Oral Blood cleansing, wounds [ 64 ] Amaranthus cruentus L. Amaranthaceae Setlepetlepe Roots, leaves, whole plant Poultice, ground Oral, topical Abscess, wounds, ear pain [ 76 ] Modinakana Whole plant Ground Oral Constipation [ 76 ] Ansellia africana Lindl. Orchidaceae Palamela Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Diarrhoea [ 56 ] Roots Decoction Oral Internal parasites [ 53 ] Aptosimum elongatum (Hiern) Engl. Scrophulariaceae Ditantanyane Whole plant Decoction Oral Arthralgia [ 76 ] Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd. Asteraceae Lengana Leaves Decoction, ground Oral, topical Cough, intestinal worms, arthralgia, ear pain [ 76 ] Infusion Oral Cough [ 64 ] Asparagus africanus Lam. Asparagaceae Thokabotswaro Roots, Stems Infusion Oral Malnutrition [ 76 ] Asparagus laricinus Burch. Asparagaceae Lesitwane Whole plant Decoction Oral Muscle pain [ 76 ] Tubers Unspecified Unspecified Sores, redwater, uterine infection, general ailments, umbilical cord inflammation [ 91 ] Mositwasitwane Roots/nods Retained placenta [ 62 ] Asparagus nodulosus (Oberm.) J.‐P. Lebrun & Stork Asparagaceae Radipolwane/ polopolwane Root Decoction Oral Eye infection, retained placenta [ 64 ] Asparagus suaveolens Burch. Asparagaceae Motantanyane Whole plant Decoction Oral Dystocia [ 76 ] Lesitwane Tubers Unspecified Unspecified Sores, redwater, uterine infection, general ailments, umbilical cord inflammation [ 91 ] Babiana hypogaea Burch. Iridaceae Thuge Leaves Infusion Oral Abscess, muscle pain [ 76 ] Tuber Diarrhoea [ 64 ] Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae Moetapele Leaves, Stems Decoction Topical Eye infection, abscess, wounds [ 76 ] Boophone disticha Herb. Amaryllidaceae Leswama Bulb Decoction Oral Oral Fracture, post‐abortion, retained placenta [ 64 ] Lesoma/ Mathubadudifala Leaves, Roots, Bulb Constipation [ 76 ] Lesoma (Legwama) Roots, Leaves Maceration Retained placenta and wound healing [ 52 ] Matubadifala Bulb scales Unspecified Unspecified Abortion [ 91 ] Unspecified Retained placenta, gall sickness [ 109 ] Boscia albitrunca (Burch.) Gilg & Benedict Capparaceae Motlopi Leaves, Roots Decoction, ground Oral Internal parasites [ 53 ] Unspecified [ 131 ] Unspecified Unspecified Retained placenta [ 62 ] Bark Anthrax [ 56 ] Eye diseases [ 63 ] Boscia foetida Schinz Capparaceae Mopipi Leaves Ground Unspecified Eye problems [ 56 ] Bulbine abyssinica A. Rich. Asphodelaceae Makgabenyane Leaves Ground Topical Abscess, wounds [ 76 ] Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Gall sickness, worms [ 109 ] Roots Infusion Oral Blood cleansing, internal sores [ 64 ] Burkea africana Hook. Fabaceae Monato Bark Unspecified Unspecified Retained placenta [ 62 ] [ 63 ] Cadaba aphylla (Thunb.) Wild Capparaceae Monnamontsho Roots Decoction Oral Blood cleansing [ 64 ] Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae Motekwane Leaves Decoction Oral Anthelmintic [ 64 ] Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae Pherehere Leaves/fruit Chopped Oral Unspecified [ 131 ] Cassia abbreviata Oliv. Fabaceae Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified [ 171 ] Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae Setimamolelo Setimamolelo Leaves, whole plant Poultice, decoction Topical, oral Wound, abscess, eye infection, diarrhoea [ 76 ] Whole plant Maceration Oral Retained placenta [ 52 ] Cleome gynandra L. Cleomaceae Rothwe Flower, leaves, roots Ground Topical Eye infection, ear problem, cough, constipation, intestinal worms [ 76 ] Colophospermum mopane (J. Kirk ex Benth.) J. Léonard Fabaceae Mophane Bark, leaves Infusion, decoction Oral Internal parasites [ 53 ] Combretum hereroense Schinz Combretaceae Tsholakhudu Leaves Decoction Oral Cough, pains, dysentery, constipation [ 76 ] Combretum imberbe Wawra Combretaceae Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Fleas, mites, ticks [ 171 ] Croton gratissimus Burch Euphorbiaceae Moologa Flower Ground Topical Eye infection, ear problem [ 76 ] Leaves Fertility enhancement [ 64 ] Leaves, Roots Unspecified Unspecified Pneumonia, fertility enhancement [ 91 ] Croton megalobotrys Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae Unspecified Leaves Unspecified Topical Lumpy skin [ 56 ] Cucumis myriocarpus Naudin Cucurbitaceae Monyaku Fruit Infusion Oral Vomiting, general malaise (gala) [ 64 ] Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. Fabaceae Moselesele Bark Poultice Topical Retained placenta, dystocia, fracture, arthralgia [ 76 ] Roots Topical Retained placenta, dystocia, fracture [ 52 ] Dicoma galpinii F.C. Wilson Asteraceae Tlhlonya Roots Infusion Oral Diarrhoea, blood cleansing [ 64 ] Dicoma macrocephala DC. Asteraceae Tlhonya Roots Infusion Oral Diarrhoea [ 76 ] Diospyros lycioides Desf. Ebenaceae Motlhajwa/letlhajwa Roots Decoction Oral Snakebite control [ 55 ] Dracaena hyacinthoides (L.) Mabb. Asparagaceae Moshokelatsebe Leaves, whole plant Poultice, decoction Topical, oral Retained placenta, diarrhoea, constipation [ 76 ] Drimia sanguinea (Schinz) Jessop Asparagaceae Sekaname Bulb Infusion Oral Retained placenta, intestinal worms, constipation [ 76 ] Poultice Oral General ailments, general intestinal diseases, internal parasites, blood cleansing, gallsickness, heartwater, redwater, sores, retained placenta [ 91 ] Roots Retained placenta, uterus, blood cleaning [ 52 ] Snakebite, heartwater [ 64 ] Unspecified Unspecified Foot rot [ 63 ] Gallsickness, worms [ 91 ] Unspecified Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants Amaranthaceae Tlhatlhabadimo Whole plant Infusion Oral Cough, constipation [ 76 ] Ehretia rigida Druce Boraginaceae Morobe Roots Unspecified Unspecified Fractures [ 91 ] Elaeodendron transvaalense (Burtt Davy) R.H. Archer Celastraceae Mojelemane Bark Decoction Oral Diarrhoea [ 76 ] Unspecified Unspecified [ 91 ] Englerophytum magalismontanum (Sonder) T.D.Penn. Sapotaceae Motlatswa Roots Unspecified Unspecified Fertility enhancement [ 91 ] Entada burkei (Benth.) S.A. O'Donnell & G.P. Lewis Fabaceae Mositsane Roots, Bark Decoction, ground Oral, topical Cough, constipation, retained placenta, diarrhoea [ 76 ] Entada elephantina (Burch.) S.A. O'Donnell & G.P. Lewis Fabaceae Mosetlhane Mositsane Bosetsana Root‐stock Unspecified Unspecified Diarrhoea, heartwater, coughing, pneumonia [ 91 ] Bulb Retained placenta [ 62 ] Roots Poultice Topical Retained placenta, intestinal para sites, enhance blood circulation [ 52 ] Leaves Decoction Oral Internal parasites [ 53 ] Rhizome Infusion Blood cleansing [ 64 ] Euclea undulata Thunb. Ebenaceae Morobe Leaves, bark, roots Poultice, decoction Topical, oral Wounds, cough, constipation, retained placenta diarrhoea, arthralgia [ 76 ] Euphorbia balbisii Boiss. Euphorbiaceae Lwetsane Leaves, Roots Decoction Oral Diarrhoea, intestinal worms [ 76 ] Euphorbia inaequilatera Sond. Euphorbiaceae Loetsane Roots Infusion Unspecified Eye problems [ 56 ] Euphorbia regis‐jubae Webb &  Berthel. Euphorbiaceae Mosimama/Mosiama Branches Ground Oral, topical Snakebite control [ 55 ] Euphorbia serpens Kunth Euphorbiaceae Luetsane Roots Decoction Oral Blood cleansing [ 64 ] Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) W.T. Aiton Apocynaceae Motimola/ sebogamaswi Whole plant Infusion Oral Constipation, retained placenta, cough, bile reflux [ 76 ] Motimola Maceration Retained placenta, pain alleviation [ 52 ] Sebogamashi Roots Decoction Retained placenta, gala, respiratory diseases [ 64 ] Grewia flava DC. Malvaceae Moretlwa Roots Infusion Oral Diarrhoea, dystocia [ 76 ] Decoction Diarrhoea [ 64 ] Unspecified Unspecified Fertility enhancement [ 91 ] Grewia flavescens Juss. Malvaceae Mokgompata Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Diarrhoea [ 56 ] Mokgomphatha Roots Foot rot [ 63 ] Motsotsojane Leaves Infusion Oral Pain, wounds, diarrhoea [ 76 ] Leaves, Roots Internal parasites [ 53 ] Harpagophytum procumbens (Burch.) DC. ex  Meisn. Pedaliaceae Sengaparile Roots Unspecified Unspecified Mange [ 63 ] Lematla, Sengaparile Fruit Decoction, ground Oral, topical Retained placenta [ 91 ] Tuber, roots, leaves, fruit Dystocia, pain after birth, abscess, fracture, muscle pain, retained placenta [ 76 ] Helichrysum candolleanum H.Buek Asteraceae Phateyangaka Phate ya ngaka Roots, leaves, fruit Decoction Oral Retained placenta [ 76 ] Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Fowl pox, swelling of the head [ 109 ] Helichrysum paronychioides DC. Asteraceae Phateyangaka Roots Infusion Oral Cough, blood cleansing, pain, diarrhoea [ 64 ] Hermannia guerkeana K. Schum. Malvaceae Moreba Roots Unspecified Unspecified Retained placenta [ 62 ] Hypoxis hemerocallidea Fisch., C.A. Mey. & Avé‐Lall. Hypoxidaceae Maledu/Tshuku ya poo Whole plant Decoction Oral Cough, dystocia, arthralgia, constipation [ 76 ] Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Gall sickness [ 109 ] Corms Fertility enhancement, general ailments, heartwater, abortion [ 91 ] Bulb Poultice Topical Retained placenta, anaemia [ 52 ] Hypoxis rigidula Baker Hypoxidaceae Tsuku‐ya‐poo Corms Unspecified Unspecified Fertility enhancement, general ailments, heartwater, abortion [ 91 ] Indigofera cryptantha Benth. ex Harv. Fabaceae Kofi Roots Decoction Oral Diarrhoea [ 64 ] Ipomoea oblongata E. Mey. ex‐Choisy Convolvulaceae Mokatelo Roots Decoction Oral Cough, wounds, muscle pain, diarrhoea [ 76 ] Jatropha zeyheri Sond. Euphorbiaceae Seswagadi Roots Maceration Topical Eye infections, constipation, retained placenta [ 76 ] Poultice Retained placenta, blood cleansing and kidney stone [ 52 ] Kleinia longiflora DC. Asteraceae Mosimama Mosiama Whole plant Poultice Topical Eye infection [ 76 ] Ground Fracture [ 64 ] Lasiosiphon capitatus (Lam.) Burtt Davy Thymelaeaceae Mokaikai Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Diarrhoea [ 56 ] Roots, leaves Decoction, infusion Oral Internal parasites [ 53 ] Lippia scaberrima Sond. Verbenaceae Mosukutswane Leaves Decoction Oral Cough [ 76 ] Lycianthes biflora (Lour.) Bitter Solanaceae Makgonatsotlhe Roots Infusion Oral, topical Intestinal worms [ 76 ] Oral Internal parasites [ 53 ] Malva neglecta Wallr. Malvaceae Tikamotse Leaves, flowers Decoction Oral Constipation, wounds, abscess, cough [ 76 ] Malvastrum coromandelianu m (L.) Garcke Malvaceae Thobega Leaves Decoction Oral Diarrhoea, abscess, wounds, ear pain [ 76 ] Mentha aquatica L. Lamiaceae Kgobedimetsing Leaves Decoction Oral Cough [ 76 ] Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringaceae Unspecified Leaves Ground Oral Unspecified [ 131 ] Whole plant Unspecified Unspecified Cough [ 63 ] Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanaceae Motsoko Leaves Grounded Oral NCD, coccidiosis and respiratory diseases [ 131 ] Unspecified Unspecified Eye infections [ 91 ] Tobacco Worms, foaming from the mouth [ 109 ] Internal parasites, eye diseases [ 63 ] Opuntia ficus‐indica (L.) Mill. Cactaceae Toorofeye Leaves, stem, flowers Decoction, Ground Oral, topical Diarrhoea, constipation, eye infections, retained placenta, abscess [ 76 ] Flower Poultice Topical Retained placenta [ 52 ] Osyris lanceolata Hochst. & Steud. Santalaceae Mpera Bulb Maceration Oral Retained placenta, alleviation of pain, internal bleeding [ 52 ] Ozoroa paniculosa (Sond.) R. Fern. & A.Fern. Anacardiaceae Monokana Monokane Roots Decoction Oral Cough, muscle pain [ 76 ] Unspecified Unspecified Retained placenta [ 62 ] Bark, rootbark Diarrhoea, redwater, sweating sickness [ 91 ] Peltophorum africanum Sond. Fabaceae Mosetlha Mosetla Unspecified Roots, bark Decoction Oral Wounds, muscle pain, diarrhoea, constipation [ 76 ] Roots, leaves, bark Internal parasites [ 53 ] Leaves, Bark Poultice Topical Retained placenta diarrhoea and removal of blood clots from the skin [ 52 ] Roots Unspecified Unspecified Retained placenta [ 62 ] Bark, rootbark Diarrhoea [ 91 ] Unspecified Unspecified Fleas, mites, ticks [ 171 ] Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. Phyllanthaceae Mositwane Whole plant Ground, Decoction Topical, Oral Eye infection, constipation, diarrhoea [ 76 ] Phyllanthus parvulus var. garipensis (Müll.Arg.) Radcl.‐Sm. Phyllanthaceae Lentsane Aerial parts Unspecified Unspecified Eye infections [ 91 ] Phyllanthus parvulus Sond. Phyllanthaceae Lentsane Aerial parts Unspecified Unspecified Eye infections [ 91 ] Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae Masegomabe Whole plant Decoction Oral Cough, intestinal worms [ 76 ] Roots Unspecified Unspecified Pneumonia [ 91 ] Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae Selele Whole plant Decoction Oral Constipation, eye infection, muscle pain, wounds, intestinal worms [ 76 ] Pouzolzia mixta Solms Urticaceae Mongololo Roots, leaves Maceration, decoction, infusion Oral Retained placenta, diarrhoea, constipation [ 76 ] Unspecified Unspecified Retained placenta, bloat, vaginal discharge [ 91 ] Roots Poultice Topical Retained placenta, uterus cleansing [ 52 ] Unspecified Unspecified Retained placenta [ 62 ] Rhoicissus tridentata (L.f.) Wild & R.B. Drumm. Vitaceae Ntagaraga Tubers Unspecified Unspecified Heartwater, redwater, internal parasites, general ailments, abortion [ 91 ] Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Mokhura Leaves Infusion Oral Constipation, eye infection [ 76 ] Seeds Unspecified Unspecified Constipation, internal parasites [ 91 ] Scadoxus puniceus (L.) Friis & Nordal Amaryllidaceae Sekaname Roots Unspecified Unspecified Retained placenta [ 62 ] Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. Asteraceae Santlhoko Santhloko, Lefero Whole plant Ground Topical Eye infection, wounds, abscess [ 76 ] Aerial parts Unspecified Unspecified Eye infections, pneumonia, diarrhoea, heartwater [ 91 ] Sclerocarya birrea Hochst. Anacardiaceae Morula Barks Unspecified Unspecified Diarrhoea, fracture [ 91 ] Searsia lancea (L.f.) F.A. Barkley Anacardiaceae Moshabela Moshabele Roots, leaves, stem Poultice, infusion Oral Abscess, constipation, diarrhoea [ 76 ] Roots, bark Unspecified Unspecified Diarrhoea, gallsickness [ 91 ] Searsia pyroides (Burch.) Moffett Anacardiaceae Bohitlha Leaves Decoction Oral Cough, dystocia, constipation, diarrhoea. intestinal worms, arthralgia [ 76 ] Roots Poultice Topical Retained placenta [ 52 ] Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen. Polygalaceae Mmaba Roots Ground Topical Cough, dystocia, constipation, muscle pain [ 76 ] Seddera suffruticosa Hallier f. Convolvulaceae Thobega Roots Unspecified Unspecified Fracture [ 91 ] Senecio consanguineus DC. Asteraceae Unspecified Whole plant Decoction Oral Cough, wounds, constipation [ 76 ] Senna italica Mill. Fabaceae Sebetebete/Sebete/Okatare Leaves, bark Decoction Oral Constipation, abscess, anthrax, aphosphorosis, lung diseases [ 76 ] Unspecified Roots Poultice Topical Retained placenta, pain alleviation [ 52 ] Unspecified Unspecified Gallsickness, general intestinal diseases, heartwater, anthrax, pneumonia [ 91 ] Whole plant, roots Diarrhoea, retained placenta [ 64 ] Roots, Whole plant Pasteurollosis, diphtheria [ 63 ] Unspecified Infusion chopped Liver disease, gallsickness [ 109 ] Calf diphtheria [ 56 ] Unspecified [ 171 ] Monyokololo Gall sickness, worms [ 109 ] Leaves/roots Unspecified [ 131 ] Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae Mongepenpe Whole plant Poultice Topical Retained placenta, growth of scrotum [ 52 ] Sesamum eriocarpum (Decne.) Byng & Christenh. Pedaliaceae Makanangwane Roots Unspecified Unspecified Retained placenta [ 62 ] Tshetlho ya mibitlae mebedi Whole plant Poultice Topical [ 