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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice BMC Psychol . 2026 Mar 5;14:507. doi: 10.1186/s40359-026-04297-9 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Emotional disturbances and psychological resilience among earthquake survivors in temporary shelters: assessing the role of life satisfaction Emrah Gökkaya Emrah Gökkaya 1 Bünyan Vocational School, Civil Defence and Firefighting Program, Kayseri University, Kayseri, Türkiye Find articles by Emrah Gökkaya 1 , Mehmet Hanefi Topal Mehmet Hanefi Topal 2 Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Finance, Kırklareli University, Kırklareli, Türkiye Find articles by Mehmet Hanefi Topal 2 , Ömer Demirbilek Ömer Demirbilek 3 Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Emergency Aid and Disaster Management, Malatya Turgut Ozal University, Malatya, Türkiye Find articles by Ömer Demirbilek 3, ✉ , Muhammed Bedir Baydemir Muhammed Bedir Baydemir 4 Arapgir Vocational School, Department of Finance, Banking, and Insurance, Malatya Turgut Ozal University, Malatya, Türkiye Find articles by Muhammed Bedir Baydemir 4 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Bünyan Vocational School, Civil Defence and Firefighting Program, Kayseri University, Kayseri, Türkiye 2 Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Finance, Kırklareli University, Kırklareli, Türkiye 3 Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Emergency Aid and Disaster Management, Malatya Turgut Ozal University, Malatya, Türkiye 4 Arapgir Vocational School, Department of Finance, Banking, and Insurance, Malatya Turgut Ozal University, Malatya, Türkiye ✉ Corresponding author. Received 2026 Jan 6; Accepted 2026 Mar 2; Collection date 2026. © The Author(s) 2026 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ . PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC13069818 PMID: 41782008 Abstract Objective This study aims to examine the levels of emotional disturbances, psychological resilience, and life satisfaction among earthquake survivors residing in temporary shelters in Hatay province following the 2023 Kahramanmaraş-centred earthquakes. Additionally, it seeks to identify the critical role of life satisfaction. Methodology This study employs a quantitative, correlational research design with data collected from 408 participants selected through purposive sampling. Participants range in age from 18 to 70 years. Data collection utilizes face-to-face surveys administered through a demographic information form, the Brief Psychological Resilience Scale (BPRS), the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21 (DASS-21). Analyses are performed using JASP (v.0.19.3.0), incorporating descriptive statistics, independent samples t-tests, ANOVA, mediation, and moderation analyses. Findings The results reveal that female and younger earthquake survivors report significantly higher levels of emotional disturbances. Emotional disturbances negatively predict psychological resilience, whereas life satisfaction positively predicts psychological resilience. No meaningful relationship emerges between emotional disturbances and life satisfaction. Moderation analyses demonstrate that life satisfaction significantly moderates the relationship between stress, anxiety, depression, and psychological resilience. However, mediation analyses indicate that neither life satisfaction nor emotional disturbances mediate the relationship between psychological resilience and the other Variables. Conclusion According to the research findings, depression, anxiety and stress negatively affect psychological resilience, while life satisfaction plays a role in increasing vulnerability rather than fulfilling its expected buffering function; it shows that groups such as women, younger generations, and single individuals exhibit higher levels of mood disorders and lower levels of psychological resilience; and that the relationship between educational level and psychological resilience is shaped by cultural context. Therefore, in disaster management processes, rather than focusing solely on increasing life satisfaction, developing goal-oriented psychosocial interventions aimed at reducing mood disorders, community solidarity programs, and psychological support services integrated into the insurance system are critical for sustainable disaster resilience. This study highlights a crucial paradox for post-disaster mental health: life satisfaction, rather than buffering the impact of emotional distress, can unexpectedly increase psychological vulnerability. Keywords: Psychological resilience, Life satisfaction, Emotional disturbances, Earthquake survivors, Temporary shelters Introduction Natural disasters are defined as unexpected natural events that seriously adversely affect human life, property and the environment, and whose formation process is generally uncontrollable [ 1 ]. Earthquakes are tremors caused by seismic waves resulting from sudden fractures in the earth’s crust [ 2 ]. The tremors caused by earthquakes can lead to the destruction of buildings, loss of life and significant economic damage. For this reason, earthquakes are natural events with major destructive effects. From the beginning of the 21st century to the present day, many earthquakes have occurred worldwide, some of which have profoundly affected countries in many ways. For example, following a 7.6 magnitude earthquake in Pakistan’s Kashmir region in 2005, 73,338 people lost their lives, 128,309 were injured, thousands were left homeless, and the country was affected in many ways, including significant economic losses. In 2008, an earthquake measuring 7.9 on the Richter scale struck China’s Sichuan region, killing 87,466 people and injuring 366,596. Following the 7.0 magnitude earthquake that struck Haiti in 2010, 222,570 people lost their lives and more than 300,000 were injured. Again in Haiti, a 7.2 magnitude earthquake in 2021 killed 2,575 people, injured 12,763, and left many homeless [ 3 ]. Turkey is one of the world’s most active and high-risk earthquake zones due to its location in the Alpine-Himalayan seismic belt and its position on three major fault lines, and destructive earthquakes frequently occur in the country [ 4 ]. According to data from the International Disaster Database (Em-Dat), 131 fatal earthquakes have occurred in Turkey over the past 20 years [ 3 ] clearly demonstrating the country’s high earthquake risk. In the recent major earthquakes centered in Kahramanmaraş on 6 February 2023, with magnitudes of 7.7 Mw and 7.6 Mw respectively, official statistics indicate that 50,783 people lost their lives and 115,353 were injured. It has been reported that 37,984 buildings were destroyed [ 5 ]. he destruction caused by earthquakes, which have had devastating effects from the past to the present, along with the damage to infrastructure and economic losses, has lowered the living standards of the victims and made it imperative for social support systems to be activated urgently [ 6 ]. This situation has further highlighted the challenges and long-term effects encountered in the post-disaster recovery process. The temporary shelter needs of disaster victims left homeless after a disaster must be met as a priority. The shelters used for this purpose are divided into two groups: temporary and permanent. Temporary shelters are structures that meet people’s shelter needs in emergencies or extraordinary circumstances but are not suitable for long-term use. Permanent shelters, on the other hand, are structures that meet the long-term shelter needs of individuals affected by disasters and left homeless [ 7 , 8 ]. Following the earthquakes on 6 February 2023, a total of 656,553 tents were set up in 345 tent cities in Turkey. A total of 2,626,212 people were accommodated in the tents set up. In the aftermath of the earthquake, a total of 397 container cities were established as temporary accommodation areas in the provinces located in the earthquake zone, and 212,529 containers were set up. These containers are housing 651,958 people [ 6 ]. Traumatic experiences, uncertainties, economic concerns, and lack of social support resulting from devastating earthquakes can lead to mood disorders. Mood disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder, stress, depression, and anxiety are triggered by loss, economic hardship, and feelings of insecurity [ 9 , 10 ]. This situation negatively affects individuals’ psychological resilience by weakening their coping mechanisms [ 11 – 13 ]. Trauma and uncertainty reduce individuals’ sense of self-efficacy, while constant anxiety and depression decrease cognitive flexibility and emotional resilience [ 14 – 17 ]. Furthermore, lack of social support and negative thought patterns after trauma further weaken psychological resilience [ 10 , 18 ]. All these adverse conditions resulting from devastating earthquakes, including material losses, prolonged displacement, and persistent psychosocial stressors directly and negatively affect individuals’ life satisfaction [ 19 ]. Feelings of uncertainty and insecurity reduce individuals’ hopes for the future, thereby lowering their satisfaction with life. Furthermore, lack of social support and economic losses cause individuals to feel lonely and helpless, negatively affecting their overall life satisfaction [ 20 , 21 ]. In post-disaster recovery processes, individuals’ quality of life and psychological well-being are fundamental elements that support both individual and societal [ 20 , 22 ]. The destruction and losses brought about by disasters leave significant marks not only on individuals’ physical environments but also on their psychological and emotional worlds [ 13 , 22 ]. In this process, high life satisfaction and psychological resilience among disaster victims help them increase their internal resilience and interact more positively with their environment. This interaction forms a fundamental basis for supporting community resilience in the long term [ 20 , 22 , 23 ]. Those affected by disasters who are forced to leave their homes and may have lost loved ones, continuing their lives in temporary shelters, have a need for psychological resilience, balanced emotional states, and enjoyment of life in addition to the need for safe shelter in their difficult living conditions. Psychosocial support provided to disaster victims aims not only to facilitate their adjustment to life after a traumatic event, but also to protect their mental health and improve their quality of life. This support is usually provided by mental health professionals, social service specialists, and expert volunteers, and is critical in helping individuals cope with traumatic experiences. Psychosocial support also contributes to social recovery as well as individual recovery, facilitating the reintegration of disaster victims into society [ 24 – 27 ]. To determine appropriate psychosocial support, we must thoroughly understand the relationship between the psychological resilience of disaster victims, their emotional disorders (such as anxiety, depression, and stress) and their satisfaction in life. A good understanding of these relationships ensures that psychosocial support for disaster victims is designed effectively and in line with their needs. Furthermore, appropriate interventions for disaster victims can reduce symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress, thereby strengthening individuals’ psychological resilience and increasing their life satisfaction [ 20 , 21 ]. The literature indicates that individuals with higher levels of life satisfaction, including those exposed to disasters and other traumatic events, exhibit a lower risk of mood disorders such as depression, anxiety, and stress [ 19 , 23 , 28 , 29 ]. Similarly, psychological resilience has consistently been identified as a key protective factor that enables individuals to cope more effectively with emotional disturbances and to recover from adverse experiences [ 11 , 16 , 17 , 30 – 32 ]. While prior research has focused on the direct effects of traumatic exposure on mood disorders or psychological resilience, emerging evidence suggests that these relationships may also operate through indirect pathways. In line with stress appraisal and coping frameworks [ 33 ], prolonged stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms can undermine overall psychological well-being [ 34 ] and reduce individuals’ satisfaction with life. Diminished life satisfaction, in turn, may erode motivation, hope, and adaptive capacity, thereby indirectly weakening psychological resilience over time [ 35 , 36 ]. Moreover, the negative association between mood disorders and psychological resilience does not occur uniformly across individuals. Research highlights the buffering and moderating roles of social support, self-efficacy, and adaptive coping strategies, which can mitigate the detrimental impact of emotional disturbances on resilience [ 12 , 18 , 37 , 38 ]. Finally, individuals residing in temporary shelters following major earthquakes may experience heightened vulnerability compared to those living in permanent housing. Prolonged uncertainty, economic strain, disrupted social networks, and ongoing exposure to disaster-related stressors may collectively reduce life satisfaction and intensify emotional disturbances [ 1 , 5 , 24 – 26 ]. This contextual vulnerability underscores the importance of focusing on disaster survivors living in temporary settlements to better understand long-term psychological recovery processes and resilience-building mechanisms. Despite the growing body of disaster mental health research, several important gaps remain. First, much of the existing literature has primarily focused on the acute or early post-disaster period, whereas little is known about psychological processes during prolonged recovery phases. Individuals residing in temporary shelters often experience sustained uncertainty, disrupted social networks, and ongoing economic stressors, which may differentially shape emotional disturbances, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience over time. This issue is particularly salient in the Turkish context, where the 6 February 2023 Kahramanmaraş-centered earthquakes affected a very large population across multiple provinces and resulted in long-term displacement in temporary housing areas [ 5 , 6 ]. Empirical evidence from Türkiye indicates that prolonged post-earthquake conditions, including housing insecurity and social disruption, are associated with elevated psychological distress and reduced well-being [ 21 , 23 , 26 ]. Second, previous studies have examined emotional disturbances, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience in isolation or through direct-effect models, limiting our understanding of the complex mechanisms through which emotional disturbances influence resilience. Addressing these gaps, the present study adopts an integrative approach by simultaneously examining emotional disturbances, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience within a unified analytical framework, explicitly testing both mediating and moderating pathways. This approach allows for a more nuanced understanding of psychological vulnerability and resilience processes among earthquake survivors living in temporary shelters during long-term post-disaster recovery in Türkiye. A growing number of studies conducted in Türkiye have examined the psychological consequences of disasters, providing valuable evidence regarding emotional distress, fear, loneliness, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience among affected populations [ 21 , 23 , 26 ]. However, these studies have focused on specific psychological outcomes or demographic subgroups and have often relied on direct-effect analytical models. Moreover, limited attention has been paid to individuals living in temporary shelter settings, where prolonged displacement and restricted access to coping resources may heighten psychological vulnerability. Distinct from existing research, the present study builds on the Turkish disaster mental health literature by integrating emotional disturbances, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience within a single model and by explicitly examining the mediating and moderating role of life satisfaction. In doing so, the study not only extends prior findings but also provides context-specific evidence that is particularly relevant for post-earthquake mental health interventions and policy development in Türkiye. From a theoretical perspective, the present study is grounded in the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping, which conceptualizes psychological stress as a dynamic process shaped by individuals’ cognitive appraisal of environmental demands and their available coping resources [ 33 ]. Within this framework, large-scale disasters such as earthquakes represent extreme stressors that may exceed individuals’ coping capacities, resulting in emotional disturbances such as stress, anxiety, and depression. In disaster contexts, psychological resilience is predominantly conceptualized as a protective and moderating factor that buffers the adverse psychological effects of stressors by facilitating adaptive coping, emotional regulation, and recovery processes [ 12 , 31 ]. Although previous studies conducted in Türkiye have provided valuable insights into post-disaster emotional disorders, life satisfaction, or psychological resilience, these constructs have been examined independently or through direct-effect models. Moreover, limited attention has been given to populations residing in temporary shelters, where prolonged uncertainty, disrupted social networks, and constrained coping resources may intensify psychological vulnerability. Distinct from existing research, the present study integrates emotional disturbances, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience within a unified stress–coping and disaster resilience framework, explicitly examining life satisfaction as both a mediating and moderating mechanism while positioning psychological resilience as a protective factor. By adopting this integrative and theory-driven approach, the study extends prior disaster mental health research in Türkiye and offers a more nuanced understanding of the mechanisms through which resilience can be supported during long-term post-earthquake recovery processes. This study, noting that these points in the literature have not been sufficiently examined, aims to reveal the relationships between mood disorders, life satisfaction and psychological resilience among earthquake victims living in temporary shelters following the earthquakes centered in Kahramanmaraş, Turkey. Considering the research findings, it also aims to develop recommendations on what measures can be taken to improve the mental health, psychological resilience, and life satisfaction of earthquake victims residing in temporary shelters. Within the scope of these aims and objectives, our study seeks to answer the following research questions: How do emotional disorders experienced by earthquake victims