63 ] Retained placenta, dystocia, general ailments [ 91 ] Retained placenta, flea eradication [ 52 ] Tshetlho ya mamitlwa a mabedi Leaves, whole plant roots Poultice, infusion Topical, oral Blackquarter, retained placenta, dystocia [ 76 ] Makanangwane Unspecified Unspecified Retained placenta [ 62 ] Solanum campylacanthum Hochst. ex A. Rich. Solanaceae Tolwane enyane Tholwane e nyane Roots, leaves Infusion, maceration Oral Diarrhoea, eye infection [ 76 ] Roots Decoction Blood cleansing [ 64 ] Solanum dimidiatum Raf. Solanaceae Mohato Fruit sap Unspecified Unspecified Diarrhoea [ 91 ] Solanum albidum Dunal Solanaceae Tolwana Roots Unspecified Unspecified Sores [ 91 ] Solanum lichtensteinii Willd. Solanaceae Tolwane Whole plant Poultice Topical Ticks [ 76 ] Flower, roots Retained placenta [ 52 ] Tholwane Roots Infusion Oral Blood cleansing, gastrointestinal parasites [ 64 ] Spirostachys africana Sond. Euphorbiaceae Morukuru Bark Unspecified Unspecified Retained placenta [ 62 ] [ 63 ] Morekhure Stem Sweating sickness [ 91 ] Tarchonanthus camphoratus Houtt. ex DC. Asteraceae Moologa Leaves Maceration Oral Retained placenta, wounds, dystocia [ 52 ] Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. Asteraceae Moologa RootsLeaves Infusion Oral Internal parasites [ 53 ] Mohatlha Intestinal worms [ 76 ] Cold [ 64 ] Terminalia sericea Burch. ex DC. Combretaceae Mogonono Leaves, stem Decoction Oral Cough [ 76 ] Roots Poultice Topical Retained placenta, uterus cleansing [ 52 ] Unspecified Unspecified Diarrhoea [ 63 ] [ 91 ] [ 56 ] Root bark Retained placenta [ 62 ] Leaves [ 62 ] Unspecified Infusion Oral Internal parasites [ 53 ] Teucrium trifidum Retz. Lamiaceae Lethe la noga Leaves, roots Decoction Oral Cough, diarrhoea, constipation [ 76 ] Whole plant Unspecified Maintenance of pregnancy after abortion [ 64 ] Thamnosma rhodesica (Baker f.) Mendonça Rutaceae Moralala Whole plant Unspecified Unspecified Contagious abortion [ 63 ] Thesium viridifolium Levyns Santalaceae Motlhogapele Whole plant Decoction Oral Diarrhoea [ 64 ] Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae Tshetlho Tsetlho Tshetlo Leaves, whole plant Ground Oral Arthralgia, [ 76 ] Whole plant Poultice Topical Retained placenta, wound healing, dystocia [ 52 ] Unspecified Unspecified Retained placenta, bloat [ 91 ] Triumfetta sonderii Ficalho & Hiern Malvaceae Mokuku Rootbark Unspecified Unspecified Retained placenta [ 91 ] Vachellia karroo (Hayne) Banfi & Galasso Fabaceae Mooka Mookana Bark Decoction Oral Lumpy skin disease [ 76 ] Bulb Maceration Retained placenta, bacterial infection [ 52 ] Bark Unspecified Unspecified Fractures, diarrhoea [ 91 ] Root, bark Ground Topical Fracture [ 64 ] Vachellia tortilis (Forssk.) Galasso & Banfi Fabaceae Mosu Branch tips Unspecified Unspecified Diarrhoea [ 91 ] Vitex zeyheri Sond. ex Schauer Lamiaceae Mokwele Leaves Unspecified Unspecified Eye infections [ 91 ] Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Solanaceae Modikasope Mokukwane Roots Infusion Oral Internal sores [ 64 ] Unspecified Unspecified Diarrhoea [ 91 ] Ximenia americana L. Olacaceae Moretologana Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Diarrhoea [ 56 ] Seretologa Roots Internal parasites [ 91 ] Ziziphus mucronata Willd. Rhamnaceae Mokgalo/Sekgalo Leaves Poultice Topical Abscess [ 64 ] Roots Retained placenta [ 52 ] Decoction Oral Snakebite control [ 55 ] Unspecified Unspecified Retained placenta [ 62 ] Unspecified Diarrhoea [ 56 ] Roots, leaves Fertility enhancement, sores, burns [ 91 ] Decoction, ground Oral, topical Dystocia, diarrhoea, arthralgia, wounds, foot rot [ 76 ] Decoction, infusion Oral Internal parasites [ 53 ] Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew. Rhamnaceae Mokgalo fatshe Roots Decoction Unspecified Diarrhoea [ 109 ] Sekgalofatshe Poultice Topical Retained placenta, increase stimulation for separating retained placenta [ 52 ] Ziziphus zeyheriana Sond. Rhamnaceae Sekgalofatshe/Mokgalofatshe Roots Decoction Oral Blood cleansing, pain [ 64 ] Sekgalo‐fatshe Leaves, branches Unspecified Unspecified Diarrhoea, internal parasites, general ailments [ 91 ] Open in a new tab 3.2.2. Distribution of Plant Families Used to Manage Livestock Health Conditions The recorded 116 plants were distributed within 44 families with the Fabaceae (12), Euphorbiaceae (9), Asteraceae (9), Solanaceae (8), Asparagaceae (6), Asphodelaceae (6) and Malvaceae (6) having the highest cited number of plants used to manage livestock conditions among Batswana people in southern Africa (Figure 2 and Table 2 ). Similarly, the high utilisation of the Fabaceae in managing different livestock conditions has been reported in ethnobotanical reviews or studies conducted in Africa [ 44 , 45 , 46 ]. The top 10 families comprised 56.89% of the total cited plants, while the remaining (42.24%) plants were represented within 34 other families. Furthermore, 84.09% of the families had relatively low representation averaging 1–4 plant species per family. The prevalent use of the Fabaceae family may likely be attributed to its broad distribution, high species richness, and diverse bioactive compounds known for their pharmacological properties [ 47 , 48 , 49 ]. This diversity reflects the broad spectrum of traditional plant knowledge across southern Africa, where various families are utilised for their specific benefits in livestock health management. FIGURE 2. Open in a new tab Distribution of plant families (with ≥ 4 mentioned plants) used to manage livestock health conditions among the Batswana in southern Africa. In addition to the top nine mentioned family, we recorded 35 families with plants ranging from 1–3 (See Table 2 ). 3.2.3. Pattern of Plant Parts Used, Preparation, and Route of Administration Methods A total of 15 plant parts were used for treating livestock diseases among Batswana in southern Africa (Table 2 ). The most common plant parts used were roots (33%), leaves (26%), and whole plant (12%) (Figure 3A , Table S1 ). The popularity of roots as one of the most preferred plant parts has led to significant conservation challenges. The harvest of underground parts as a practice is often unsustainable, causing irreversible damage to plant populations and contributing to the risk of species decline which can lead to extinction [ 50 , 51 ]. The dominance of root usage in Batswana ethnoveterinary practices may be attributed to their belief in the strength and vitality that the earth imparts to these underground parts [ 52 , 53 , 54 ]. Roots and leaves are the most frequently used, reflecting traditional preferences for these accessible and widely applicable plant parts [ 13 , 55 , 56 ]. FIGURE 3. Open in a new tab Distribution of different parameters associated with plants utilised for managing livestock health conditions among the Batswana in southern Africa. A—plant parts ( n = 298); B‐ preparation methods ( n = 264); and C‐ administration mode ( n = 257). The methods of preparing medicinal plants for livestock conditions in southern Africa highlight a range of traditional techniques tailored to different health conditions [ 57 ]. Decoctions (24%) and infusions (16%) were the most common preparation methods used for medicinal plants among Batswana in southern Africa (Figure 3B ). Decoction entails boiling the plant materials while infusion involves pouring cold/hot/warm water onto the plant material and allowing the mixture to steep and cool. Furthermore, poultices (10%) are primarily used for external treatments including wound care, skin infections and inflammation. This method involves crushing plant materials and applying them directly to the affected area. Grinding of the plant materials constituted 10% of the reported preparation methods. On the other hand, methods of preparation such as maceration (3.4%), burning (0.38%) and roasting (0.38%) were generally low (Table S2 ). It is important to highlight that a significant portion (36%) of the plant preparations do not have the specific method used. This could be due to traditional practices where the method is considered implicit or universally understood within the communities. In southern African ethnoveterinary practices, the mode of administering medicinal plants varies significantly, with oral administration (44%) and topical applications (19%) being the most frequently cited practices (Figure 3C ). Oral administration is favoured for treatments targeting internal ailments (e.g., organ damage, inflammation, infections), and topical applications is a localised practice used for conditions such as wounds and skin infections, offering a targeted approach for external relief [ 58 ]. The high percentage of unspecified administration (37%) suggests some flexibility in traditional practices, where the method may depend on the practitioner's preference or the circumstances of each treatment. This distribution of administration routes highlights the adaptability and specificity of traditional livestock health condition treatment approaches [ 59 ]. 3.2.4. Livestock Health Conditions Treated With Plants by the Batswana in Southern Africa A total of 58 livestock conditions identified were categorised into 10 major groups (Table 3 ). The classification of the different diseases was based on the studies by Chakale et al. [ 60 ] and Ndou [ 61 ], with some slight modifications. Some of the dominant categories included, reproduction disorders (121), gastrointestinal problems (97), and skin problems (74). On the other hand, treatment of conditions such as eye problems and musculoskeletal systems were relatively lower in significance. This may reflect a lower prevalence of these issues or the possibility that such conditions are managed through other methods or external interventions beyond traditional plant‐based remedies. Retained placenta (81), diarrhoea (65), and wounds (44) were the most cited conditions managed within the livestock conditions (Table 3 ). Among these, retained placenta emerged as the most cited health condition. This underscores the importance of managing reproductive health in livestock, as issues such as retained placenta can significantly affect the productivity and reproductive efficiency of animals [ 15 , 52 , 62 ]. The frequent citation of gastrointestinal disorders shows the critical need for remedies to ensure digestive health, as poor digestion can lead to reduced nutrient absorption, weight loss, and lower productivity in livestock [ 56 , 63 ]. Skin problems were also prominent, with eight conditions cited, including wounds. The high number of references to wound treatment suggests that topical application of plant‐based remedies is a crucial aspect of traditional veterinary care [ 14 , 64 ]. The wound‐related problems may reflect the challenges posed by injuries sustained during grazing, handling, or attacks by predators, making wound care an essential aspect of livestock management [ 13 ]. TABLE 3. Livestock health conditions managed with medicinal plants by the Batswana in southern Africa. Category of the conditions Conditions Number of plants used Eye problem Eye infection 19 Conjunctivitis 3 Blindness 1 Fertility/reproduction disorders Retained placenta 81 Dystocia 11 Abortion 10 Fertility problems 4 Uterus cleansing 3 Bloat 2 Pain after birth 1 Growth of scrotum 1 Urinary infections 1 Vaginal discharge 1 Gastrointestinal problems Diarrhoea 65 Constipation 29 Bile reflux 6 Gastrointestinal parasites 2 Dysentery 1 Kidney stone 1 General system infection Blood cleansing 13 Anthrax 6 Black quarter 6 Ear pain 5 Enhance blood circulation 2 Aphosphorosis 1 Malnutrition 1 Weating sickness 1 Internal and external parasites Internal parasites 19 Helminths 13 Babesiosis 6 Intestinal worms 6 Anaemia 3 Coccidiosis 2 Newcastle Disease (NCD) 2 Bacterial infection 1 Musculoskeletal systems Fracture 13 Pain 12 Arthralgia 7 Respiratory problems Cough 26 Pneumonia 3 Respiratory diseases 3 Diphtheria 2 Heart problem 1 Lung diseases 1 Skin problem Wounds 44 Abscess 16 Sores 5 Foot rot 4 Lumpy skin 2 Pasteurollosis 1 Mange 1 Myiasis 1 Snakebite Snakebite control 5 Tick‐borne Anaplasmosis 23 Cowdriosis 8 Ticks 6 Fleas 4 Mites 2 Heartwater 2 Unspecified Unspecified 10 Open in a new tab The widespread use of medicinal plants reflects both their accessibility and cultural significance, demonstrating how southern African communities have developed adaptive strategies for livestock disease management. Research underscores the potential of medicinal plants in ethnoveterinary practices, emphasising the need for systematic evaluations of their biological and pharmacological effects [ 65 , 66 ]. Further investigation into the efficacy and safety of these plant‐based treatments could enhance their application and facilitate their integration into sustainable livestock management practices. Additionally, systematic documentation and conservation efforts are essential to ensure the continued availability of these medicinal plant species for future generations [ 67 ]. 3.2.5. Cultural Significance of Local Names for Plants Among the Batswana of Southern Africa Among the Batswana communities in South Africa and Botswana, plants play a crucial role in ethnoveterinary medicine, with local names serving as key identifiers in traditional healing practices. These indigenous names encapsulate generations of botanical knowledge, reflecting the deep relationship between the people and their environment [ 68 ]. Local nomenclature provides valuable insights into plant characteristics, including their medicinal applications, ecological adaptations and distinctive morphological and sensory features such as size, shape, taste, smell and habitat [ 69 ]. The naming of medicinal plants among the Batswana is rooted in observation and cultural significance, with each name often describing a particular attribute or use of the plant. For instance, Senna italica (Sebete/Sebetebete) is named based on its use as a purgative to treat digestive disorders in livestock, while Hypoxis hemerocallidea (Tshuku ya poo) is recognised for its immune‐boosting properties and treatment of infections in cattle. Similarly, Grewia flava (Moretlwa) is applied to wounds due to its antibacterial effects, and Aloe ferox (Mokgwapha) is valued for alleviating respiratory infections in goats and cattle (Table 2 ). The classification of medicinal plants among the Batswana communities in South Africa and Botswana is often inconsistent. In some instances, a single plant species may be identified by multiple local names within the same region. For example, Entada elephantina is known by three different names in various areas of South Africa and Botswana which are Mosetlhane, Mositsane and Bosetsana. Conversely, a single local name can be used to describe multiple plant species, leading to potential confusion in plant identification and application. For instance, the name Sekgalofatshe is associated with different species, including Ziziphus oxyphylla and Ziziphus zeyheriana . 3.3. Biological Activity, Safety Status and Phytochemicals of Medicinal Plants With Ethnoveterinary Records Among the Batswana of Southern Africa After establishing the inventory of 116 plants used by the Batswana to manage their livestock, existing evidence on the biological effects, safety assessments and the phytochemicals of these botanicals were assessed. This was essential to identify plants with empirical data and potential for further research especially on their valorisation. 