living in temporary shelters affect their life satisfaction levels? How do the life satisfaction levels of earthquake victims living in temporary shelters affect their psychological resilience levels? What roles do the life satisfaction levels of earthquake victims living in temporary shelters play in the relationship between emotional disorders and psychological resilience levels? Based on the research questions and the theoretical framework outlined above, the following hypotheses were formulated to be empirically evaluated: H1 Emotional disturbances negatively affect psychological resilience. H2 Life satisfaction positively affects psychological resilience. H3 Emotional disturbances negatively affect life satisfaction. H4 Life satisfaction mediates the emotional disturbance-psychological resilience relationship. H5 Life satisfaction moderates the emotional disturbances- psychological resilience relationship. H5a Life satisfaction moderates the stress-psychological resilience relationship. H5b Life satisfaction moderates the anxiety-psychological resilience relationship. H5c Life satisfaction moderates the depression-psychological resilience relationship. Methodology Research design This study aims to examine the relationships between important psychological variables and the mental well-being of earthquake victims living in temporary shelters following an earthquake. The primary objective of the study is to analyze the relational structure between emotional disorders, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience levels that emerge in the living conditions of earthquake victims in temporary shelters and to determine the psychosocial support needs of earthquake victims based on evidence. This study, designed as quantitative cross-sectional research, adopts a correlational survey design. This design allows for the examination of non-causal relationships and correlational structures between mood disorders (depression, anxiety, stress), life satisfaction, and psychological resilience. The fundamental assumption of the research is that positive psychological resources such as life satisfaction may play a regulatory role in the process of coping with psychological distress among earthquake victims forced to live in temporary shelters. In this context, the study offers an applied perspective, enabling inferences about the functionality of protective and restorative services in the post-disaster recovery process. Sample The study sample consisted of individuals who were directly affected by the 6 February 2023 Kahramanmaraş-centered earthquakes and subsequently relocated to temporary accommodation centers. Data were collected from residents living in container settlements located in four districts of Hatay Province (Belen, Kırıkhan, Hassa, and Antakya). These districts were purposefully selected to capture heterogeneity in post-disaster living conditions, levels of infrastructure damage, and access to recovery resources, thereby enhancing the contextual diversity of the sample. A purposeful sampling strategy was employed due to the absence of a complete sampling frame and the practical constraints inherent in post-disaster settings. Inclusion criteria were as follows: (a) being aged 18 years or older, (b) residing in a temporary container settlement in Hatay at the time of data collection, (c) having directly experienced the earthquake, and (d) providing voluntary informed consent. Exclusion criteria included refusal to participate, withdrawal from the study at any stage, incomplete questionnaire responses, or failure to meet the inclusion criteria. Participants were informed that once data were anonymized, individual responses could no longer be withdrawn. The minimum required sample size was calculated using the classical sample size formula for unknown populations, assuming a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error, which yielded a minimum sample of 384 participants. To increase statistical precision and mitigate potential sampling bias, data were collected from 408 participants. A post-hoc power analysis based on the observed R² values and effect sizes confirmed that the final sample size provided sufficient statistical power at the 95% confidence level. The final sample comprised 54.7% females and 45.3% males. Participants’ age ranged from 18 to 70 years (M = 27.25, SD = 10.56). The majority were single (71.1%), while 28.9% were married. Regarding educational attainment, 49.8% held a university degree, 36.3% were high school graduates, 10.8% had primary or middle school education, and 2.0% held postgraduate degrees; 1.2% reported being illiterate. Although the use of purposeful sampling limits statistical generalizability, this approach was considered appropriate given the study’s aim to examine psychological processes among disaster survivors living in temporary shelters. The large sample size, inclusion of multiple districts, and demographic heterogeneity help mitigate selection bias and strengthen the internal validity of the findings. Nonetheless, the results should be interpreted with caution when generalizing about other disaster contexts or populations. Instruments and procedure In Data were collected using a structured questionnaire consisting of four sections: a demographic information form and three standardized self-report scales assessing psychological resilience, life satisfaction, and emotional disturbances. All instruments had been previously adapted into Turkish and demonstrated adequate psychometric properties in Turkish samples. Demographic information form Researchers developed this form to collect basic sociodemographic information, including age, gender, marital status, and educational level. Brief psychological resilience scale (BPRS) Psychological resilience was measured using the Brief Psychological Resilience Scale developed by Smith et al. [ 32 ] and adapted into Turkish by Doğan [ 39 ]. The scale consists of six items rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree), with three reverse-coded items. Higher scores indicate greater psychological resilience. The Turkish version has demonstrated good construct validity and internal consistency in previous studies, including samples exposed to stress and adversity. In the current study, the scale showed satisfactory internal reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.82), with item–total correlations ranging from 0.499 to 0.627. Satisfaction with life scale (SWLS) Life satisfaction was assessed using the Satisfaction with Life Scale developed by Diener et al. [ 28 ] and adapted into Turkish by Dağlı and Baysal [ 40 ]. Although the original scale uses a 7-point Likert format, the Turkish adaptation employs a 5-point Likert scale, which was also used in the present study. The Turkish version has been widely used in diverse populations and has demonstrated strong validity and reliability. In this study, the internal consistency coefficient was high (Cronbach’s α = 0.92), and item–total correlations ranged between 0.671 and 0.839. Higher scores reflect greater life satisfaction. Depression anxiety stress scale–21 (DASS-21) Emotional disturbances were measured using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale–21 developed by Lovibond and Lovibond [ 41 ] and adapted into Turkish by Sarıçam [ 42 ]. The scale comprises three subscales—depression, anxiety, and stress—each consisting of seven items rated on a 4-point scale (0 = did not apply to me at all to 3 = applied to me very much or most of the time). The Turkish version has demonstrated strong factorial validity and reliability across clinical and non-clinical samples, including disaster-affected populations. In the present study, internal consistency coefficients were high for depression (α = 0.93), anxiety (α = 0.92), and stress (α = 0.90), with an overall reliability coefficient of α = 0.97. Item–total correlations ranged from 0.645 to 0.801. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews conducted in temporary accommodation centers between 31 May and 1 August 2024, 15–18 months after the February 6, 2023, Kahramanmaraş-centered earthquakes. This timing allowed for the assessment of emotional disturbances and psychological resilience during a prolonged post-disaster recovery phase rather than the acute aftermath. Access to the study sites and data collection were facilitated by local volunteers and academics. Questionnaires were administered individually, with additional explanations provided when needed, and completion required 10–15 min. Ethical issues The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Kayseri University (Ethics Approval Form No: 46/2024). All procedures were conducted in full compliance with the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. During the data collection process, participants were comprehensively informed about the purpose and scope of the study, the voluntary nature of participation, and the principles of anonymity and confidentiality. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. Participants were explicitly informed that they could withdraw from the study at any stage without providing any justification; however, it was also clearly explained that withdrawal would no longer be possible once the data had been fully anonymized. Throughout the fieldwork, particular care was taken to safeguard participants’ psychosocial well-being, given the trauma-exposed nature of the study population. In this context, collaboration was established with relevant units of the Ministry of Family and Social Services, which were actively involved in the fieldwork, to ensure that appropriate psychological support mechanisms were available when needed. All collected data were anonymized and stored in encrypted digital environments in accordance with the Turkish Personal Data Protection Law No. 6698. The data will be securely retained for a period of five years and permanently destroyed upon completion of the legally required retention period. Data analysis Data analysis was conducted in four sequential stages, each aligned with the study’s research questions and analytical objectives. In the first stage, the psychometric adequacy of the measurement instruments was evaluated to ensure the reliability of the constructions included in subsequent analyses. Internal consistency was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients and corrected item–total correlations, with α values greater than 0.70 considered acceptable for research purposes [ 43 ]. Establishing measurement reliability was a prerequisite for valid group comparisons and regression-based analyses. In the second stage, descriptive statistics were computed to characterize the sample and to examine distributional properties of the study variables. Frequencies and percentages were used to describe demographic characteristics, while means, standard deviations, skewness, and kurtosis values were examined to assess normality assumptions. Although skewness and kurtosis values within ± 1.5 are generally considered acceptable [ 44 ], these indicators were interpreted in conjunction with sample size and planned parametric analyses. In the third stage, inferential analyses were performed to address whether emotional disturbances, psychological resilience, and life satisfaction differed across key demographic characteristics. Independent samples t -tests were used for dichotomous variables (gender and romantic relationship status), whereas one-way ANOVA was employed for variables with more than two categories (age groups and education level). These tests were selected as they allow for the comparison of group means when the dependent variables are continuous. To account for potential violations of homogeneity of variances, robust procedures based on the Brown–Forsythe correction were applied where appropriate [ 45 ], and post-hoc pairwise comparisons were adjusted accordingly. Effect sizes were reported using Cohen’s d to provide information on the practical magnitude of observed differences (small ≥ 0.20, medium ≥ 0.50, large ≥ 0.80) [ 46 ]. In the fourth and final stage, regression-based conditional process analyses were conducted to directly address the core research questions concerning the relationships among emotional disturbances, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience. Specifically, PROCESS macro Models 1 and 4 were employed [ 47 ] to test (a) the direct effect of emotional disturbances on psychological resilience, (b) the mediating role of life satisfaction in this relationship, and (c) the moderating role of life satisfaction in shaping the strength of this association. These models were selected as they allow for the simultaneous examination of direct, indirect, and interaction effects within a theoretically grounded framework. Statistical significance of mediation and moderation effects was evaluated using bias-corrected bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples, a method recommended for its robustness to non-normality in indirect effect distributions. All statistical analyses were conducted using the open-source JASP software (version 0.19.3.0). Statistical significance was evaluated at a 95% confidence level, with p values below 0.05 considered statistically significant. Findings Preliminary findings Descriptive statistics Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) as well as skewness and kurtosis values for emotional disturbances (depression, anxiety, stress), life satisfaction, and psychological resilience among earthquake survivors residing in temporary shelters. The skewness and kurtosis coefficients for all study variables fall within the acceptable range (absolute values <|2|), indicating that the assumption of normality was met. Accordingly, parametric statistical procedures were employed in the subsequent analyses. Table 1. Descriptive statistics for emotional disturbances, psychological resilience, and life satisfaction among earthquake survivors Variable Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis Emotional disturbances (general) 0.96 0.76 0.56 -0.35 Depression 0.97 0.82 0.57 -0.53 Anxiety 0.92 0.79 0.65 -0.30 Stress 0.99 0.78 0.53 -0.43 Psychological resilience 3.05 0.71 0.12 -1.02 Life satisfaction 2.45 1.03 0.36 -0.78 Open in a new tab Emotional disturbances were measured using the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale–21 (DASS-21). Psychological resilience was assessed with the Brief Psychological Resilience Scale (BPRS), and life satisfaction with the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). Higher scores indicate higher levels of the respective constructions. Skewness and kurtosis values within ± 1 indicate acceptable normality From a descriptive perspective, participants exhibited low to moderate levels of psychological resilience (M = 3.05, SD = 0.71) and relatively low levels of life satisfaction (M = 2.45, SD = 1.03). The mean score for overall emotional disturbances suggests a mild level (M = 0.96, SD = 0.76). Among the emotional disturbance subdimensions, stress demonstrated the highest mean value (M = 0.99, SD = 0.78), followed by depression (M = 0.97, SD = 0.82) and anxiety (M = 0.92, SD = 0.79). Emotional disturbances and life satisfaction (Research Question 1) To address the first research question, the direct effect of emotional disturbances on life satisfaction among earthquake survivors residing in temporary shelters was examined using regression-based analysis within the PROCESS macro framework. Emotional disturbances were entered as the independent variable, while life satisfaction was treated as the outcome variable. The analysis revealed that emotional disturbances did not have a statistically significant direct effect on life satisfaction (β = −0.087, z = − 1.78, p > 0.05, 95% CI [− 0.264, 0.030]). Moreover, emotional disturbances explained only a very small proportion of the variance in life satisfaction (R² = 0.008). These findings indicate that higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depression experienced by earthquake victims living in temporary shelters are not directly associated with significant changes in their reported life satisfaction levels. Accordingly, Hypothesis H3, which proposed a negative effect of emotional disturbances on life satisfaction, was not supported (see Table 4 ). Table 4. One-way ANOVA and post hoc comparisons of anxiety and psychological resilience by generation and education level Independent Variables Groups Descriptives ANOVA Group Comparisons Mean SD SOS MS F Prob. PC MD t P B Cohen’s d Anxiety Z-generation 0.99 0.82 4.27 2.13 3.484 0.032 (1–2) * (1–3) * 0.20 0.19 2.48 2.38 0.040 0.043 0.27 0.25 Y-generation 0.79 0.74 X-generation 0.80 0.68 Psychological Resilience Z-generation 2.96 0.71 6.89 3.44 7.019 0.000 (1–2) * (1–3) * -0.20 -0.40 -2.58 -3.18 0.031 0.005 -0.29 -0.57 Y-generation 3.16 0.64 X-generation 3.36 0.80 < High school 3.38 0.90 6.10 3.05 6.196 0.002 (1–2) * (1–3) * 0.36 0.39 3.12 3.46 0.006 0.002 0.51 0.55 High school 3.02 0.58 University 2.99 0.73 Open in a new tab Homogeneity is corrected by Brown-Forsythe. * Indicates statistical significance at the p <0.05 level. Abbreviations: MS mean squares, MD mean differences, NS not significant, P B =probability value of Bonferroni correction, PC pairwise comparisons, SD standard deviations, SOS sum of squares Life satisfaction and psychological resilience (Research Question 2) The second research question examined whether life satisfaction significantly predicts psychological resilience among earthquake survivors living in temporary shelters. To address this question, life satisfaction was included as an independent predictor of psychological resilience within the regression-based analysis conducted using the PROCESS macro. The findings indicated that life satisfaction had a positive and statistically significant direct effect on psychological resilience (β = 0.185, z = 4.23, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.071, 0.186]). This result suggests that higher levels of life satisfaction are associated with increased psychological resilience among disaster victims. When considered together with emotional disturbances, life satisfaction contributed significantly to the explained variance in psychological resilience, with the overall model accounting for approximately 23% of the variance (R² = 0.228). Accordingly, Hypothesis H2, which proposed a positive relationship between life satisfaction and psychological resilience, was supported (see Table 4 ). The mediating and moderating role of life satisfaction in the relationship between emotional disturbances and psychological resilience To examine whether life satisfaction functions as a mediating or moderating mechanism in the relationship between emotional disturbances and psychological resilience, regression-based analyses were conducted using Hayes’ PROCESS macro. Specifically, PROCESS Model 4 was employed to evaluate the mediating role of life satisfaction, while PROCESS Model 1 was used to assess its moderating role. All models were estimated using 5,000 bias-corrected bootstrap samples. The results of the hypothesis testing are