3.3.1. Biological Activity of Medicinal Plants With Ethnoveterinary Records Herbal remedies are the oldest form of medication, generally used as multi‐target agents. As of 2024, approximately 3 780 plants have been recorded for medicinal purposes in South Africa [ 70 ]. However, there are no recent updates on the number of plants used in ethnoveterinary medicine [ 71 ]. Over 60 plants used by the Batswana people have been previously analysed for biological properties related to ethnoveterinary and their phytochemical composition (Tables 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , Figures 4 , 5 , 6 ). Traditional medicine covers interdisciplinary research which involves observation, description and conducting experimental analysis of the identified medicinal plants for drug discovery. During the observation stages, plant part usage is crucial as medicinal plants have different kinds of bioactive compounds that accumulate in specific organs at different concentrations. As depicted in Figure 5 , leaves were the most studied plant parts (46%) due to their availability, accessibility and plant conservation concerns, even though their frequency of use was 26% in the ethnoveterinary surveys reported (Figure 3A ). Availability of plant materials and the complexities of bioactive compounds contribute to the high use of leaves [ 72 ]. In the documented ethnoveterinary surveys, roots were the most frequently used (33%) plant part by the Batswana communities, yet leaves accounted for 11% of the plant parts studied (lower than bark usage, 12%) in biological, safety and phytochemical analysis. The low use of seeds and fruits may be attributed to their seasonal availability [ 73 ]. Similar findings of limited usage of fruits and seeds were observed in the literature surveys. TABLE 4. Summary of reported antimicrobial activity of plants used by Batswana for livestock health management. Plant species Plant part(s) Used Extraction solvent Bioassay Strains tested Summary of findings References Acrotome inflata Benth Fruit Ethanol Microplate serial dilution Agar disk diffusion Candida albicans Fruit extracts were effective against Candida species with MIC = 1.25 mg/mL. In the disk diffusion assay, extracts had an inhibition zone of ±2 mm against C. albicans . Control: Fungazole and Ampicillin [ 90 ] Acrotome inflata Benth Whole plant Ethanol, water Agar disk diffusion Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa Ethanolic extracts (whole plant) with concentrations of 5 mg/mL were effective against P. aeruginosa (8.7 mm inhibition zone) strain, with 10 mg/mL and 20 mg/mL demonstrating an inhibition zone of ± 11 mm against B. subtilis . Control: Streptomycin and Penicillin G [ 172 ] Aloe ferox Mill . Leaves Methanol, water Broth microdilution assay Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus pumilus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterococcus cloacae Methanol extracts were active against S. aureus and E. coli at 5 mg/mL MIC. Control: Tetracycline [ 129 ] Aloe marlothii A. Berger Leaves DCM, methanol, acetone, hexane, ethanol Microplate serial dilution TLC Bioautography Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Mycobacterium aurum All extracts had efficacy against the tested pathogens, with hexane extracts having the highest MIC value (2.5 mg/mL) against all the pathogens. Methanol extract also had an MIC value of 2.5 mg/mL against E. faecalis strain. Acetone, DCM and methanol extracts had significant activity against the test pathogens, with MIC values ranging from 0.028 mg/mL (acetone extract against S. aureus ) and 0.625 mg/mL for methanol extracts against E. coli . Leaf extracts exhibit anti‐mycobacterial activity, MIC = 2.5 mg/mL Control: Gentamycin [ 89 , 90 ] Aloe zebrina Leaves DCM, hexane, acetone, methanol Microplate serial dilution, bioautography Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus Hexane extracts showed the highest activity (2.5 mg/mL) against the tested pathogens. Acetone and methanol extracts showed good activity (0.039 mg/mL and 0.625 mg/mL) against S. aureus and E . coli , respectively. Control: Gentamycin [ 89 ] Ansellia africana Lindl. Roots, stem DCM, acetone, DCM‐methanol, water Agar diffusion assay Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, Mycobacterium smegmatis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa Acetone root extracts inhibited growth of all studied strains, with the highest inhibition zone demonstrated against S. aureus (19.3 mm). Root and stem water extracts were not active against the test strains. Root and stem extracts from DCM were as only effective against K. pneumonia and S. aureus . Control: Ciprofloxacin [ 173 , 174 ] Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd. Aerial parts Ethanol extract In vitro Microplate serial dilution In vivo Oral administration of extract Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Enteritidis In vitro Extracts inhibited S. enterica strains and the activity was recorded at 156 µg/mL, and more than 50% biofilm reduction for all the strains. In vivo Extracts had a significant reduction in bacterial load of rats show when tested at 200 and 300 mg/kg/bw. [ 95 ] Artemisia afra J acq. ex Willd. Leaves Water, DCM In vitro Firefly bioluminescence assay (via optical densitometry at 600 nm) In vivo Oral administration of extract Mycobacterium tuberculosis H34Rv Mycobacterium aurum In vitro The inhibitory activity of the DCM extract exhibited an IC 50 = 270 mg/mL when tested against Mycobacterium aurum and an IC 50 = 290 mg/mL for M. tuberculosis . The Mycobacterium aurum replication was inhibited by 200 µg/mL of water (>25%), methanol (<25%), and DCM extracts (41,4%). Control: Isoniazid (20 µg/mL). In vivo No observed improvement of pulmonary burden and spleen burden, indicating no in vivo mycobacterial activity [ 96 ] Asparagus laricinus Burch . Stem, leaves Water Agar dilution method Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Enterobacter cloacae Leaf extracts exhibited antibacterial activity against S. aureus and B. subtilis (MIC = 1 mg/mL) as well as S. saprophyticus and E. cloacae (MIC = 0.125 mg/mL). Control: Chloramphenicol [ 175 ] Bulbine abyssinica A. Rich . Leaves, rhizome, roots Methanol Agar well diffusion Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli The leaf extracts and stems had the greater inhibition against S. aureus (inhibition zones of 19.33 and 15 mm respectively), than E. coli (inhibition zones of 13.67 and 14.67 mm, respectively). The roots had higher inhibition against E. coli (13.67 mm) than against S. aureus (12.67 mm) Negative control: DMSO [ 176 ] Bulbine abyssinica A. Rich . Whole plant Acetone, water Agar well diffusion assay Microplate serial dilution assay Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella pneumonia, Serratia marcescens The acetone and water extracts inhibited bacterial growth, particularly the inhibition zones for E. faecalis (35 and 41 mm respectively) are greater that the inhibition zone for the positive control (30.67 mm). The inhibition zones for extracts against P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, K. pneumonia , and S. marcescens strains were lower than the inhibition zone for the positive control. Control: Amoxicillin (0.0125 mg/mL) [ 39 ] Bulbine latifolia (L.f.) Spreng. Leaves Methanol Microplate assay Antitubercular rapid radiometric assay Citrobacter, Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, Microsporum audouini, Mycobacterium smegmatis The 10 mg/mL extract was effective against Citrobacter (MIC = 625 µg/mL), C. albicans (MIC = 625 µg/mL), and M. audouinii (MIC = 312.5 µg/mL). Controls: Nyastatin (fungi), Gentamycin (bacteria), and Ciprofloxacin & isoniazid ( M. smegmatis ) [ 177 ] Cannabis sativa L. Leaves Hexane, DCM, ethyl acetate, ethanol, water Agar well diffusion assay Bacillus cereus, Salmonella enterica The extracts were effective against B. cereus stain (MIC = 2 mg/mL). [ 178 ] Cassia abbreviata Oliv . Stem Bark Ethanol, water Agar disc diffusion Escherichia coli , Staphylococcus aureus Ethanol extracts showed no inhibitory activity against E. coli at all tested concentrations (1, 5, 10, 15, 20 mg/mL). Control: Ciprofloxacin (5 µg) [ 179 ] Cassia abbreviata Oliv. Stem bark Ethanol, water Soxhlet (cold ethanol, cold water, DCM, Trichloromethane (TCM): ethanol) Agar well diffusion assay Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Candida albicans Water extract was active against P. aeruginosa (46.88 µg/mL). The TCM extract was active against K. pneumonia with an MIC = 46.88 µg/mL. The ethanol extracts showed activity against C. albicans with an MIC = 93.75 µg/mL. Controls: Ceftriaxone, Ciprofloxacin, Fluconazole [ 92 ] Cassia abbreviata Oliv . Leaf, stem bark, root bark Ethanol Microplate serial dilution assay Escherichia coli, Salmonella paratyphi, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Shigella sonnei, Enterobacter cloacae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis Root bark extracts showed good activity in all test strains (0.31 ‐ 1.25 mg/mL). Stem bark extracts exhibited good activity with MIC values of 0.63 ‐ 1.25 mg/mL. The leaf extracts were least active against K. pneumoniae and E. faecalis (MIC = 2.50 mg/mL), and highly active against the other test strains (MIC = 0.31 ‐ 0.63 mg/mL). [ 180 ] Colophospermum mopane (J. Kirk ex Benth.) J. Léonard Bark Water, methanol Microplate serial dilution Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli Water (7.71 mg/mL) and methanol (5.99 mg/mL) extracts were active against S . aureus and E. coli (12.1 mg/mL and 7.86 mg/mL, respectively). Control: Gentamycin and Ampicillin [ 181 ] Colophospermum mopane (J.Kirk ex Benth.) J.Léonard Bark, leaves Water, ethanol Disc agar diffusion assay Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans Leaf (20 mg/mL) and bark water extract (5 mg/mL &10 mg/mL) were effective against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa , respectively. All ethanol extracts were active against the tested bacterial strains. Control: Penicillin G [ 172 ] Combretum hereroense Schinz Leaves Methanol Microplate serial dilution Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa The extracts were active against all the test strains, with an average MIC of >1.75 mg/mL. Control: Ciprofloxacin (0.01 mg/mL) [ 155 ] Combretum hereroense Schinz Leaves Acetone, hexane, DCM, methanol Microplate serial dilution Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus fumigates, Sporothrix schenkii, Microsporum cannis All extracts were highly active against the fungal strains after 24 and 48‐h periods. Extract activity was calculated at 0.39 mg/mL (acetone), 0.6 mg/mL (hexane), 0.67 mg/mL (DCM) and 0.24 mg/mL(methanol). Control: Amphotericin B [ 182 ] Combretum imberbe (Wawra) Leaves Acetone, hexane, DCM, methanol Microplate serial dilution Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergilllus fumigates, Sporothrix schenkii, Microsporum cannis The extracts were active against all the test fungal strains after 24 and 48‐h period. Acetone and methanol extracts were active against C. albicans (>2.5 mg/mL) while DCM, acetone and hexane extracts were active against S. schenkii (2.5 mg/mL). Control: Amphotericin B [ 182 ] Combretum imberbe (Wawra) Leaves Methanol Microplate serial dilution Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus epidermidis The extracts were active against all the test strains, with an average MIC = 0.24 mg/mL. Control: Ciprofloxacin (0.01 mg/mL) [ 155 ] Croton gratissimus Burch . Leaves Methanol Microplate serial dilution Agar disc diffusion assay Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermis, Staphylococcus aureus The highest minimum inhibition zone of extracts was observed against for S. aureus (20 mm) and hospital isolate S. epidermidis (27 mm). Control: Cloxacillin [ 86 ] Croton gratissimus Burch. Leaves Ethanol Microplate serial dilution Candida albicans, Mycobacterium aurum Extracts were effective against Mycobacterium aurum (2.5 mg/mL) and C. albicans (3.5 mg/mL). Control: Fungazole and Ampicillin [ 90 ] Dicerocaryum eriocarpum (Decne.) Abels (Syn: Sesamum eriocarpum ( Decne.) Byng & Christenh.) Roots Ethanol Microplate serial dilution Candida albicans, Mycobacterium aurum Root extracts were active against C. albicans (4.5 mg/mL) and Mycobacterium aurum (0.156 mg/mL). Control: Fungazole and Ampicillin [ 90 ] Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn . Roots Ethanol Microplate serial dilution Candida albicans, Mycobacterium aurum The extract showed activity against C. albicans at 2 mg/mL and Mycobacterium aurum at 0.156 mg/mL. Control: Fungazole and Ampicillin [ 90 ] Diospyros lycioides Desf. Leaves Hexane, acetone, ethyl acetate, methanol Bioautography Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis Ethyl acetate and acetone extracts were active against across the test strains. Whereas the methanol and hexane extracts exhibited antibacterial activity against S. aureu s and E. faecalis as well as E. faecalis , respectively. [ 130 ] Drimia sanguinea (Schinz.) Jessop Bulb Methanol, petroleum ether Microplate serial dilution Bacillus cereus, Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Trichophyton tomsurans The MIC value for methanol extracts against Candida albicans was the lowest at 1.56 mg/mL. [ 88 ] Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch) Skeels Roots Ethanol Microplate serial dilutions Candida albicans, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Mycobacterium aurum The extracts were active against all the test strains, with the highest MIC value of 3 mg/mL. Control: Fungazole and Ampicillin [ 90 ] Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch) Skeels Rhizomes Methanol, petroleum ether Microplate serial dilution Bacillus cereus, Candida albicans, Trichophyton tonsurans Methanol extracts showed activity against B. cereus (20 mg/mL), Candida albicans (20 mg/mL), and T. tonsuran s (10 mg/mL). Controls: Neomycin (antibacterial) and Amphotericin B (antifungal) [ 88 ] Euphorbia serpens Kunth Shoots, roots Ethanol, methanol, DCM, petroleum ether Disc diffusion assay Salmonella typhi, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Enterococcus faecalis, Aspergillus fumigatus , Candida albicans, Fusarium oxysporum Ethanol extracts showed the strongest activity, except with the inhibition of E. faecalis, F. oxysporum and S. pneumoniae . Petroleum ether extracts were mainly effective against Candida albicans . [ 183 ] Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) W.T.Aiton Aerial parts, fruits Hexane, methanol Microplate serial dilution assay Staphylococcus aureusm Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Mycobacterium smegmatis The antibacterial activity for aerial extracts was >250 µg/mL. Hexane fruit extracts had good activity against E. faecalis (125 µg/mL) and P. aeruginosa (31 µg/mL). Controls: Gentamicin, Rifampicin, Vancomycin [ 184 ] Grewia flava DC . Twig, roots Hexane, acetone, distilled water Agar well diffusion method Microplate serial dilution assay Pseudomonam aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli Microbial inhibition from all the extracts was positive against all the test strains. Control: Chloramphenicol [ 185 ] Grewia flava DC. Roots Acetone Bioautography Microplate serial dilution assay Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus mirabilis, Moraxella catarrhalis, Klebsiella pneumoniae Bacillus cereus, Proteus vulgaris, Mycobacterium smegmatis, Mycoplasma