summarized in Table 4 . The detailed findings regarding the direct effects of emotional disturbances and life satisfaction on psychological resilience, as well as the mediation and moderation analyses, are presented in the following subsections (" Direct effects of emotional disturbances and life satisfaction on psychological resilience (H1–H3) " section–" Moderating role of life satisfaction in the emotional disturbances–psychological resilience relationship (H5, H5a–H5c) " section. Direct effects of emotional disturbances and life satisfaction on psychological resilience (H1–H3) The hypotheses were evaluated using Hayes’ PROCESS macro with 5,000 bootstrap samples. In the first step, the direct effects of emotional disturbances and life satisfaction on psychological resilience were examined. The results indicated that emotional disturbances had a statistically significant and negative direct effect on psychological resilience (β = −0.424, SE = 0.041, z = − 9.72, p < 0.001, 95% BC CI [− 0.485, − 0.309]), supporting Hypothesis 1. This finding suggests that higher levels of emotional disturbances are associated with lower levels of psychological resilience among earthquake survivors living in temporary shelters. In addition, life satisfaction was found to have a statistically significant and positive direct effect on psychological resilience (β = 0.185, SE = 0.030, z = 4.23, p < 0.001, 95% BC CI [0.071, 0.186]), providing support for Hypothesis 2. Together, emotional disturbances and life satisfaction explained approximately 23% of the variance in psychological resilience (R² = 0.228). However, the direct effect of emotional disturbances on life satisfaction was not statistically significant (β = −0.087, SE = 0.067, z = − 1.78, p = 0.077, 95% BC CI [− 0.264, 0.030]). Accordingly, Hypothesis 3, which proposed a negative effect of emotional disturbances on life satisfaction, was not supported. Mediating role of life satisfaction in the emotional disturbances–psychological resilience relationship (H4) In the second step, the mediating role of life satisfaction in the relationship between emotional disturbances and psychological resilience was examined using PROCESS Model 4. The bootstrapping analysis revealed that the indirect effect of emotional disturbances on psychological resilience through life satisfaction was not statistically significant (β = −0.016, SE = 0.009, z = − 1.63, p = 0.103, 95% BC CI [− 0.039, 0.002]). Because the confidence interval included zero, the mediating effect was not supported. Consistent with this finding, emotional disturbances explained only a very small proportion of the variance in life satisfaction (R² = 0.008). Therefore, Hypothesis 4, which proposed that life satisfaction mediates the relationship between emotional disturbances and psychological resilience, was rejected. Given the absence of a significant overall mediation effect, separate mediation analyses for the subdimensions of emotional disturbances (stress, depression, and anxiety) were not conducted. Moderating role of life satisfaction in the emotional disturbances–psychological resilience relationship (H5, H5a–H5c) In the third step, the moderate role of life satisfaction was examined using PROCESS Model 1. The interaction term between emotional disturbances and life satisfaction was found to have a statistically significant negative effect on psychological resilience (β = −0.094, SE = 0.037, z = − 2.34, p = 0.019, 95% BC CI [− 0.167, − 0.013]), supporting Hypothesis 5. Simple slope analyses demonstrated that the negative effect of emotional disturbances on psychological resilience was significant at low (β = −0.323, p < 0.001), medium (β = −0.397, p < 0.001), and high (β = −0.526, p < 0.001) levels of life satisfaction. Notably, the magnitude of this negative effect increased as life satisfaction increased, indicating a strengthening moderating role of life satisfaction. To further examine whether this moderating effect differed across specific emotional disturbance dimensions, separate moderation analyses were conducted for stress, depression, and anxiety. The results showed that stress had a significant negative direct effect on psychological resilience (β = −0.357, p < 0.001), and the interaction between stress and life satisfaction was also statistically significant (β = −0.092, p = 0.031), supporting Hypothesis 5a. Similarly, depression exerted a significant negative direct effect on psychological resilience (β = −0.424, p < 0.001), and its interaction with life satisfaction was significant (β = −0.096, p = 0.018), supporting Hypothesis 5b. Finally, anxiety was found to negatively predict psychological resilience (β = −0.423, p < 0.001), and the anxiety × life satisfaction interaction term was statistically significant (β = −0.096, p = 0.019), supporting Hypothesis 5c. Across all three models, simple conditional effect analyses consistently indicated that the negative impact of stress, depression, and anxiety on psychological resilience became stronger at higher levels of life satisfaction. These findings suggest that life satisfaction functions as a strengthening moderator rather than a buffering factor in the relationship between emotional disturbances and psychological resilience. Sociodemographic differences in emotional disturbances, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience In addition to the main hypothesis-driven analyses, supplementary comparisons were conducted to examine whether emotional disturbances, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience differed across key sociodemographic characteristics. Independent samples t-tests and one-way ANOVA analyses were employed to explore group differences based on gender, romantic relationship status, age (generation), and educational level. These analyses were performed to contextualize the primary findings and to better understand vulnerability patterns among earthquake survivors residing in temporary shelters. Gender differences Gender-based differences in emotional disturbances, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience were examined using independent samples t-tests. The results are presented in Table 2 . The analyses revealed statistically significant gender differences in several psychological variables. Female earthquake survivors reported significantly higher levels of depression (M = 1.06, SD = 0.87) compared to males (M = 0.86, SD = 0.73), t (406) = 2.48, p = 0.014, with a small effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.24). Similarly, anxiety levels were significantly higher among female participants (M = 1.00, SD = 0.83) than male participants (M = 0.82, SD = 0.73), t (406) = 2.21, p = 0.028, with a small effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.23). In contrast, no statistically significant gender difference was observed for stress levels ( p > 0.05), indicating comparable stress experiences among female and male earthquake survivors. Likewise, life satisfaction did not differ significantly by gender ( p > 0.05). Table 2. Independent sample t-test results for sex groups Variable Female, M (SD) Male, M (SD) Mean Differences (Female − Male) t-values p -values Cohen’s d Depression 1.06 (± 0.87) 0.86 (± 0.73) 0.20* 2.479 0.014 0.24 Anxiety 1.00 (± 0.83) 0.82 (± 0.73) 0.18* 2.210 0.028 0.23 Stress 1.06 (± 0.80) 0.91 (± 0.75) 0.15 1.889 0.060 0.19 Psychological resilience 2.96 (± 0.72) 3.20 (± 0.60) -0.24** 3.783 0.000 -0.38 Life satisfaction 2.46 (± 1.00) 2.43 (± 1.06) 0.03 0.243 0.102 0.16 Open in a new tab Values are presented as mean (M) and standard deviation (SD). * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 Regarding psychological resilience, male participants demonstrated significantly higher resilience levels (M = 3.20, SD = 0.60) than female participants (M = 2.96, SD = 0.72), t (406) = 3.78, p < 0.001. The associated effect size was small to moderate (Cohen’s d = − 0.38), suggesting a meaningful gender-based difference in resilience capacity. Overall, these findings indicate that female earthquake survivors residing in temporary shelters tend to experience higher levels of depression and anxiety and lower psychological resilience compared to males, whereas stress levels and life satisfaction appear to be similar across genders. Romantic relationship status Differences in emotional disturbances, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience according to romantic relationship status were examined using independent samples t -tests. The results of these analyses are presented in Table 3 . The findings indicated that married and single earthquake survivors did not differ significantly in terms of depression, anxiety, stress, or life satisfaction ( p > 0.05). Although single participants reported slightly higher levels of emotional disturbances and lower life satisfaction compared to married participants, these differences did not reach statistical significance. Table 3. Independent sample t-test results for romantic relationship groups Variable Married, M (SD) Single, M (SD) Mean Differences t-values p -values Cohen’s d Depression 0.85 (± 0.74) 1.01 (± 0.84) -0.16 -1.780 0.076 0.19 Anxiety 0.81 (± 0.74) 0.96 (± 0.80) -0.15 -1.834 0.067 0.20 Stress 0.92 (± 0.72) 1.02 (± 0.80) -0.10 -1.151 0.251 0.13 Psychological resilience 3.19 (± 0.72) 3.00 (± 0.70) 0.19 -2.52 0.012 -0.28 Life satisfaction 2.54 (± 1.07) 2.41 (± 1.01) 0.13 1.198 0.232 -0.13 Open in a new tab In contrast, a statistically significant difference emerged for psychological resilience. Married earthquake survivors demonstrated higher levels of