hominis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa Acetone extracts had the lowest average MIC value (247 µg/mL), hexane extracts have the highest average MIC value (923 µg/mL). Control: Amphotericin B, Vancomycin and Strepromycin [ 51 ] Helichrysum paronychioides DC . Whole plant Methanol, petroleum ether Microplate serial dilution Bacillus cereus, Candida albicans, Trichophyton tonsurans The methanol extract had noteworthy antimicrobial activity against B. cereus and T. tonsuran s (0.39 mg/mL). Petroleum ether extracts also exhibited good activity against S, flexneri (0.1 mg/mL). Controls: Neomycin (antibacterial) and Amphotericin B (antifungal) [ 88 ] Jatropha zeyheri Sond Roots Leaves Acetone, methanol, ethyl acetate Microplate serial dilution assay Escherichia coli, Pseudomonam aeruginosa, Enterobacter cloacae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Serrattia marscens, Samonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus pumilus The extracts had clear inhibition zones for the test strains indicating activity. Methanol leaf extracts showed poor activity (>12.5 mg/mL) against E. coli and P. aeruginosa , similar to the activity of acetone leaf extract against S. marscen s. Methanol root extracts also have the same activity MIC value (>12.5 mg/mL) against S. aureus, B. pumilus and A. calcaoceutical . Control: Neomycin, Metronidazole [ 51 ] Malva neglecta Wallr . Leaves Methanol, water Disc agar diffusion assay, Well agar diffusion Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis, Staphylococcus aureus Methanol extracts inhibited growth of S. aureus and K. pneumonia . [ 186 ] Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Leaves Methanol Microplate serial dilution Mycobacterium fortuitum, Mycobacterium smegmatis, Mycobacterium aurum Extracts inhibited microbial growth of M. fortuitum and Mycobacterium aurum (0.63 mg/mL) as well as M. segmantis (0.31 mg/mL). Control: Streptomycin and Rifampicin [ 126 ] Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Candida albicans Ethyl acetate extract at 10 µg/mL inhibited Candida albicans (8 mm) while ethanol extract at 10 µg/mL inhibited Candida albicans (7 mm). Control: Fluconazole [ 13 ] Nicotiana tabacum L . Leaves Ethyl acetate Agar well diffusion assay Pseudomonam aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enterica subsp. enteric serotype Typhi, Micrococcus sp., Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella sp., Escherichia coli Extract activity against S. aureus was 500 µg/mL, with an inhibition zone of approximately (160 mm). [ 187 ] Opuntia ficus‐indica (L) Mill Fruits Ethanol Disc diffusion assay Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi The inhibition zones of 50 mg/mL were 17 mm against S. typhi and 35 mm for B. cereus . The lowest tested concentration (3.12 mg/mm) only inhibited B. cereus (3.12 mm) Control: Cyclohexane [ 186 ] Osyris lanceolata Hochst. & Steud . Leaves Methanol Disc diffusion assay Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus S. aureus inhibition for the smallest tested concentration (1 mg disc) was 6,0 mm. E. coli inhibition for the smallest tested concentration (1 mg disc) was 6,17 mm. Ampicillin and Ciprofloxacin [ 188 ] Osyris lanceolata Hochst. & Steud. Bark DCM, water, ethyl acetate Microplate serial dilution Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumonia, Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa The extracts showed some activity against the test strains (6.25 and 12.5 mg/mL). Control: Gentamicin [ 189 ] Ozoroa paniculosa var . paniculosa Leaves Acetone, hexane fractions, DCM, ethanol, butanol Microplate serial dilution Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Aspergilus fumigatus, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans Water extracts activity against fungal strains ranged from 625 ‐ 2500 µg/mL. Extracts exhibited activity (1250 µg/mL) against E. coli and E. faecalis . The lowest activity (19 µg/mL) was observed in hexane and DCM fractions against S. albicans and E. faecalis . Control: Amphotericin B (0.78–6.25 µg/mL); gentamicin (0.39–1.56 µg/mL). [ 190 ] Peltophorum africanum Sond . Stem, bark Ethyl acetate Well diffusion assay Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aeromonas hydrophila, Shigella sonnei, Salmonella typhimurium, Aspergillus flavus, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans The extracts were inactive against A. flavus at all tested concentrations. The extracts with MIC values above 2.5 mg/mL were Candida albicans (5 mg/mL) and C . neoformans (10 mg/mL). Control: Tetracycline and Amoxicillin [ 189 ] Rhus lancea L. F. Leaves Steam distillation Disc diffusion assay Acinobacter calcoaceticus, Citrobacter freundii, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium sporogenes, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, Yersinia enterocolitica, Candida albicans, Aspergillus flavus Essential oil concentrations tested (10, 20, µg/mL) against K. pneumonia were reported to be resistant to the strain. Bacterial strains tested were susceptible to the different essential oil concentrations resulting in inhibition zones between 4.0 – 19.2 mm. Essential oil concentrations of 100 µg/mL had an inhibition zone of 74.2 mm, compared to the 76.2 mm inhibition zone of the control used. [ 191 ] Ricinus communis L. Leaves n‐Hexane, chloroform, DCM, ethyl acetate, acetone, ethanol, methanol Microplate serial dilution TLC‐bioautography Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa Hexane extracts showed good activity against the test strains (0.61 mg/mL). The hexane and ethanol extract had the best activity against P. aureginosa (0.13 mg/mL). The ethanol extracts showed activity (0.31 mg/mL) against the strains [ 192 ] Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. Aerial parts Hexane, DCM, acetone, ethyl acetate Microplate serial dilution Mycobacterium smegmatis Extracts inhibited bacterial growth, with acetone extracts having good activity (0.27 mg/mL) compared with hexane extracts (2 mg/mL). [ 120 ] Searsia lancea (L.f.) F.A. Barkley Leaves Ethanol, acetone Microplate serial dilution Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus uberis SUB 1 – 7, Streptococcus uberis ATCC 700407, Escherichia coli ECO 1 – 7, Escherichia coli ECO ATCC 25922 Extracts were effective against the test strains with activity ranging between 0.06 and 0.2 mg/mL. [ 93 ] Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen. Roots, bark Ethanol Disk diffusion assay Candida albicans The extract was active against Candida albicans. C. mycoderma and P. aeruginosa (Inhibition zones: 2.0 ± 0.3, 3.0 ± 0.3 & 1.0 ±0.0 mm, respectively). Control: Fungazole and Ampicillin [ 90 ] Senna italica subsp. Arachoides Burch Lock Roots Acetone Microplate serial dilution Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus The extract exhibited good activity against the test strains, with an average activity of 0.12 mg/mL. [ 193 ] Senna tora (L.) Roxb . Leaves Ethyl acetate Agar well diffusion assay Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus sp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Haemophilus influenzae Extracts were active against all strains. Extract concentrations of 62.5, 125 mg/mL, 250 mg/mL & 500 mg/mL, had smaller inhibition zones than the control. Control: Erythromycin [ 135 ] Tarchonanthus camphoratus L . Leaves Hexane, DCM, methanol Disc diffusion assay Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus spp., Candida albicans Screening for activity revealed low inhibition (no or small inhibition zones) at 400 mg/mL concentration. Ethyl acetate extracts exhibited good activity (0.57 mg/mL) against Bacillus spp . and methanol extract gave the highest MIC activity against Candida albicans (2 mg/mL x 10 2 ). Control: Chloramphenicol and Nystatin [ 194 ] Terminalia sericea Burch. Ex DC Leaves Acetone, methanol In vitro Serial dilution microplate assay In vivo Topical application Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Microsporum canis, Shigella schenckii, Aspergillus fumigates A 2 g/10 g dose (extract suspended in aqueous cream) administered to wounds inhibited infections after inoculation by test fungi. The in vivo studies showed good antifungal activity ranging from 0.02 ‐ 0.64 mg/mL. Control: Amphoterecin B [ 94 , 97 ] Terminalia sericea Burch. Ex DC Leaves Methanol Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus epidermis, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhirium, Pseudomonas. aureginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia Plant extracts were effective against all tested strains. The MIC values range from 0.6 to >3.0 mg/mL. The average MIC activity against the strains was >1.49 mg/mL. [ 155 ] Vachellia karroo (Hayne) Banfi & Galasso Leaves, roots Chloroform, methanol, ethanol and ethyl acetate Petri dish/ disc diffusion Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa Root extracts showed higher bacterial inhibition against all tested strains. [ 195 ] Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb Bark and leaves Acetone, water MIC Assay Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus uberis, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus chromogenes, Streptococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter aerogenes Acetone bark extract exhibited strong antibacterial activity against several Staphylococcus strains as well as P. aeruginosa, P. vulgaris and E. aerogenes strains. Control: Gentamycin [ 134 ] Ximenia americana L. Bark, leaves, roots, stem Water, methanol, chloroform Cup‐plate agar diffusion, agar dilution method Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans , All methanol extracts had poor activity against the tested bacteria, MIC value range 0.21 ‐ > 72.75 mg/mL. S. aureus was most susceptible to methanol bark 0.62 mg/mL), water bark (1.62 mg/mL), methanol leaf (0.77 mg/mL) and water leaf extract (MIC = 1.99 mg/mL) Control: ampicillin, benzyl penicillin, cloxacillin, gentamicin (5, 10, 20 & 40 µg/mL). Methanol/water extracts (leaf, root, stem) were ineffective against Candida albicans . Controls: Clotrimazole (5 µg/mL) and Nystatin (25 µg/mL) [ 158 ] Ziziphus mucronata Willd. subsp . mucro nata Leaves Ethanol Microplate serial dilution, Agar disc diffusion Mycobacterium aurum, Bacillus cereus Extracts were active against Mycobacterium aurum (0.625 mg/mL), and B. cereus (2 mg/mL). Control: Ampicillin [ 90 ] Ziziphus mucronata Leaves n‐Hexane, chloroform, DCM, ethyl acetate, acetone, ethanol, methanol Microplate serial dilution, TLC‐bioautography Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa Hexane extracts showed good activity, the lowest average MIC value (0.50 mg/mL). hexane extracts had the best activity against E. coli (MIC = ). The highest activity (MIC = 1.05 mg/mL) for acetone and methanol extracts was against E. faecalis . Control: Not specified [ 192 ] Open in a new tab Abbreviations : Bw, body weight; DCM, dichloromethane; MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration; TCM, trichloromethane; TLC, thin layer chromatography TABLE 5. Summary of analysis of anti‐parasitic activity of plants used by Batswana for livestock health management. Plant species Plant part(s) Extraction solvent Bioassay and Application Parasite species tested Summary of findings References Acokanthera oppositifolia ( Lam.) Codd Leaves, twigs Petroleum ether, DCM, ethanol, water In vitro colourmetric assay Caenorhabditis elegans Petroleum ether and ethanol leaf extracts had high anthelmintic activity (MIC = 0.52 mg/mL) Control: 1 g/1 mL Levamisole [ 122 ] Aloe ferox Mill . Leaves Water In vivo oral administration Heterakis gallinarum All the tested doses (50, 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg) reduced worm egg count ( in vivo ) after 14 days, with 100 and 400 mg/kg plant extracts exhibiting 99 and 100% egg count reduction. The 200 mg/kg dose resulted in the highest worm count reduction (± 85%) after slaughter. Control: Mebendazole [ 108 ] Aloe ferox Mill . Leaves Water In vitro egg hatch assay Larval Development assay Larval mortality assay Haemonchus contortus All tested concentrations showed positive anthelmintic activity. The 7.5 mg/mL extract had the highest egg hatch inhibition (± 45%) and larval development inhibition percentage of ± 95%`. All tested concentrations (2.5, 5.0 & 7.5 mg/mL) exhibited high larval mortality concentration (99.1, 100 & 100 %) after 72 h. Control: 2.5, 5.0 & 7.5 mg/mL Thiambedazole [ 196 ] Aloe ferox Mill . Leaves Water (hot) Egg hatch assay Larval development assay Haemonchus contortus Good egg hatch inhibition from concentration of 2.5 mg/mL (807%) onwards to 100% inhibition was achieved with 20 mg/mL extract (maximum concentration tested). The 1.25 mg/mL and 0.625 mg/mL extracts had the lowest inhibition (33.1% and 0.48%, respectively). Good larval development inhibition (98.9%) observed at the lowest tested concentration of 0.625 mg/mL. Control: Albendazole [ 54 ] Aloe marlothii A. Berger Leaves Acetone Ehrlichia ruminantium Plant extract with concentration of 50 mg/mL was effective against E. ruminantium [ 197 ] Amaranthus blitum subsp . oleraceus ( L.) Costea Aerial parts Ethanol In vitro larvicidal assay Trichinella spiralis Extracts exhibited strong larvicidal activity at concentration of 1 mg/mL after 72 h, results show a 15% larval viability. Control: 20 µg/mL ABZ [ 198 ] Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd. Leaves Water (hot) Adult worm inhibition Schistosomula mansoni Hexane and DCM extracts (100 µg/mL) inhibited 100% of the adult worms after 24, 48 and 72 h with a final IC 50 value of 10.4 µg/mL (hexane) and 8.9 µg/mL (DCM) after 72 h. Control: praziquantel [ 199 ] Combretum hereroense Schinz Leaves Ethyl acetate, acetone, water Microplate antischistosomal assay Schistosoma haematobium , Caenorhabditis elegans var. Bristol Acetone (80%–90% viability) and ethyl acetate (70%–80% viability) extracts were active against C. elegans at a concentration of 1 mg/mL. Water extracts were tested for antischistomosal activity, with no activity reported. [ 200 ] Dicerocaryum eriocarpum ( Decne .) Abels (Syn : Sesamum eriocarpum ( Decne .) Byng & Christenh .) Leaves Water Egg hatch assay Larval development assay Haemonchus contortus The tested concentrations (2.5, 5, 7.5 mg/mL) were active against the tested parasite. The 7.5 mg/mL extract inhibited 100% egg hatching, 5 mg/mL and 7.5 mg/mL concentrations exhibited 100% larval development inhibition. Control: 2.5, 5.0 & 7.5 mg/mL Thiambedazole [ 196 ] Nicotiana tabacum L . Leaves Methanol L. sericata development test Caenorhabditis elegans development test Ctenocephalides felis adult oral test Ctenocephalides felis adult contact test, Tick repellent/ knockdown contact test Ctenocephalides felis Lucilia seriata Caenorhabditis elegans Rhipicephalus sanguineus ( adult) Rhipicephalus sanguineus ( larvae) Ixodes Ricinu Minimum effective concentration for L. sericata larvae was >65 µg/mL, for C. felis concentration activity was >565 mg/mL, and for the percentage oral activity it was > 200 µg/mL. Controls: hiamethoxam, dicyclanil, ivermectin, and N, N ‐diethyl‐m‐toluamide (DEET) [ 110 ] Sclerocarya birrea Hochst . Bark Methanol, water (cold/hot) Larval mortality assay Haemonchus, Oesophagostomum Trichostrongylus Methanol extracts were effective against parasites. [ 201 ] Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen . Roots Water‐ethanol In vitro mortality assay In vivo Postmortem worm count Faecal egg count