psychological resilience (M = 3.19, SD = 0.72) than single survivors (M = 3.00, SD = 0.70), t (406) = − 2.52, p = 0.012. The corresponding effect size was small (Cohen’s d = − 0.28), indicating a modest but meaningful association between romantic relationship status and resilience. Overall, these results suggest that while romantic relationship status is not associated with differences in emotional distress or life satisfaction, being married is linked to higher psychological resilience among earthquake survivors living in temporary shelters. Age / generational differences To examine age-related differences in emotional disturbances, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience, participants were grouped into three generational cohorts: Generation X (aged 44 and above), Generation Y (aged 28–43), and Generation Z (aged 18–27). One-way ANOVA analyses were conducted, and statistically significant results are presented in Table 4 . The analyses indicated that age did not have a statistically significant effect on stress, depression, or life satisfaction ( p > 0.05). Although Generation Z participants reported descriptively higher levels of stress and depression and lower life satisfaction compared to Generations X and Y, these differences were not statistically significant. In contrast, significant generational differences were observed for anxiety and psychological resilience. Anxiety levels differed significantly across age groups, F (2, 405) = 3.484, p = 0.032. Post hoc comparisons revealed that Generation Z participants reported significantly higher anxiety levels (M = 0.99) than both Generation Y (MD = 0.20, p = 0.040, Cohen’s d = 0.27) and Generation X (MD = 0.19, p = 0.043, Cohen’s d = 0.25). The effect sizes indicated small but statistically meaningful differences. Similarly, psychological resilience differed significantly by age group, F (2, 405) = 7.019, p < 0.001. Generation Z participants demonstrated significantly lower psychological resilience (M = 2.96) compared to Generation Y (MD = − 0.20, p = 0.031, Cohen’s d = − 0.29) and Generation X (MD = − 0.40, p = 0.005, Cohen’s d = − 0.57). Effect size estimates ranged from small to moderate, suggesting a meaningful association between age and resilience levels. Overall, these findings indicate that younger earthquake survivors, particularly those in Generation Z, exhibit higher anxiety and lower psychological resilience compared to older cohorts, while no significant generational differences were observed for stress, depression, or life satisfaction. Educational level differences To examine differences in emotional disturbances, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience according to educational level, participants were categorized into three groups: less than secondary education (including illiterate individuals), secondary school graduates, and university graduates. One-way ANOVA analyses were conducted, and statistically significant findings are reported in Table 4 . The analyses revealed that educational level did not have a statistically significant effect on stress, depression, anxiety, or life satisfaction ( p > 0.05). Although participants with lower educational attainment reported descriptively higher levels of emotional distress and lower life satisfaction compared to those with higher education levels, these differences did not reach statistical significance. In contrast, educational level had a statistically significant effect on psychological resilience, F (2, 405) = 6.196, p = 0.002. Post hoc comparisons indicated that participants with less than secondary education exhibited significantly higher psychological resilience levels (M = 3.38) than both secondary school graduates (MD = 0.36, p = 0.006, Cohen’s d = 0.51) and university graduates (MD = 0.39, p = 0.002, Cohen’s d = 0.55). The effect sizes ranged from moderate to moderately strong, suggesting a meaningful association between educational level and psychological resilience. Overall, these findings indicate that while educational level is not significantly associated with emotional distress or life satisfaction, it is inversely related to psychological resilience, with lower-educated earthquake survivors demonstrating higher resilience levels than their more highly educated counterparts. Discussion This study examines the associations among emotional disorders, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience among disaster survivors living in temporary shelters following an earthquake. Rather than focusing solely on direct relationships, the findings highlight the complex and context-sensitive nature of post-disaster psychological adjustment. Consistent with prior disaster research emphasizing the multifaceted interplay between emotional distress and adaptive capacities [ 31 , 48 ], the present results suggest that psychological resilience in post-earthquake contexts cannot be understood independently of individuals’ subjective well-being and living conditions. In particular, the temporary shelter environment—characterized by uncertainty, disrupted social networks, and limited access to resources—appears to shape how emotional symptoms and life satisfaction are associated with resilience. By situating these relationships within a disaster-specific context, the study contributes to the literature by demonstrating that post-disaster psychological processes are not linear but rather embedded in broader social, environmental, and cultural conditions. Descriptive findings indicate that disaster survivors living in temporary shelters exhibit moderate levels of psychological resilience alongside low life satisfaction, while symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress generally remain at mild levels. This pattern is broadly consistent with prior research suggesting that, although post-disaster losses and adverse living conditions are often associated with diminished resilience, adaptive capacities may be partially preserved through contextual protective factors such as social support and institutional assistance [ 18 ]. In the present context, the moderate level of psychological resilience observed may be related to post-disaster support mechanisms, community solidarity, and crisis management efforts, which have been shown to buffer psychological strain in disaster-affected populations. In contrast, life satisfaction was found to be relatively low, a finding that aligns with previous studies documenting declines in subjective well-being following large-scale disasters [ 20 , 21 ]. The challenges inherent in temporary shelter environments—including inadequate housing conditions, disrupted social relationships, economic uncertainty, and prolonged ambiguity about the future—may help explain these low levels of life satisfaction [ 10 ]. Regarding emotional symptoms, stress emerged as the most prominent mood-related response, consistent with evidence identifying stress as a dominant psychological reaction in post-disaster setting [ 9 , 10 ]. Persistent uncertainty, resource constraints, and disruptions to daily routines may intensify stress responses, even when depressive and anxiety symptoms remain relatively mild. Taken together, these findings underscore the importance of post-disaster psychosocial interventions that not only enhance social and economic support but also prioritize stress-focused prevention and management strategies within temporary shelter contexts. The findings further indicate that women affected by the earthquake reported higher levels of depression and anxiety, along with lower psychological resilience, compared to men. This pattern is consistent with previous studies documenting gender-based differences in post-traumatic psychological responses [ 21 , 49 , 50 ]. Rather than attributing these differences to inherent emotional characteristics, the literature increasingly emphasizes the role of social positioning, caregiving responsibilities, and differential exposure to stressors in shaping women’s psychological vulnerability following disasters [ 51 ]. In the Turkish sociocultural context, women’s greater involvement in family caregiving roles and the heightened sense of responsibility for household and family well-being may intensify emotional strain in post-disaster conditions, potentially contributing to elevated anxiety and depressive symptoms and, in turn, lower levels of resilience. In terms of romantic relationship status, single individuals exhibited lower psychological resilience compared to married participants, a finding that aligns with prior research highlighting the protective role of close interpersonal relationships in disaster contexts [ 52 , 53 ]. This pattern can be interpreted within the framework of social support theory, which posits that emotional, instrumental, and psychological support from intimate partners can buffer the adverse effects of stress and anxiety, thereby fostering greater psychological resilience [ 37 ]. In contrast, individuals lacking such support networks may be more vulnerable to the psychological challenges associated with disaster-related disruptions. Generational differences also emerged, with Generation Z participants reporting higher anxiety levels and lower psychological resilience than individuals from Generations X and Y. This finding is consistent with international evidence suggesting that younger generations experience heightened emotional distress and lower overall well-being compared to their older counterparts [ 54 , 55 ]. Factors such as economic uncertainty, increased future-related expectations, and the transformation of