Haemonchus contortus Heligmosomoides polygyrus In vitro The extracts exhibited 75% mortality in the tested species ( H. contortus ), and 70% mortality of H. polygyru s. Control: Levamisole In vivo Worm count decreased by 80% after 500 mg/kg b.w. dose, worm count decreased by 88% after 1000 mg/kg b.w. (course duration: 4 days) Feacal egg count was increased after 4 consecutive days of treatment Control: Pyrantel embonate [ 202 ] Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H. Hurter & Mabb Stem bark Water Trypanocidal activity Low Inoculation Long Incubation Test (LILIT) Long‐Term Viability Assay (LtVA) Trypanosoma brucei brucei STIB 345 Extracts had in vitro trypanocidal activity (MIC = 5 µg/mL) Stem extracts showed poor in vivo activity (MIC = 100 µg/mL) when 100–150 mg/kg body weight dose was administered orally. Control agent: diminazene aceturate (Berenil) [ 203 ] Ximenia americana L. var. microphylla Welw. ex Oliv. Bark Hydroethanol Acaricidal adult immersion assay Rhipicephalus microplus Bark extract concentrations of 5 ‐ 80 mg/mL had acaricidal mortalities ranging from 13 ‐ 100%. [ 204 ] Thamnosma rhodesica (Baker f.) Mendonça Roots DCM TLC‐Bioautography Antileishmanial assay Leishmania major Minimum amount for inhibiting fungal growth is 10 µg/mL. Control: Niastatin. Plant extracts inhibit reduce population of free‐living parasites (survival rate range from 30%–90%) and intracellular parasite (survival rate range 6.2% – 917 %). Control: Amphoterecin B [ 205 ] Open in a new tab Abbreviations: b.w, body weight; DCM, dichloromethane; MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration; TLC, thin layer chromatography. TABLE 6. Summary of inflammation and pain study results of plants used by Batswana for livestock health management. Plant species Plant part(s) Extraction solvent Biological assay Summary of findings References Acokanthera oppositifoli a (Lam.) Codd Leaves, twigs Petroleum ether, DCM, ethanol, water COX 1 and 2 Leaf petroleum ether, DCM and ethanolic extract showed good COX‐1 inhibition (98, 99, 97%). Leaf petroleum ether and DCM extracts exhibited good COX‐2 inhibition (85, 81%). [ 122 ] Aloe ferox Mill. Leaves Water Extracts exhibited anti‐inflammatory and analgesic activities at a dose extract of 400 mg/kg. [ 108 ] Bulbine abyssinica Whole plant Acetone, water Protein denaturation method Anti‐inflammatory activity of all extracts was observed 200 µg/mL dose. [ 206 ] Combretum hereroense Schinz Leaves Ethyl acetate, acetone, water Plant extract exhibit in vitro inflammatory reaction at concentrations of 0.5 and 1 mg/ mL [ 200 ] Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Leaves Methanol 15‐LOX Extracts and fractions were inhibitory to 15‐LOX, IC 50 for the crude extract is 77.52 ±1.31 [ 207 ] Nicotiana tabacum L. Seeds Phytosterol isolates COX 1 and 2 Extract demonstrated inhibition of COX‐2 by down‐regulate the expression of COX‐2 mRNA and were ineffective against the expression COX‐1 mRNA. [ 116 ] Ozoroa paniculosa var . paniculosa Leaves Acetone 15‐LOX Maximum inhibition of >50% was observed when tested at 0.128 mg/mL extract concentration. [ 208 ] Portulaca oleracea L. Aerial parts Ethanol Hind paw volume, reduction in cotton pellet weight, intraperitoneal administration Time dependent positive anti‐inflammatory activity after 400 mg/kg dose, maximum hind paw volume increase of 67.1 ± 6.18 % after 240 mins. Percentage increase in cotton pellet weights in the control (86.69 ± 11.8%) after intraperitoneal administration. Control: diclofenac 4 mg/kg [ 209 ] Senna tora (L.) Roxb . Leaves Ethyl acetate Heat induced haemolysis of RBC assay, BSA protein denaturation assay Inhibition of RBC membrane hemolysis range of 31.058 ± 3.145% to 89.029 ± 1.186%, (IC 50 = 28.309 µg/mL), tested dosage: 20 – 220 µg/mL. BSA denaturation inhibition range of 32.617 ± 0.890% to 91.731 ± 0.949% (IC 50 = 22.980 µg/mL), tested dosage: 20–220 µg/mL. Control: ibuprofen 20–220 µg/mL. [ 135 ] Terminalia sericea Burch. Ex DC Leaves Acetone, methanol In vivo , topical application Wound healing activity observed is indicative of in vitro anti‐inflammatory activity (2 g/10 g dose) [ 94 , 97 ] Vachellia karroo (Hayne) Banfi & Galasso Bark Water In vivo , administered via injection Extracts had good analgesic and anti‐inflammatory activity in mice at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg, comparable to the control used Control: Indomethacin (10 mg/kg) [ 123 ] Vachellia tortilis (Forssk.) Galasso & Banfi Seeds Water In vivo formalin induced paw lick test, acetic acid induces writhing test, hot plate test, tail flick method Anti‐nociceptive activity (rats) when 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight administered orally Control agents: Morphine sulphate + Naloxone, Morphine sulphate, Diclorofenac sodium [ 117 ] Open in a new tab Abbreviations: BSA, bovine serum albumin; COX, cyclooxygenase; DCM, dichlorormethane; LOX, 15‐lipoxygenae; NO, nitric acid; RBC, red blood cells. TABLE 7. Summary of reported antioxidant activity of plants used by Batswana for livestock health management. Plant species Plant part(s) Extraction solvent Biological assay Summary of findings References Acokanthera oppositifolia (Lam.) Codd Stem Methanol ABTS inhibition, DPPH scavenging Extracts showed good ABTS inhibition (80 % inhibition) at concentration of 0.02 mg/mL. DPPH inhibition at 0.02 mg/mL was between 50%–60%. [ 125 ] Acokanthera oppositifoli a (Lam.) Codd Leaves Acetone, ethyl acetate, chloroform, hexane, water NO inhibition In vitro analysis showed no NO‐inhibition at 10 mg/mL. [ 126 ] Acokanthera oppositifoli a (Lam.) Codd Leaves Acetone, chloroform,, methanol Hydroxyl free radical scavenging, Superoxide anion scavenging, Fe (III) reduction Methanol extracts exhibited better Fe 3+ reducing ability (IC 50 = 0.234 mg/mL) than acetone (IC 50 = 0.22 mg/mL) and chloroform (IC 50 = 0.242 mg/mL). Superoxide anion scavenging activity was ± 78% for methanol extracts, ±66% for chloroform extracts and ±60% for acetone extracts. Acetone and chloroform extracts inhibit ±83% and methanol exhibit ±75% hydroxyl scavenging activity. [ 17 ] Aloe barbadensis Mill. Leaves Methanol ORAC scavenging, HPS Scavenging, DPPH Scavenging Extracts were found to have ORAC scavenging activity (TE ≈700 µmol/g), DPPH scavenging activity (TE ≈36 µmol/g), and HPS scavenging activity (TE ≈ 17 µmol/g). [ 210 ] Aloe ferox Mill. Leaves Methanol DPPH scavenging, ABTS inhibition Extracts reached 60% DPPH and 80% ABTS inhibition at 0.4 mg/mL. [ 129 ] Aloe ferox Mill. Leaves Methanol ORAC scavenging, HPS Scavenging, DPPH Scavenging Extracts exhibited ORAC scavenging activity (TE≈1000 µmol/g), DPPH scavenging activity (TE≈34 µmol/g), and HPS scavenging activity (TE≈37 µmol/g). [ 210 ] Aloe marlothii Mill. Leaves Methanol ORAC scavenging, HPS Scavenging, DPPH Scavenging Extracts showed ORAC, DPPH and HPS scavenging activity of ±1500 µmol/g, ± 55 mol/g, and ± 42 µmol/g, respectively. [ 211 ] Aloe marlothii A. Berger Leaves Methanol DPPH scavenging Extract concentration of 5 g/40 mL had DPPH scavenging activity of ±55 µmol/g. [ 211 ] Asparagus laricinus Stem, leaves Water DPPH scavenging Leaf and stem extract (2.5 mg/mL) exhibited 72% and 63% scavenging activity, respectively. [ 135 ] Cassia abbreviata Oliv. Roots Methanol In vivo oral administration Dosages of 200 and 500 mL/kg reduced oxidative stress in chickens and increased liver enzymes. [ 137 ] Diospyros lycioides Leaves Acetone, ethyl acetate, hexane, methanol DPPH scavenging Chromatograms elute in CEF had the highest number of compounds that with good DPPH scavenging activity; methanol extract had 4 bands, acetone extracts had 6 bands, ethyl acetate extract had 4 bands and hexane extracts had 1 band. The hexane extracts on the EMW eluted plate had no visible bands. All the extracts had 1 band on the BEA eluted plate, with similar R f values (0.9 – 0.96). [ 130 ] Drimia sanguinea (Schinz.) Jessop Bulb Methanol DPPH scavenging, B‐carotene linoleic acid The extracts exhibited 64% DPPH scavenging activity (EC 50 = 92.6 µg/mL) [ 88 ] Elephantorrhiza elephantina Rhizomes Methanol DPPH scavenging Extracts exhibited 84.7% antioxidant activity (EC 50 = 5.8 µg/mL) [ 88 ] Euphorbia serpens Kunth Shoots, roots DCM, ethanol, methanol, petroleum ether DPPH scavenging All extracts exhibit antioxidant activity. Methanol shoot extracts had an IC 50 value of 13.17 µg/mL, and DCM shoot extract had the highest IC 50 value (553.26 µg/mL). [ 130 ] Grewia flava DC. Twig, roots Hexane, acetone, distilled water, methanol DPPH scavenging, Ferric reducing, Metal Chelating Methanol twig extracts were the most active at an IC 50 of 14.50 µg/mL for DPPH scavenging activity, and distilled water twig extract had an IC 50 value of 495 µg/mL. Metal chelation IC 50 values were above 100 µg/mL, and ferric reducing power ranged from 637 ‐ 745 mg AAE/g. [ 185 ] Helichrysum paronychioides DC. Whole plant Methanol DPPH scavenging The extract exhibited 84.4% DPPH scavenging activity (EC 50 = 20.1 µg/mL) [ 88 ] Malva neglecta Wallr. Whole plant Water‐methanol (30:70) DPPH scavenging The tested extract concentrations (0.0156 ‐ 1 mg/mL) exhibited antioxidant activity which increased depending on the concentration tested. The highest inhibition (70%) was observed at 1 mg/mL. [ 212 ] Ipomoea oblongata E. Mey. ex Choisy Roots Water, methanol, DCM DPPH scavenging The extract showed DDPH scavenging activity of 98% at 0.5 mg/mL tested extract concentration. [ 213 ] Moringa oleifera Lam. Leaves Methanol, fractions, diethyl ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate, water In vitro DPPH scavenging, OH scavenging, NADH scavenging In vivo Oral ingestions, Rat liver dissection In vitro Extract had 80% antioxidant activity; water residue had the lowest antioxidant activity of 22%. Crude extract showed strong reducing power (0.67 ASE/mL) and good DPPH scavenging activity (IC 50 = 0.122 mg/mL). In vivo Extract had good ferrous ion chelating activity (0.45 mg/mL). [ 132 ] Ozoroa paniculosa var. paniculosa Leaves Acetone, fractions, hexane, DCM, ethanol, butanol, water DPPH scavenging, ABTS Inhibition, OH‐ Scavenging Extracts and ethanol fractions had the best DPPH scavenging activity (EC 50 = 0.90 and 0.084 µg/mL), and water fractions had poor DPPH scavenging activity (EC 50 = 663.47 µg/mL). Crude and ethanol extracts had good ABTS scavenging activity (EC 50 = 0.99 and 1.60 µg/mL). [ 190 ] Portulaca oleracea L. Whole plant Water, ethanol DPPH scavenging, ABTS inhibition Antiradical activity for water extract showed an IC 50 of 1.45 mg/g, while the 50% ethanol extract had an IC 50 value of 0.36 mg/g. [ 214 ] Ricinus communis L. Leaves n‐hexane, chloroform, DCM, ethyl acetate, acetone, ethanol, methanol DPPH scavenging All extracts showed antioxidant activity on EMW chromatograms. [ 192 ] Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Leaves Ethyl acetate DPPH scavenging, H 2 O 2 scavenging Extracts exhibited DPPH (33 ‐ 91%) and H 2 O 2 (39 ‐ 99%) scavenging activity. [ 139 ] Tribulus terrestris L. Fruit Ethanol NO inhibition The extracts inhibited NO production at all test concentrations (50, 100, 200 µg/mL). [ 153 ] Vachellia karroo ( Hayne) Banfi & Galasso Leaves Methanol‐water ABTS + scavenging, DPPH scavenging The extracts demonstrated high DPPH scavenging activity (IC 50 = 4.94 µg/mL) and ABTS + (IC 50 = 2.23 µg/mL) activity, with moderate FRAP scavenging activity (IC 50 = 28 µg/mL), further supported by the TLC analysis and NMR. [ 121 ] Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H. Hurter & Mabb Leaves Methanol‐water DPPH scavenging Extracts at 100 and 200 mg/mL exhibited DPPH scavenging activity. [ 215 ] Vachellia tortilis (Forssk.) Galasso & Banfi Leaves, trunk bark Methanol DPPH scavenging Leaf and trunk extract had good antioxidant activity (IC 50 = 0.03 and 0.01 µg/mL). [ 120 ] Vachellia tortilis (Forssk.) Galasso & Banfi Leaves Methanol DPPH scavenging Low DPPH (IC 50 = 70 µg/mL), ABTS + (IC 50 = 52 µg/mL) and FRAP (IC 50 = 97 µg/mL) scavenging activity was observed in extracts, further supported by the TLC analysis and NMR. [ 121 ] Ximenia americana L. var. microphylla Welwe. Ex Oliv. Fruit, seeds Ethanol DPPH scavenging Seeds showed significant DPPH radical scavenging activity at 200 µg/mL concentration. Both the red and yellow fruit flesh exhibited more than 90% of DPPH free radical scavenging activity at 200 µg/mL concentration. [ 149 ] Ximenia americana L. Leaves Methanol DPPH scavenging Extracts have a positive antioxidant activity, RC 50 = 82.50 µg/mL [ 216 ] Ximenia americana L. Pulp, seeds Ethanol DPPH scavenging The red and yellow pulp extract had DPPH scavenging capacity percentage equal to/more than the ascorbic acid at the tested concentrations (160 and 200 µg/mL). The IC 50 value for the yellow flesh was 102 µg/mL, and for the yellow seed it was 154 µg/mL. [ 149 ] Ziziphus mucronata Leaves n‐hexane, chloroform, DCM, ethyl acetate, acetone, ethanol, methanol DPPH scavenging Methanol extracts showed positive antioxidant activity on EMW chromatograms [ 192 ] Open in a new tab Abbreviations : ABTS+, 2,2'‐azino‐bis(3‐ethylbenzothiazoline‐6‐sulfonic acid); BEA = benzene: ethanol: ammonium hydroxide; CEF, chloroformethylacetate: formic acid; DCM, dichloromethane; DPPH, 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl; EMW, ethylacetate: methanol: water; FRAP, ferric reducing antioxidant power; H2O2, dihydrogen peroxide; HPS, NADH, nicotinamide adenine dinuclueotide hydrogen; NMR, nuclear magnetic resonance; NO, nitrous oxide; ORAC, oxygen radical absorbance capacity; TLC, thin layer chromatography. TABLE 8. Summary of results from toxicity and safety studies of plants used by Batswana for livestock health management. Plant species Plant part(s) Extraction solvent Summary of findings References Asparagus africanus Lam. Roots Water In vivo No acute oral toxicity was observed on all tested concentrations [ 217 ] Burkea africana Hook. Stem bark Ethanol In vitro Extracts did not show oral toxicity at all tested concentrations. In vivo Extracts had a sedative effect at 2000 mg/kg. [ 138 ] Burkea africana Hook. Stem bark Ethanol In vitro No cytotoxicity observed at 2000 mg/kg. [ 138 ] Combretum imberbe (Wawra) Leaves Acetone In vivo The 10% extracts exhibited cytotoxicity and acute toxicity. [ 94 , 97 ] Cassia abbreviata Oliv. Stem bark Methanol In vivo The 200 and 500 mL/kg extract exhibited hepatotoxicity in indigenous chickens. [ 137 ] Combretum imberbe ( Wawra) Leaves Acetone In vitro Extracts showed some toxicity, with LC 50 values ranging from 75.7–168.6 µg/mL ON Vero monkey cells [ 94 , 97 ] Cassine transvaalensis (Burtt Davy) Codd Syn: Elaeondedron transvaalense (Burtt Davy) R.H. Archer Stem bark Ethanol In vitro Isolated compounds inhibited the growth of Vero cell lines. [ 218 ] Drimia sanguinea (Schinz.) Jessop Bulb Methanol, petroleum ether In vitro Methanol extracts showed toxicity against Vero cells (LC 50 = 0.015±0.01 µg/mL), and petroleum ether extracts had demonstrated low cytotoxicity (LC 50 = 552.4± 48 µg/mL). [ 88 ] Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch) Skeels Rhizome Methanol, petroleum ether In vitro Methanol extracts were toxic towards Vero cells (LC 50 = 9.4±3.9 µg/mL) with petroleum ether extracts also showing some level of cytotoxicity with LC 50 values of 173.4± 13 µg/mL. [ 88 ] Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) W.T. Aiton Aerial parts Methanol, DCM, chloroform, water In vivo Acute oral toxicity of extracts had 0% mortality rate for 0.1 g/kg dose, 50% mortality rate for 0.2 g/kg dose, and the highest mortality rate was 0.3 and 0.35 g/kg doses with 83% mortality rate. [ 219 ] Helichrysum paronychioides DC. Whole plant Methanol, petroleum ether In vitro Methanol and petroleum ether extracts exhibited low toxicity against Vero cells (LC 50 = 24.6±0.4 and 50.2±1.8 µg/mL, respectively). [ 88 ] Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Leaves Methanol In vitro Isolated compounds exhibited low cytotoxicity towards Vero cells. [ 126 ] Nicotiana tabacum L. Seeds Methanol, NaOH, HCl In vivo Isolated compounds were found to be non‐toxic in mice. [ 116 ] Nicotiana tabacum L. Leaves Methanol, hexane In vivo No signs of sub‐acute toxicity were observed on mammalian models (rats). [ 140 ] Ozoroa paniculosa var . paniculosa Leaves Acetone In vitro There was some evidence of cytotoxicity (LC 50 = 16.58 µg/mL) when extracts were studied against Vero cells. [ 190 ] Portulaca oleracea L. Whole plants Water, ethanol In vitro Highest NCTC clone 929 cell viability (124.48%) after 72‐hour incubation with 100 µg/mL polysaccharide fraction, cell viability decreases sequentially with increase in tested concentration (250, 350, 500, 750, 1000 &1500 µg/mL) [ 214 ] Ricinus communis L. Leaves n‐Hexane, hexane, chloroform, DCM ethyl acetate, acetone, ethanol, methanol In vitro No observed toxicity on Vero kidney cells (LC 50 = 131.8 µg/mL). [ 192 ] Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen. Roots Methanol In vitro Brine shrimp assay revealed a dose dependent increase in mortality, LC 50 = 74 µg/mL. [ 202 ] Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Leaves Ethyl acetate In vitro Moderately cytotoxic (LC 50 = 35.246 µg/mL) was observed towards brine shrimp. In vivo Low acute oral toxicity (LD 50 = 4263.906 mg/kg b. w.), body weight measurement does not indicate acute toxicity [ 135 ] Terminalia sericea Burch. Ex DC Leaves Acetone, methanol In vitro Extracts exhibited low toxicity (LC 50 = 75.7–168.6 µg/mL) when tested against Vero kidney cells. [ 94 , 97 ] Thesium spp. Fruits Ethanol In vitro Cell morphology was not affected, cell viability, cell viability of RAW 264.7 cells >98% after treatment with 50, 100 & 200 µg/mL of extract [ 153 ] Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb Bark, leaves Acetone, water In vitro Water and acetone extracts exhibit cytotoxicity (LC 50 = 0.0032 and 0.0278 mg/mL) towards Vero kidney cells [ 134 ] Ziziphus mucronata Leaves Acetone, chloroform, DCM, ethanol, ethyl acetate, methanol, n‐hexane In vitro No observed toxicity towards Vero kidney cells with LC 50 value of 131.8 µg/mL. [ 192 ] Open in a new tab Abbreviations: b.w., body weight; DCM, dichloromethane; HC, hydrochloric acid; MTT = 3‐ (4,5‐dimethylthiazol‐2‐yl)‐2,5‐diphenyl‐2H‐tetrazolium bromide; NaOH, sodium hydroxide; NCTC, National collection of type cultures TABLE 9. Summary of bioactive phytochemicals and isolated compounds from plants used by Batswana for livestock health management. Species Phytochemical analysis Phytochemicals Isolated compounds References Acokanthera oppositifolia (Lam.) Codd Qualitative chemical assay Quantitative chemical assay (Spectrophotometry) Flavanols, flavonoids, gallotannins, phenolics, polyphenols, proanthocyanidins, tannins [ 17 , 122 , 126 ] Aloe ferox Mill. Quantitative chemical assay (Spectrophotometry), HPLC, GC‐MS Phenols, flavonoids, flavanols, proanthocyanidins, carotenoids Lutein, beta‐carotein, capric acid, lauric acid, myristic acid pentadecyclic acid, palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid, cis‐7 hexadecenoic, margaric acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, vaccenic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, behenic acid, tricosylic acid, lignoceric acid [ 129 , 211 ] Aloe marlothii A.Berger GC‐MS Carotenoids Lutein, beta‐carotein vitamin c, capric acid lauric acid, myristic acid pentadecyclic acid, palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid, cis‐7 hexadecenoic, margaric acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, vaccenic acid, linoleic acid linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, behenic acid, tricosylic acid, lignoceric acid, fatty acids [ 211 ] Amaranthus blitum subsp. oleraceus (L.) Costea GC‐MS Phenol Pyran based heterocycle, fatty acids, fatty ester, cyclododeca siloxane, alkyl siloxane, fatty acid, anyhydride [ 220 ] Ansellia africana Lindl. Qualitative chemical assay Saponin, alkaloids, tannins, terpenoids, steroids [ 221 ] Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd. HPLC Luteolin, quercetin, chlorogenic acid, neochlorogenic acid, scopoletin [ 199 ] Asparagus africanus Lam. NMR, LC‐MS/Q‐TOF, Quantitative assay Cardiac glycosides, proteins, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, steroids, terpenoids Glucopyranoside, aspafricanol A, aspafricanol B, aspafricanol C, aspafricanol D, aspafricanol E, aspafricanene, aspafricanene A, acetylcaranine, 1,3,6,8‐naphthalenetetrol, stigmasterol, asparasaponin II, sarsasapogenin, prosopinine, glutinosone pandaroside C, cinncassiol C3 [ 217 , 222 , 223 ] Asparagus laricinus Burch. Qualitative assay Glycosides, steroids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, phlobatannins, terpenoids, reducing sugars [ 175 ] Bulbine abyssinica A. Rich. Quantitative assay, qualitative assay Tannins, phenolics, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, glycosides, saponins, alkaloids, proanthocyanins, condensed tannins [ 176 , 206 ] Burkea africana Hook. HPLC Stigmasterol A, sitosterol B, catechin 4, glyceryl‐2‐stearate, glycerolmonostearate, epicatechin 5 [ 138 ] Cadaba aphylla (Thunb) Wild Qualitative assay, quantitative assay Alkaloids, flavonoid, amino acids, proteins, anthraquinones, steroids, terpenoids, tannins, saponins, anthocyanins, coumarins, reducing sugars, oils and fats [ 224 ] Cassia abbreviata Oliv. Qualitative assay, GC‐MS, HPLC‐PDA—MS/MS, NMR Alkaloids, saponins tannins, phenols, flavonoids, terpenoids, sterols, phenols reducing sugars, total carbohydrates, cardiac glycosides, sterols, anthraquinone, coumarins, proanthosyanid, flavans 2,3‐Dihydro‐5‐hydroxy‐8‐methoxy‐2‐ (4‐methoxyphenyl) chromen‐4‐one; 3,4‐Dihydro‐2‐(4‐hydroxyphenyl)‐ 4‐methoxy‐2H‐chromen‐7‐ol [ 154 , 179 , 225 , 226 ] Cassine transvaalensis (Burtt Davy) Codd Syn: Elaeondedron transvaalense (Burtt Davy) R.H. Archer TLC chromatography Silica gel column chromatography Triterpenoids 3 –Oxo‐28‐hydroxylbetuli‐20(29)‐ene, 3,28‐dihydroxylbetuli‐20(29)‐ene [ 86 , 218 ] Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. TLC, HPLC Asiaticoside, Madecassoside, Asiatic acid [ 227 ] Colophospermum mopane ( J. Kirk ex Benth.) J. Léonard Quantitative assay, NMR Tannins, saponins, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, sterols and steroids, alkaloids, coumarins, diterpenes Dihydrogrindelic acid, Dihydrogrindelaldehyde, methyl labd‐13‐en‐15‐oate [ 172 ] Combretum hereroense Schinz UPLC‐MS Triterpene [ 155 ] Combretum imberbe (Wawra) TLC Triterpene [ 155 ] Diospyros lycioides Desf. TLC, quantitative analysis, qualitative analysis Flavonoids, phenolics, tannins, terpenoids, steroids [ 130 ] Drimia sanguinea (Schinz.) Jessop Quantitative assay, GC‐MS Dotriacontane, benzothiazone, heptacosane, bumetrizole, phthalic acid (isomers), stigmasterol, hexanoic acid (derivatives), eicosanoic acid [ 88 ] Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch) Skeels Quantitative assay, GC‐MS, qualitative assay Alkaloids, flavonoid, amino acids, proteins, anthraquinones, steroids, terpenoids, tannins, saponins, anthocyanins, coumarins, reducing sugars, oils and fats Dotriacontane, benzothiazone heptacosane, bumetrizole, phthalic acid (isomers), stigmasterol, hexanoic acid (derivatives), eicosanoic acid [ 88 , 228 , 229 ] Englerophytum magalismontanum (Sond.) T.D.Penn Quantitative assay Phenols [ 228 ] Euclea undulata Thunb. NMR Naphthoquinones Epicatechin, 7‐Methyl‐juglone, α‐amyrin‐3O‐β‐(5‐hydroxy), ferulic acid [ 230 ] Euphorbia regis‐jubae (Webb & Berth) Affinity and gel exclusion chromatography, quantitative assay Catechin Catechin, perulic acid, caffeic acid, vanilla acid, Rutin, Syringic acid [ 231 ] Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) W.T.Aiton GC‐MS, TLC, Qualitative assay Flavanols, phenols, terpenoids [ 112 , 184 ] Grewia flava DC. GC‐MS Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, steroids, glycosides, anthraquinones, tannins Tetradecanoic acid, hexadecanoic acid methyl ester, n‐hexadecanoic acid, chlorpyrifos, phytol, methyl stearate, octadecanoic acid eicosanoic acid methyl ester, disooctyl phthalate, tetratetracontane, tetracosanoic acid methyl ester, hentriacontane, octacosane, campesterol, stigmasterol, γ‐sitosterol, β‐amyrin, lupenone, lupeol, tarexerol [ 185 , 232 ] Harpagophytum procumbens (Burch.) DC. Ex Meisn. HPLC‐DAD, GC‐MS, HPLC Phenolics, polyphenols, tannins flavonoids, flavanols Rosmaric acid, harpagoside, arpagide [ 233 , 234 ] Helichrysum paronychioides DC. Quantitative analysis, GC‐MS Dotriacontane, benzothiazone, heptacosane, bumetrizole, phthalic acid (isomers), stigmasterol, hexanoic acid (derivatives), eicosanoic acid [ 88 ] Hypoxis hemerocallidea Fisch., C.A. Mey. & Ave‐Lall. Quantitative assay Phenolics, tannins, gallotannins, flavonoids [ 122 ] Ipomoea blongata E. Mey. ex Choisy Qualitative assay, quantitative assay Cardiac glycosides, steroids, triterpenoids, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins [ 129 ] Malva neglecta Wallr. HPLC Flavanoids, phenolic acids Quercetin, kaempferol, gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, syringic acid, cinnamic acid [ 212 ] Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke NMR Apigenin‐7‐О‐β‐6″ (p‐coumaroyl)‐glucopyranoside Apigenin‐8‐C‐glucopyranoside (vitexin) [ 126 ] Moringa oleifera Lam. Qualitative assay, GC‐MS Saponins, tannins, steroids, triterpenes, phlobatannins, flavonoids, glycosides, phytosterols Brassicasterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, campesterol 2, 9,12‐octadecadienoic acid, gramisterol, Citrostadienol, beta‐sitosterol [ 116 , 235 ] Nicotiana tabacum L. Quantitative assay, GC ‐MS Alkaloids, anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides, flavonoid, saponins, steroids, tannins, terpenoids (S)‐Nicotine, 2‐methyl‐4, ‐acetoxy‐tetrahydropyran 5‐dihydrofuran, amitrole, citronellyl propionate, crotonaldehyde, isododecane, lavandulyl acetate, neophytadiene, pyridine, tetradecylaldehyde, trans‐phytol [ 140 , 159 ] Ozoroa paniculosa var. paniculosa Ozoroa paniculosa var. paniculosa (Sond.) R.Fern. & A.Fern Qualitative methods Phenolics, condensed tannins, proanthocyanidins, gallotannin, flavonoids, flavanols [ 190 ] Peltophorum africanum Sond. Qualitative and quantitative assays, TLC Polyphenols, flavonoids, gallotannins, tannins [ 203 ] Portulaca oleracea L. Qualitative and quantitative assays Flavonoids, organic acid, polyphenols Acetic acid, butyric acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, cinnamic acid, citric acid, coumaric acid, ferulic acid, formic acid, gallic acid, genistein, isoquercitrin, kaempferol, lactic acid, luteolin, malic acid oxalic acid, propionic acid, quercetin, rutin, succinic acid, tartaric acid, umbeliferone [ 214 ] Rhoicissus tridentata subsp . Cuneifolia Rhoicissus tridentata (L.f.) Wind & R.B.Drumm. Qualitative and quantitative assays Anthraquinone, coumarins, flavonoids, glycosides, phenols, phlobatanins, phytosterols resin, saponins, sterols and steroids, tannins, terpenoids, triterpenoids [ 236 ] Rhus lancea L. f. Syn: Searsia lancea (L.f.) F.A.Barkley Quantitative assay Tannins [ 93 ] Ricinus communis L. GC‐MS, LC‐MS, NMR, Qualitative assay Flavonoids, glycosides, phenolic compounds, tannins 1‐O‐α‐D‐glucopyranosyl‐1,2‐eicosandiol, 2:3‐Glc‐campesterol, 5α,6β‐dihydroxysitosterol, 6‐hydroxymethyllumazine 8‐methylcaffeine, All‐trans‐retinyl linolate, Bufotenine O‐glucoside, germanicol cinnamate, medicagol, pomordol, N‐demethyl‐ricinine, phylloquinone, phytenic acid, pubescenol, pubesenolide, ricinine, ricinoleic acid, sodium oleate [ 235 , 237 ] Ricinus communis L. Qualitative assay Alkaloids, anthaquines cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, reduced sugars, steroids, tannins, terpenoids [ 192 ] Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. Qualitative and quantitave assay Alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, phlabotannins, saponins, steroids, tannins [ 238 ] Sclerocarya birrea Hochst. Qualitative and quantitative assay Alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, phenols, steroids, tannins [ 201 , 220 ] Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen. Qualitative analysis Alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolic [ 239 ] Senna italica Mill. Quantitative analysis, GC‐MS Alkaloids, anthocyanins, anthraquinones, catechins, flavonoids, leucoanthocyanins, tannins (y)‐Sitosterol, (α)‐Tocopherol‐β‐D‐mannoside, 1,2‐enzenedicarboxylic acid, mono (2‐ ethylheptyl) ester, 12‐docosenamide, 1‐heptacosanol, lupeol, n‐tetracontane, oxirane, phytol, squalene, stigmasterol [ 240 , 241 ] Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Quantitative assay, GC‐MS Alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, reducing sugars, saponins, steroids, tannins, terpenoids Carotene, cyclohexanedimethanol, hecamethyl cyclotrisiloxane, methyl stearate, neophytadiene, oxoalcohol, pentadecane, phenylethyl alcohol, pipecolic acid, tetradecane [ 135 , 236 ] Solanum incanum L. Qualitative assay, C‐NMR, DEPT, H‐NMR, IR, UV Phenolic acid, saponins, tannins Steroid derivative SIE2 [ 156 , 235 ] Spirostachys africana Sond. GC‐ToF‐MS n‐Hexadecanoic acid nonadecane,2‐methyl [ 235 ] Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. Qualitative assays Flavonoids, phenolic compounds, saponins, steroids tannins, terpenoid [ 194 ] Terminalia sericea Burch. Ex DC UPLC‐MS Triterpene [ 155 ] Thamnosma rhodesica (Baker f.) Mendonça 3D NMR, C‐NMR, H‐NMR Coumarins, furanocoumarins 1‐hydroxy‐10‐methylacridone, byakangelicin, cnidili, gravacridonediol, imperatorin isopimpinellin, marmesin, rhodesiacridone, rutacridone, xanthotoxin [ 205 ] Tribulus terrestris L. HPLC‐MS Saponins Astragaloside, hypericin, isomer of quercetin 3‐O‐arabinosyl galactoside, isoquercitrin, kaempferol 3‐ gentiobioside, microcephalin I, quercetin 3‐gentiobioside, quercetin‐3‐O‐(2,6‐α‐L‐dirhamnopyranosyl‐β‐D‐glucopyranoside), terrestrinin G, terrestrinin T, terrestrosin F, terrestrosin G, terrestrosin I, tribufuroside J, tribulosin, tribuluside A [ 153 ] Urginea sanguinea Schinz C‐NMR, EL‐MS, FAB‐MS, H‐NMR 3‐Hydroxy‐4‐methylbenzoic acid, 5a‐4,5‐dihydroscillaren A, n‐butanol fr, Phioroglucinol, Phloroglucinol, 1‐B‐D‐glucopyranoside (phiorin), Salicylic acid, Scillaren A, stigmasterol [ 242 ] Vachellia karroo (Hayne) Banfi & Galasso Quantitative Colometric phenolic assays Phenolics [ 243 ] Vachellia karroo ( Hayne) Banfi & Galasso GC‐MS Phenolics [ 195 ] Vachellia karroo (Hayne) Banfi & Galasso TLC, H NMR, UHPLC‐qTOF‐MS Baicalein, catechin, epicatechin epigallocatechin, kaempferol rutinoside, methyl gallate, myricetin rutinoside, quercetin, quercetin rutinoside, rutin [ 121 ] Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb Anthraquinone, flavonoids, saponins, tannins [ 244 ] Vachellia tortilis (Forssk.) Galasso & Banfi Qualitative analysis, H NMR, HP‐TLC, TLC, UHPLC‐qTOF‐MS Alkaloid salts polyphenols, alkaloids, carotenoids, flavonoid, saponins, phenolic