social interactions through digital platforms may contribute to greater psychological fragility among younger individuals, particularly in the face of large-scale disruptions such as natural disasters. Finally, the observation that individuals with lower educational attainment demonstrated higher psychological resilience reflects the complex and context-dependent nature of the relationship between education and resilience. While higher education is often associated with enhanced cognitive coping resources, in disaster settings lower educational awareness and more limited expectations regarding future outcomes may, paradoxically, reduce perceived loss and psychological strain. These findings suggest that sociodemographic factors should be interpreted within their broader social, cultural, and structural contexts when examining post-disaster resilience. The findings indicate that higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress are associated with lower psychological resilience among earthquake survivors, a pattern that is consistent with the broader disaster psychology literature [ 31 , 48 ]. Previous studies have suggested that depressive symptoms are linked to reduced resilience by undermining motivation, hope, and problem-solving capacities, which are critical for adaptive functioning in post-disaster contexts. Similarly, heightened anxiety has been shown to constrain flexible coping strategies through persistent future-oriented worries and perceived uncertainty, thereby weakening individuals’ ability to adapt to adverse conditions [ 20 ]. Stress, which emerged as the most prominent emotional response in this study, has frequently been identified as a central psychological reaction following disasters; when sustained over time, stress may progressively deplete cognitive and emotional resources and limit adaptive capacity [ 21 , 56 ]. Importantly, the strength of these associations may be shaped by contextual factors specific to post-earthquake living conditions. Prolonged uncertainty, inadequate temporary shelter environments, limited access to basic resources, and disruptions to social support networks may intensify emotional distress and constrain individuals’ coping capacities, thereby amplifying the link between emotional symptoms and reduced resilience. Although prior research has demonstrated that social support and community cohesion can mitigate the psychological burden of disasters [ 38 ], such protective mechanisms may be insufficient or unevenly available in temporary shelter settings. Taken together, these findings suggest that post-disaster psychosocial interventions should move beyond general resilience-building approaches and incorporate targeted strategies addressing depression, anxiety, and stress as distinct yet interrelated components of psychological adjustment. Further, the findings suggest that higher levels of life satisfaction are positively associated with greater psychological resilience among earthquake survivors. This result is in line with the positive psychology literature, which emphasizes the role of subjective well-being in fostering adaptive psychological functioning under adverse conditions [ 20 , 34 , 35 ] Life satisfaction has been conceptualized as a cognitive evaluation of one’s overall quality of life, and previous research indicates that individuals reporting higher life satisfaction tend to exhibit greater emotional flexibility and more effective coping responses in the face of stress and trauma [ 20 , 21 ]. From this perspective, life satisfaction may function as a psychological resource that supports resilience by enabling individuals to reframe negative experiences and sustain hope during periods of crisis. Importantly, life satisfaction extends beyond individual-level well-being and is shaped by broader social and relational contexts, including social connectedness, a sense of belonging, and meaning-making processes [ 23 ]. In disaster settings, maintaining life satisfaction may therefore reflect not only personal coping capacities but also the availability of social and cultural resources that support psychological adjustment. The present findings suggest that life satisfaction may serve a protective role at both individual and collective levels, particularly in contexts characterized by prolonged uncertainty and loss. From a policy and practice standpoint, post-disaster psychosocial interventions may benefit from incorporating strategies aimed at enhancing life satisfaction, such as community-based programs that strengthen social solidarity, culturally sensitive meaning-focused counseling approaches, and initiatives that support shared cultural or spiritual practices. At the same time, the effectiveness of such strategies is likely to vary across cultural contexts, underscoring the importance of tailoring interventions to the sociocultural characteristics of affected populations. The study also demonstrates that emotional disorders—namely depression, anxiety, and stress—are significantly associated with lower levels of psychological resilience among earthquake survivors, consistent with the broader disaster psychology literature [ 18 , 31 , 48 ]. In post-disaster contexts, the cumulative burden of prolonged uncertainty, material loss, and disruptions to daily life may exacerbate emotional distress and constrain individuals’ adaptive capacities. Beyond individual-level adjustment, elevated emotional symptoms may also have broader social implications by straining interpersonal relationships, weakening community cohesion, and complicating collective recovery processes. From a policy and practice perspective, these findings highlight the importance of prioritizing early identification and targeted intervention for depression, anxiety, and stress within post-disaster psychosocial support systems. Addressing emotional distress in a timely and context-sensitive manner may not only strengthen individual psychological resilience but also contribute to more sustainable social recovery in disaster-affected communities. Previous research has frequently documented a negative association between life satisfaction and emotional disorders such as depression, anxiety, and stress, while also highlighting psychological resilience as a potential buffering mechanism in this relationship [ 36 ]. Contrary to these findings, the present study did not identify a mediating role of life satisfaction in the association between emotional disorders and psychological resilience among earthquake survivors. While this result appears to diverge from dominant assumptions within the positive psychology literature regarding the protective function of life satisfaction, it may be better understood considering the distinctive characteristics of post-disaster contexts. In disaster settings, the determinants of life satisfaction are likely to differ from those operating under normal living conditions. For individuals residing in temporary shelters, life satisfaction may be shaped primarily by the fulfillment of basic needs such as safety, housing stability, access to resources, and social support, rather than by broader evaluations of personal achievement or long-term well-being. As a result, even when individuals report relatively low life satisfaction, this cognitive evaluation may not be sufficiently salient or stable to buffer the psychological impact of depression, anxiety, and stress on resilience. Moreover, prolonged uncertainty and chronic stress following traumatic events may distort individuals’ perceptions of life satisfaction, thereby weakening its potential protective role. These findings suggest that the buffering effects of life satisfaction may be context-dependent and less pronounced in environments characterized by acute and persistent adversity. One of the most notable findings of this study is that life satisfaction, rather than functioning as a protective buffer in the relationship between emotional disorders and psychological resilience, appears to intensify this relationship in a manner consistent with the “vulnerability hypothesis.” Specifically, higher levels of life satisfaction were associated with a stronger negative association between depression, anxiety, stress, and psychological resilience among earthquake survivors. This pattern contrasts with the dominant view in the literature, which generally conceptualizes life satisfaction as a psychological resource that enhances well-being and supports resilience [ 28 , 36 ]. This unexpected finding may be best understood within the unique context of post-disaster experiences. Life satisfaction is inherently based on individuals’ subjective evaluations of their life circumstances, expectations, and perceived stability. In the aftermath of a large-scale disaster, individuals who previously reported higher life satisfaction may experience a more pronounced disruption of these evaluations due to sudden losses, prolonged uncertainty, and drastic changes in living conditions. This pattern could also be interpreted through the psychological concept of a contrast effect: for individuals who perceived their pre-disaster life as highly satisfying, the sharp and sudden contrast with their post-disaster reality may be especially jarring, potentially intensifying feelings of despair, helplessness, and loss of control, and thereby amplifying the association between emotional distress and reduced resilience. In this sense, life satisfaction may not uniformly operate as a protective factor; under conditions of extreme and persistent adversity, it may also reflect heightened sensitivity