acids, phenols, saponin, sterols, tannins, triterpene, volatile oils Baicalein, chrysoeriol glucopyranoside, cyanidin rhamnoside, dihydroacacipetalin, kaempferol, kaempferol rutinoside, luteolin glucoside, myricetin rutinoside [ 120 , 121 ] Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal HPLC Phenols Withanolodine A, 12‐seoxywithastramonolide, Withanoside‐IV, Withaferin A Withanolide A, Withanone Physalgulin‐D, Withastromonolide, 28‐hydroxywithanone [ 119 , 245 , 246 ] Ximenia americana L. var. microphylla Welwe. Ex Oliv. Quantitative assay, FTIR, HP‐TLC, HP‐LC, GC‐MS Alkaloids, fatty acids, flavonoids, glycosides, phenolics, phytosterols, saponins, tannins, terpenoids 2,6,10,14‐Tetramethyloctadecane, chloracetamide‐n‐methanol, diethylhexylphthalate, elaidic acid methyl ester, nonadecane, oleic acid methyl ester, palmitic acid methyl ester, stearic acid methyl ester, ximeninic acid [ 119 , 247 ] Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew Syn : Ziziphus acumi nata Royle H‐ NMR, EI‐MS Flavonoids, phenolic acids Caffeic acid, catechin, ferulic acid, quercetin [ 247 ] Open in a new tab Abbreviations: CC, column chromatography; DEPT, distortionless enhancement by polarisation transfer; EI‐MS, electron ionisation‐mass spectrometry; FTIR, Fourier transform infrared; GC‐MS, gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry; HPLC, high performance liquid chromatography; IR, infrared; LC‐MS, liquid chromatography‐mass spectrometry; NMR, nuclear magnetic resonance; TLC, thin layer chromatography; UHPLC‐qTOF‐MA, ultra‐high performance liquid chromatography‐quadrupole time‐of‐flight mass spectrometer; UPLC, ultra performance liquid chromatography; UV, ultraviolet. FIGURE 4. Open in a new tab Overview of the solvent extracts used for biological analysis of plants with ethnoveterinary records among the Batswana in southern Africa. Other solvents used that were reported in lower frequencies include petroleum ether, chloroform, and DCM (dichloromethane). FIGURE 5. Open in a new tab The percentage of plant parts used for the analysis of the biological activities of plants with ethnoveterinary records among the Batswana in southern Africa. FIGURE 6. Open in a new tab The percentage of the types of bioassays reported for plants with ethnoveterinary records among the Batswana in southern Africa. Extraction of bioactive compounds in different plant parts is highly dependent on the extraction solvents. The solvent is selected based on the polarity of targeted compounds, purpose of extraction, cost of solvent, safety of solvent, and potential energy demand for heating solvents [ 74 , 75 ]. The common use of water as an extractant can be attributed to its general use in traditional medicine to mimic ethnoveterinary practices involving maceration, decoction, poultice and infusions [ 76 ]. In the reviewed data (Figure 6 ), the use of water as an extractant was reported in 16% of the studies with methanol being the most prominent solvent used in majority of the studies (22%). Compounds with antimicrobial activity such as ketones, aldehydes and organic acids are extracted in high quantities using methanol as a solvent [ 77 ]. Ethanol (alcohol) is also widely used in traditional medicine as an alternative extractant to water in the reviewed literature and its use was calculated at 14%. Solvents reportedly used for plant extractions that had a low rate of use included petroleum ether (4%) and chloroform (4%) (Figure 4 ). The type of solvent used in plant extraction is also associated with the experimental analysis that is conducted, including biological activity, safety, phytochemical quantification, and bioactive compound isolation. Generally, biological activity (in vitro studies) in medicinal plants is investigated based on the ethnobotanical practices recorded by indigenous communities. In the current review, the ethnoveterinary practices of medicinal plants used by the Batswana communities were assessed by examining the medicinal properties e.g., antimicrobial, antiparasitic, anti‐inflammatory, antioxidant, and toxicity of the plants. As a common trend in medicinal plant research, in vitro biological assays conducted accounted for 84% of the studies with in vivo assays contributing towards 16% of the research. Basically, plants that had noteworthy in vitro activity and have potential in drug discovery (interesting bioactive compounds) are further analysed in vivo, and such tests produce more accurate results than in vitro experiments. Unfavourable in vitro results may eliminate the need for further in vivo studies [ 78 ]. 3.3.1.1. Antimicrobial Activity Antimicrobial screening is the most common method applied for primary analysis of biological activity because it is quick, efficient and the resources required are usually readily affordable. Particularly, the serial dilution microplate assay is the most preferred method for evaluating the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of plants against different test microbial strains, with more than 2 900 citations to date (accessed 08/02/2025) [ 79 ]. Following the recommended classification [ 80 , 81 ], extracts with MIC values > 0.32 mg/mL are regarded as exerting weak antimicrobial activity. However, higher MIC values may still be relevant for ethnopharmacological investigations [ 80 ]. The criteria for establishing activity of plant extracts are variable across difference sources, with noteworthy MIC values ranging from 8000 to ≤ 160 µg/mL [ 81 ]. MIC values < 0.1 mg/mL are also regarded as good by another author, while MIC values > 0.625 mg/mL was considered as weak [ 82 , 83 ]. For plant extracts used in traditional medicine, the MIC values of below 8 mg/mL are considered active [ 84 ]. Other authors considered a value as high as 12.5 mg/mL as active [ 85 ]. However, this review considers MIC as good/noteworthy when the activity is from <0.02 to 0.16 mg/mL [ 80 ]. Additionally, other in vitro assays used to determine antimicrobial activity included TLC bioautography, and agar disc diffusion [ 86 , 87 , 88 ]. Based on the results reported in Table 4 , the serial dilution method was the most frequently applied technique followed by the agar disc diffusion assay. During the antimicrobial bioassays, microbial and fungal strains associated with animal gastrointestinal illnesses, skin infection, mastitis, and respiratory diseases amongst others were investigated in several studies, possibly due to the medicinal utilisation of the plants in ethnoveterinary medicine. The five most studied strains were Staphylococcus spp. (16.1%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (11.9%), Escherichia coli (11.9%), Candida spp . (8.8%) and Klebsiella spp . (7.7%) (Figure 7 ). These pathogens are associated with most of the commonly reported ailments treated with medicinal plants. Aloe marlothii and Aloe zebrina extracts had excellent activity (MIC = 0.028 and 0.039 mg/mL) against E. coli [ 89 , 90 ]. This corroborates the perceived efficacy of the two Aloe species by the communities as they are reportedly used for diarrhoea and other infections [ 64 , 91 ]. Cassia abbreviata extracts had noteworthy activity against P.aeruginosa (MIC = 46.88 µg/mL), K. pneumoniae (MIC = 46.88 µg/mL), and good activity against C . albicans (MIC = 93.75 µg/mL) [ 92 ]. Dicerocaryum eriocarpum had good activity against Mycobacterium aurum (MIC = 0.156 mg/mL) but weak activity against C . albicans (MIC = 4.5 mg/mL) [ 90 ]. None of the conditions reported to be treated by D. eriocarpum are related to the tested pathogens [ 52 , 62 , 63 , 91 ], therefore the results do not support the traditional use. Searsia lancea had excellent activity (MIC range = 0.02–0.08 mg/mL) against the mastitis‐causing pathogens E. coli, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus dysgalactiae and Streptococcus uberis [ 93 ]. This may merit the use of S . lancea for treating diarrhoea resulting from one or more of the tested pathogens [ 91 ]. FIGURE 7. Open in a new tab Microbial strains frequently used for determining the antimicrobial effects of plants with ethnoveterinary records among the Batswana in southern Africa. `Others: Moraxella cattarhalis , Micrococcus sp., Listeria monocytogenes , Aeromonas hydrophila , Acinobacter calcoaceticus , Yersinia enterocolitica , Fusarium oxysporum , Mycoplasma hominis , Haemophilus influenza , Sporothrix schenckii , Citrobacter spp., Serattia marcescens Diverse techniques are applied when observing the in vivo activity of medicinal plant extracts and these include visual examination of wound healing activity after topical application [ 94 ], faecal bacterial load [ 95 ], and determining secondary infection symptoms such as pulmonary burden after ingestion [ 96 ]. Study by Amoussa et al. [ 95 ] revealed that A . afra had notable in vitro activity (MIC range = 0.25–0.312 mg/mL) against non‐typhoidal Salmonella field isolates and ATCC strains and demonstrated the efficacy of the plant extracts against biofilm formation. From the same study, there is evidence of in vivo activity as the orally administered A. afra at 200 mg/kg/bw extracts completely eliminated the faecal bacterial load in mice after eight days [ 95 ]. Terminalia sericea was effective at reducing the induced wound associated with S. schenckii infection on mice, after excellent activity (MIC = 0.03 mg/mL) against S . schenckii was reported [ 97 ]. In vivo studies can also reveal additional information about the mode of action of the plant extract [ 96 ]. Additionally, these studies also confirm the potential of medicinal plant extracts to function as multitarget drugs [ 98 ]. A combination of in vivo and in vitro studies is important to further determine the efficacy of the plant extracts against the target strains. Artemisia afra is one plant that has been reported to have good antimicrobial activity in vitro against several strains of Salmonella spp. which is also supported by noteworthy in vivo activity [ 95 ]. However, an in vivo study revealed that the orally administered A. afra leaf water and DCM extracts had no antimycobacterial activity, despite the positive in vitro activity [ 96 ]. The phytochemicals associated with antimicrobial activities are terpenoids and phenolic compounds with hydroxyl groups which interrupt the bacterial cell membrane permeability [ 99 ]. The presence of such compounds in the aqueous bark extract of Ximenia americana [ 100 ] is consistent with the good antimicrobial activity reported against Bacillus subtilis (MIC = 0.20 mg/mL). It is presumed that the mode of action of most antimicrobial agents is by creating structural changes to the bacterial cell membrane which affects the integrity of the membrane [ 101 ]. Commonly, this results in lysis of the cells and leakage of the contents leading to cell death [ 98 , 101 ]. 3.3.1.2. Antiparasitic Activity Determining the antiparasitic activity of medicinal plants is of great significance in subtropical regions because the climatic conditions are breeding grounds for parasite infestations especially in animals [ 102 ]. In Batswana ethnoveterinary, examples of plants with notable in vitro antiparasitic activity includew Acokanthera oppositifolia, Aloe ferox, Aloe marlothii, Artemesia afra, Combretum hereroense, Dicerocaryum eriocarpum, Elephantorrhiza elephantina, Nicotiana tabacum, Sclerocarya birrea, Securidaca longepedunculata, Thamsosma rhodesica , and Ximenia americana (Table 5 ). In vitro assays such as egg hatch and parasite mortality assays are important in determining plant pesticidal activity [ 103 ]. However, in vitro studies usually target a single parasite, meanwhile multi‐parasitism is common in livestock [ 104 ]. On the other hand, in vivo assays typically involve topical application of plant extracts for external parasites, or oral ingestion for effective treatment of gastrointestinal parasites [ 105 ]. Parameters used to determine antiparasitic activity can reveal secondary effects, making them a suitable multitarget approach [ 106 ]. In vitro anthelminthic activity of Aloe ferox was reported [ 107 ] and in vivo studies supporting the activity of the extracts were conducted [ 54 , 108 ]. The authors observed that water extracts administered orally were able to reduce worm eggs and inhibit larval development [ 54 , 108 ]. As shown in Table 2 , Nicotiana tabacum was cited twice in this report for use against parasites [ 63 , 109 ]. It has been tested against several parasites yielding positive results for in vitro and in vivo [ 110 ]. Ximenia americana had good activity (100% mortality) against Rhipicephalus microplus , however it has been reportedly used for internal parasites [ 91 ]. Fatty acids and fatty acid esters are believed to be responsible for nematocidal activity exhibited by plant extracts [ 111 ]. Phenolic compounds which are usually produced by plants to deter pests, also contribute to antiparasitic activity of plants [ 112 ]. Phytochemicals with proven nematocidal activity (e.g., tannins), have been isolated from plants used by the Batswana, including ganglion stimulants from Nicotiana tabacum leaves, which is similar to the active ingredient of levamisole (control agent) [ 113 ]. 3.3.1.3. Anti‐Inflammatory Activity Inflammation can be a result of physical injury, infection or other ailments [ 114 , 115 ]. In vitro activity is commonly determined by the inhibition of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase enzymes [ 116 ]. Anti‐inflammatory and other pain‐related assays had the highest rate (47%) of in vivo studies reported (Table 6 ). Physical evidence of pain and inflammation can be assessed visually in the tail‐flick assay and paw lick test [ 117 ], and by observing morphological changes during wound healing [ 118 ]. In vivo studies on Vachellia tortilis seed extracts exhibited noteworthy anti‐inflammatory response in mice with comparable activity (reaction time of 6.55 sec) in the group treated with diclofenac sodium (reaction time of 6.58 sec) and morphine sulfate (reaction time of 12.33 sec) [ 117 ]. The chemical profile of Vachellia tortilis revealed interesting phytochemicals such as myricetin rutinoside and luteolin glucoside which may be responsible for providing pain relief [ 119 , 120 , 121 ]. This supports the efficacy of V. tortilis for its traditional use of treating diarrhoea [ 91 ]. Decoction of Acokanthera oppositifolia leaves is used to expel parasites [ 53 ]. The extracts have excellent COX‐1 inhibition and COX‐2 inhibition activity, indicating good anti‐inflammatory activity with good in vitro nematocidal activity [ 122 ]. The anti‐inflammatory activity may be related to the presence of compounds which give the plant good antioxidant efficacy [ 123 , 124 ]. Vachellia karoo extracts had good anti‐inflammatory activity in mice which lasted up to 2 days after the treatment application. The 100 mg/kg dose produced 1.81 % inhibition, and the 200 mg/kg dose had 1.07% inhibition of inflammation, which is comparable to the inhibition of the positive control agent (1.38 %) used, indomethacin at 10 mg/kg [ 123 ]. The results support the use of V . karroo to treat fractures and skin diseases [ 64 , 76 ] 3.3.1.4. Antioxidant Activity Plants with antioxidant activity are potential candidates for preventing certain inflammatory diseases [ 124 ]. Evidence of the antioxidant effect of the ethnoveterinary plants used by the Batswana have been assessed (Table 7 ). For instance, A. oppositifolia , which contains flavonoids, proanthocyanidins and quercetin equivalents did not exhibit in vitro NO‐ radical inhibition, but was active against ABTS free radicals, DPPH free radicals, hydroxyl free radical, superoxide anion scavenging activity and iron reducing activity [ 17 , 125 , 126 ]. In terms of the ethnoveterinary records, snake bites are one of the most common conditions treated by plants among the Batswana of southern Africa (Table 2 ). As the toxicity effect of snake venom is associated with inducing oxidative stress and inflammatory response [ 127 , 128 ], establishing the efficacy of medicinal plants used to treat snake bites becomes important. Some plants assessed for antioxidant activity are used to treat snake bite, with varying antioxidant activity reported. Aloe ferox extract exhibited notable DPPH (60%) and ABTS (80%) scavenging activity at the highest tested concentration of 0.4 mg/mL [ 129 ]. The DPPH scavenging activity of Diospyros lycioides was assessed using TLC and there were several bands in chromatograms eluted using three different systems indicating the presence of polar, non‐polar and neutral polarity with some antioxidant activity [ 130 ]. Moringa oleifera is reportedly used for cough and other unspecified conditions [ 63 , 131 ]. The extracts of M . oleifera had noteworthy in vitro DPPH, OH and NADH scavenging activity as well as in vivo ferrous ion chelating activity [ 132 ]. 3.3.2. Toxicity and Safety of Medicinal Plants With Ethnoveterinary Records Toxicity bioassays are necessary to determine the safety of herbal remedies in animals and humans [ 88 ]. The selectivity index (cytotoxicity) of plant extracts is important pecially in targeting specific cancer cell lines [ 133 ]. Cytotoxicity studies need to be conducted in parallel with the biological assays to confirm the efficacy for the plants or its general toxicity [ 134 ]. Some of the plants with ethnoveterinary records among the Batswana in southern Africa have been assessed for their safety with diverse responses (Table 8 ). As with other biological assays, in vitro cytotoxicity results will not always have the same results as acute toxicity tests. For instance, Senna tora leaves (ethyl acetate extracts) were reported to have moderate cytotoxicity (LC 50 = 35.246 µg/mL) when using the brine shrimp assay, while no acute oral toxicity (LD 50 = 4263.906 mg/kg b.w.) was observed in an in vivo assay using mammalian subjects [ 135 ]. Biomarkers such as glucose, urea, creatinine and alkaline phosphates are used to determine in vivo toxicity. These biomarkers usually indicate the degradation of vital organs. The impact on renal function, which is assessed by evaluating serum ureal and creatine concentrations in mice models is another indicator of the toxicity of Senna italica extracts [ 136 ]. In vivo assays account for 35% of the toxicity and safety assays reported (Figure 6 ). Some parameters used to determine acute oral toxicity are signs of hepatic damage [ 137 ], sedative or paralytic effect [ 138 ], loss of body weight [ 139 ], and mortality [ 94 , 113 , 140 ] reported on the subacute toxicity effect after topical application of plant extract. Mice treated with Nicotiana tabacum extract in a trial for activity against ticks ( Rhipicephalus microplus ) exhibited no signs of toxicity (i.e., skin reaction, intestinal distress, mortality) after 3 weeks [ 140 ]. The results indicate the efficacy and safety of N. tabacum for external parasites, leaving opportunity for investigating the efficacy and safety in terms of its traditional use in treating internal parasites [ 63 , 109 , 131 ]. The in vivo toxicity study revealing the safety of topically applied Terminalia sericea was part of a study investigating in vivo anti‐inflammatory activity [ 94 ]. This further supports the topical application of T . sericea (Table 2 ). 3.3.3. Profiling, Quantification and Identified Phytochemicals of Plants With Ethnoveterinary Records Among the Batswana of Southern Africa Secondary metabolite production in plants is regulated by a range of factors, including biotic and abiotic stresses, physiological and developmental processes, chemical and mechanical elicitors, and cultivation and post‐harvest conditions. Despite the diversity of factors influencing their synthesis, plant secondary metabolism is predominantly directed towards the production of phenolics (≈45%), followed by terpenoids and steroids (≈27%), alkaloids (≈18%), and other compound classes (≈10%) [ 141 ]. From the current findings, a significant portion (51.72%) of the 116 plants with ethnoveterinary records have been profiled to establish their phytochemicals (Table 9 ). Phytochemical profiles varied among the identified species, with phenolics constituting the most abundant group, while terpenoids, steroids, and alkaloids were also present across the plant species. Generally, phytochemical analysis methods employed are chosen based on type of compounds sought, metabolites of interest, or the cost of analysis [ 142 , 143 ]. Chromatography methods are the most reported techniques used for phytochemical analysis (Figure 8 ). Earlier studies on phytochemical profiling primarily employed qualitative methods, such as colorimetric assays, which confirms the presence of phytochemical groups through precipitation, formation of foam or colour change in solution [ 144 ]. This method is usually applied at preliminary screening stages, as it provides a simple, quick and cost effective way of detecting phytochemicals without the need for sophisticated instrumentation [ 145 ]. FIGURE 8. Open in a new tab Overview of the applied methods for phytochemical analysis of plants with ethnoveterinary records among the Batswana in southern Africa. Qualitative methods include colorimetric methods used to detect the presence of metabolites. IR = Infrared, NMR‐ Nuclear magnetic resonance, DEPT = Distortionless enhancement by polarisation transfer, EL‐MS = Electron ionisation mass spectrometry, FTIR = Fourier transform infrared, UV = ultraviolet, HPLC = high performance liquid chromatography, TLC—Thin layer chromatography, GC‐MS = Gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry, LC‐MS = Liquid chromatography‐mass spectrometry, UPLC = Ultra performance liquid chromatography, CC = Column chromatography Gas chromatography is a relatively low cost method for identifying volatile organic compounds [ 146 ] and is the most commonly cited chromatography method due to volatility of phytochemicals such as terpenoids [ 147 ]. Ultraviolet light spectrophotometry is used to quantify phytochemicals that were detected using qualitative methods such as Sakowski test for steroids, Lieberman–Uchard's test for triterpenes, Wanger's test for alkaloid, ferric cyanide test for phenolic compounds and ferric chloride test for flavonoids [ 148 ].The phenolic compounds and flavonoids identified from Ximenia americana using the Folin–Ciocalteu and the Adom and Liu methods, respectively, have a wide range of biological activities [ 149 ]. Phenolic compound exhibit in vitro anthelmintic activity [ 150 , 151 ], which may contribute to the reported use to treat internal parasites (Table 2 ). Chromatographic methods are used for separating, detection and quantification [ 152 ].Ultra‐performance liquid chromatography analysis of T. sericea extracts detected saponins which exhibited in vitro anti‐inflammatory activity on LPS treated RAW 264.7 cells [ 153 ]. The leaves, stem, roots and bark of T. sericea are used for several conditions including cough, internal parasites, diarrhoea and retained placenta (Table 2 ). The methanol extracts have in vitro anti‐microbial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus epidermis, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhirium, Pseudomonas aureginosa and Klebsiella pneumonia (average MIC ≥ 1.49 mg/mL), and the acetone and methanol extracts have in vivo w ound healing activity observed, indicative of in vitro anti‐inflammatory activity (2 g/10 g dose) [ 97 ]. Spectrophotometric methods detect phytochemicals by detecting the functional groups present in a compound or the presence of conjugation within a compound [ 152 ]. The ─OH functional groups containing compounds identified from Cassia abbreviata , was identified as a flavan which was named 2,3‐dihydro‐5‐hydroxy‐8‐methoxy‐2‐(‐4‐methoxyphenyl)chromen‐4‐one [ 154 ]. The compound did not exhibit greater antiplasmodial activity (IC 50 = 26.02 µg/mL) than the crude extract (IC 50 = 13.31 µg/mL), or positive controls used, Chloroquine (IC 50 = 0.026 µg/mL), mefloquine (IC 50 = 0.03 µg/mL) and quinine (IC 50 = 0.09 µg/mL) [ 154 ]. Despite the unspecified ethnoveterinary use of C. abbreviata (Table 2 ), flavans and other flavonoids exerted antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory and antimicrobial activities which contribute to treating several conditions [ 155 , 156 ]. The phytochemicals have a wide range of therapeutic properties, and the presence and concentration of specific phytochemicals can predict the bioactivity. The antioxidant activity of Ximenia afra leaf extracts can be attributed to the presence of procyanidins, and quercetin, compounds found to contribute to antioxidant activity [ 157 ]. The phytochemicals associated with antimicrobial activities are terpenoids and phenolic compounds with hydroxyl groups which interrupt the bacterial cell membrane permeability [ 99 ]. Therefore the presence of phenolic compounds and terpenoids (alkaloids, fatty acids, flavonoids, glycosides, phenolics, phytosterols, saponins, and tannins) in the aqueous bark extract of Ximenia americana [ 100 ] is consistent with the good antimicrobial activity reported [ 158 ]. The extensive chemical profiling for A . tortilis [ 121 ] revealed the presence of phytochemicals such as myricetin rutinoside and luteolin glucoside which may provide pain relief [ 119 , 120 , 121 ]. Fatty acid and fatty acid esters are believed to contribute to nematocidal activity of plant extracts [ 111 ]. Tannins and phenolic compounds are usually produced by plants for defense in response to biological attack [ 112 , 113 ]. This is evident in Nicotiana tabacum which has a high phenolic compound content [ 159 ] and has shown good antiparasitic activity. Qualitative analysis of Opuntia ficus‐indica extract, which has proven in vivo anthelmintic activity [ 160 ], has revealed the presence of polyphenols and phenolic compounds [ 161 ]. 3.4. Clinical Trials of Plants With Ethnoveterinary Records Clinical trials are required to determine long term toxicity, side effects and drug interactions and possible secondary benefits of phytotherapies [ 162 , 163 , 164 ]. A significant challenge in veterinary clinical trials is overcoming bias [ 165 ], which is compounded by the existing obstacles associated with clinical trials for phytotherapies. The complex nature of medicinal plants used in phytotherapies can cause inconsistencies and variations in phytochemical concentrations [ 166 ], therefore standardisation of protocols can be difficult [ 167 ]. The placebos used in phytotherapy clinical trials often pose an additional challenge as they fail to have the same colour, texture and smell, effectively not being an analogous compound. This brings to question the validity of the trial as a double‐blind study [ 168 ]. These challenges and more can limit the credibility of trial results, creating obstacles in regulating the industry [ 169 ]. Despite this, the clinical trial registry continues to be updated with new medicinal plant remedies in veterinary medicine ( https://veterinaryclinicaltrials.org/studies/?term~recruiting_status = R, access 20/11/2024). A randomised, placebo‐controlled double‐blind clinical trial conducted on Cannabis sativa oil was reported to be beneficial in managing chronic pain by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress in canines [ 170 ]. There have been no reports to date of veterinary clinical trials for medicinal plants used by the Batswana people. 4. Conclusions This review underscores the critical importance of traditional livestock husbandry practices among Batswana communities in southern Africa, where plant‐based remedies serve as essential tools for managing livestock health. The appraisal on ethnoveterinary knowledge uncovers the diversity of plants that the Batswana people use to treat a range of conditions such as parasitic infestations, wounds, infectious diseases and complications from animal bites. In the context of limited access to conventional veterinary care, these culturally rooted practices demonstrate the ingenuity and adaptability of indigenous knowledge systems in addressing diverse livestock health challenges. The continued reliance on these practices highlights their relevance not only as a means of sustaining livestock productivity but as a reflection of the deep connection between cultural heritage and indigenous medicinal plants. A comprehensive inventory of 116 plant species from 44 families was recorded, showcasing the remarkable biodiversity leveraged in treating nine major categories of livestock health conditions. Commonly used plant parts, such as roots and leaves, were prepared through methods such as decoctions and infusions, with oral and topical routes of administration being predominant. The presence of phytochemicals and the biological activities of the plants support the therapeutic potential of the plants. This provides empirical evidence to support ethnoveterinary knowledge. However, the presence of phytochemicals cannot be used as a sole determinant or factor for biological activity validation as other factors such as bioavailability can influence the efficacy and potency of plant extracts in vivo. Complementary in vivo studies and clinical trials can provide essential information on safety, pharmacological effect, and the correct dosage of ethnoveterinary medications, supporting the adoption of herbal remedies and their integration into modern veterinary health practices. Overall, the ethnoveterinary practices of the Batswana are of great benefit to underserved communities. The incorporation of plant‐based ethnoveterinary remedies into primary animal healthcare may be advantageous for rural communities given their dependence on livestock for survival. Author Contributions AOA and NAM conceptualised the study and edited the manuscript, TGM, NS and MVC sourced for the literature, conducted formal analysis and involved in the initial draft. JAA, SOA and LJM provided critical insight, edited the manuscript, and are involved in the supervision of the project. NAM, SOA and AOA secured the fundings for the project. All authors have read and agreed to the final version of the manuscript. Funding This work is based on the research supported by the South African National Department of Agriculture (DoA). A.O.A. received funding from the South African Research Chairs Initiative of the Department of Science, Technology and Innovation (DSTI)‐National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa (Grant No: RCHDI2411105279212). The financial support provided by the Higher Degree Committee of the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences (FNAS), North‐West University to TGM is sincerely appreciated. The opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed are those of the authors alone; DoA and NRF accept no liability whatsoever in this regard. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. 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