to loss and unmet expectations. From an applied perspective, this finding suggests that post-disaster psychosocial interventions should not focus exclusively on enhancing life satisfaction without simultaneously addressing underlying emotional disorders. While life satisfaction is often considered a valuable target in positive psychology–oriented interventions, the present results indicate that, in certain contexts, it may coexist with increased psychological vulnerability if emotional distress remains unaddressed. Accordingly, the role of life satisfaction in post-disaster adjustment appears to be context-dependent and potentially shaped by socio-cultural and environmental conditions. Future research should further examine this interaction using more comprehensive and longitudinal models to clarify whether the observed vulnerability effect represents a disaster-specific dynamic or a broader psychological mechanism. In conclusion, the findings of this study suggest that the psychological resilience of earthquake survivors is shaped by complex and context-dependent processes. The results indicate that higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress are associated with lower psychological resilience, while life satisfaction may, under certain post-disaster conditions, function in ways that differ from its traditionally assumed buffering role. These findings highlight that core assumptions of positive psychology may not uniformly apply in disaster contexts and that the psychological functions of life satisfaction can vary depending on situational and environmental factors. Furthermore, the study underscores the importance of sociodemographic characteristics—including gender, marital status, generational cohort, and educational levels in understanding post-disaster psychological adjustment. Together, these results point to the need for post-disaster psychosocial interventions that are multidimensional, context-sensitive, and tailored to the diverse needs of affected populations. Interventions that combine stress management, early identification, and treatment of emotional distress, strengthening of community-based social support systems, and carefully designed approaches aimed at supporting life satisfaction while mitigating psychological vulnerability may be particularly beneficial. Such integrative strategies have the potential to support not only short-term coping but also more sustainable psychological recovery following large-scale disasters. Limitations This research was conducted within certain limitations, and the findings should be evaluated in this context. First, the sample is limited to individuals living in temporary shelters in Hatay province following the 2023 Kahramanmaraş-centered earthquakes. This limits the generalizability of the results in terms of geography, culture, and sociodemographic. It should be noted that communities affected by different disasters in different provinces may not experience similar psychological effects. Second, the research data was collected using a cross-sectional design; therefore, it is not possible to make definitive judgments about causal relationships between variables. In particular, the results obtained in mediation and moderation analyses should not be confused with cause-and-effect relationships, as they do not involve temporal sequence. Thirdly, the data collection tools used in the study are self-report based; participants’ responses may have been influenced by social desirability, respondent bias, or their momentary emotional state. This increases the risk of bias in the measurements. Fourth, the study’s cross-sectional design means that the generational differences observed (e.g., between Gen Z and Gen X) could be attributable to either true cohort effects (distinct characteristics of people born in a certain era) or simply developmental age effects (the natural psychological state of being younger versus older). A longitudinal study would be required to disentangle these effects. Finally, the study focused only on factors such as psychological resilience, life satisfaction, and mood disorders; other determinants such as social support, traumatic life history, or type of post-disaster intervention were not included in the model. Therefore, the possibility that external variables may have influenced the relationships obtained should not be overlooked. Despite all these limitations, the study makes important contributions to understanding post-disaster psychological processes and developing intervention programs. In particular, the finding that life satisfaction unexpectedly supports the “vulnerability hypothesis” is a unique contribution to the literature. However, it is also clear that this result needs to be tested with different samples and more complex structural models. Future research using longitudinal designs, studies supported by qualitative methods, and studies conducted in different cultural contexts could reveal in greater depth how life satisfaction reflects on the psychological resilience processes of disaster victims. Conclusion This study examined the emotional-mood disorders, life satisfaction, and psychological resilience levels of disaster victims living in temporary shelters in Hatay following the 2023 Kahramanmaraş earthquakes and revealed the relationships between these variables. The results indicate that depression, anxiety, and stress significantly and negatively affect psychological resilience, while life satisfaction is a factor that strengthens psychological resilience. However, the fact that life satisfaction acts as a regulator that increases vulnerability rather than playing the expected buffering role in the relationship between mood disorders and psychological resilience is a noteworthy result specific to the disaster context. The research results show that protecting and strengthening the psychological resilience of disaster victims in post-disaster processes is not possible with one-dimensional approaches. In particular, the fact that relatively more vulnerable groups, such as women, younger generations, and single individuals, exhibit higher levels of mood disorders and lower levels of psychological resilience highlights the need for interventions to be targeted and group specific. The unexpected findings regarding the relationship between educational level and psychological resilience point to the “resilience paradox,” indicating that the social and cultural context is decisive in this relationship. These findings have important implications for disaster management practices. In post-disaster temporary shelters, it is vital to plan not only for the fulfillment of physical needs, but also for psychosocial support such as stress management, coping with depression and anxiety, and community solidarity programs aimed at increasing life satisfaction. Strengthening social support mechanisms can play a key role in maintaining psychological resilience. Furthermore, the results are noteworthy from the perspective of the insurance sector. Supporting disaster insurance policies with coverage that address not only economic losses, but also psychosocial vulnerabilities can accelerate the recovery process for disaster victims. Including psychological support services in insurance policies can provide a holistic approach to compensating disaster victims for both material and emotional losses. At the policy level, post-disaster interventions should be multidimensional, consider the needs of different sociodemographic groups, and institutionalize psychosocial support programs as priority objectives. Furthermore, the emergence of life satisfaction as a factor that increases vulnerability in the context of disasters indicates that policymakers need to develop strategies that focus not only on increasing life satisfaction but also on reducing mood disorders. In this context, financially and institutionally supporting programs aimed at strengthening psychological resilience in disaster management planning can be considered a critical requirement for building sustainable disaster resilience. By understanding these complex, context-specific dynamics, we can move beyond one-size-fits-all interventions and build post-disaster support systems that are truly equipped to foster sustainable psychological recovery. Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to all participants who took part in the study and generously devoted their time to the research. Authors' contributions All authors contributed to the conceptualization and design of the study. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by E.G, M.HT, and M.B.B The first draft of the manuscript was written by Ö.D, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved of the final manuscript. Funding Not applicable. Data availability The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Declarations Ethical approval and consent to participate Permission was obtained from the researchers who developed the measurement tools used in the study. Ethical approval for the conduct of the research and data collection was obtained from the relevant university scientific research ethics committee. In addition, informed voluntary consent was obtained from all participants. Participants were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time without any consequences. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Footnotes Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. References 1. Alexander D. Confronting catastrophe: new perspectives on natural disasters. 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