Synergetic properties of advanced materials for high-power and high-temperature applications.

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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Discov Nano . 2026 Apr 10;21(1):112. doi: 10.1186/s11671-026-04479-9 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Synergetic properties of advanced materials for high-power and high-temperature applications Wubshet Getachew Mengesha Wubshet Getachew Mengesha 1 Department of Physics, Woldia University, Woldia, Ethiopia Find articles by Wubshet Getachew Mengesha 1, ✉ , Kaveer Nagessar Kaveer Nagessar 2 Department of Physics, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Find articles by Kaveer Nagessar 2 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Department of Physics, Woldia University, Woldia, Ethiopia 2 Department of Physics, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa ✉ Corresponding author. Received 2025 Sep 6; Accepted 2026 Feb 18; Collection date 2026 Dec. © The Author(s) 2026 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ . PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC13069052  PMID: 41961386 Abstract This paper explores the advancements, applications, and challenges of advanced thermal and magnetic materials in high-power and high-temperature environments. These materials, including high-temperature superconductors, ferromagnetic materials, and magnetic alloys, are crucial for industries such as energy, aerospace, automotive, and electronics. They are crucial for managing heat, converting energy, and storing it, which boosts the efficiency and dependability of renewable energy systems, electric vehicles, and aerospace technologies. Nonetheless, they encounter major obstacles, such as material breakdown under harsh conditions, expensive production, and sustain- ability issues. The study explores essential thermal properties like heat capacity, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, and thermal stress, highlighting the significance of ceramics, composites, metals, carbon nanotubes, and phase-change materials. It also investigates magnetic properties like permeability, coercivity, and remanence, essential for high-power applications. Emerging technologies such as nanotechnology, additive manufacturing, and machine learning offer promising solutions to overcome existing limitations. The review highlights the need for interdisciplinary research to develop sustainable and cost-effective materials capable of withstanding extreme conditions while maintaining performance. It underscores the importance of continuing research and development to address global energy and environmental challenges, paving the way for next-generation technologies. In summary, cutting-edge thermal and magnetic materials are set to transform industries, paving the way for more efficient and dependable technological advancements. Keywords: Thermal materials, Magnetic materials, High-power applications, Machine learning, Emerging technologies and materials, Sustainability Introduction The demand for higher efficiency and power density in energy, aerospace, and transportation sectors necessitates materials that can endure extreme thermal and electromagnetic stresses. Advanced thermal and magnetic materials are central to addressing this challenge, enabling critical technologies ranging from electric vehicle powertrains and renewable energy systems to aerospace propulsion and high-performance electronics [ 1 , 2 ]. Their capability to operate reliably under severe conditions renders them indispensable for meeting the stringent requirements of high-power and high-temperature environments. Crucially, performance in such regimes is not determined by isolated material properties but by the synergistic interplay between thermal management and magnetic functionality. Efficient heat dissipation preserves magnetic properties by preventing thermal degradation, while optimized magnetic design minimizes parasitic heating—a bidirectional coupling that is fundamental to system reliability and overall efficiency [ 3 , 4 ]. Transformative progress in this field is being driven by interdisciplinary methodologies. Machine learning (ML) has emerged as a powerful tool for the rapid prediction of key properties such as thermal stability and magnetic coercivity, enabling the screening of vast material databases and significantly accelerating the discovery process [ 5 , 6 ]. Concurrently, additive manufacturing (AM) facilitates the precise fabrication of complex, graded geometries, allowing for the creation of material architectures specifically tailored for extreme-environment applications [ 7 , 8 ]. At the material level, notable innovations include nanostructured graphene-reinforced composites for enhanced thermal conductivity, high-entropy alloys offering exceptional thermal stability and mechanical strength, and second-generation high-temperature superconductors (HTS) such as yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO), which have set new bench- marks for critical current density and operational temperature [ 9 – 11 ]. Despite these significant advances, critical challenges persist include thermal degradation and demagnetization phenomena as operating conditions approach material limits, the economic and supply-chain vulnerabilities associated with the scarcity of critical rare-earth elements, and the intrinsic difficulty of co-optimizing conflicting properties, such as achieving both high thermal conductivity and high magnetic saturation [ 12 – 15 ]. This review suggests that the next substantial dive in performance for high-power, high-temperature systems will arise not from incremental improvements to individual materials, but from the deliberate design and integration of material systems that explicitly exploit thermal-magnetic synergy supported by the synergistic application of enabling technologies: ML-driven predictive design and additive manufacturing for realizing sophisticated multi-material architectures. Practical manifestations of these advancements are already evident. Advanced thermal interface materials, often nanocomposite-based, effectively reduce junction temperatures and enhance reliability in high-power electronics [ 7 ]. Integrated ML-AM workflows are accelerating the prototyping and optimization of magnetic components [ 8 ]. Nanostructured composites continue to push the boundaries of thermal conductivity, while hybrid ceramic-metal systems demonstrate remarkable stability at temperatures exceeding 800 °C [ 9 , 16 ]. In the realm of magnetic materials, magnesium diboride (MgB 2 ) superconductors achieve critical current densities of 10 5 A/cm 2 at 20 K, and iron-cobalt (Fe–Co) alloys with saturation magnetizations of 2.4 T are instrumental in boosting the power density of electric motors [ 10 , 17 ]. Machine learning further revolutionizes materials science by accurately predicting thermal transport properties and magnetic behavior, often leveraging data generated from high-fidelity computational methods such as density functional theory (DFT) [ 18 , 19 ]. DFT itself is a foundational quantum mechanical methodology used to investigate the electronic structure of materials at the atomic scale. It predicts crucial properties—including structural stability, electronic behavior, and thermoelectric performance—with manageable computational cost, thereby revealing material synergy through the simulation of compositional and structural variations [ 20 , 21 ]. Recent advances in exchange-correlation functionals and real-space implementations have enhanced the predictive accuracy of DFT, enabling more reliable virtual screening and optimization of candidate materials for extreme environments [ 22 , 23 ]. Ultimately, the development of sustainable energy solutions is fundamentally reliant on the continued advancement of thermal and magnetic materials to ensure reliable, efficient, and durable performance under the intense thermal and electromagnetic stresses characteristic of next-generation high-power technologies [ 24 – 26 ]. This paper comprehensively reviews the synergetic properties of advanced thermal and magnetic materials, aiming to: elucidate fundamental thermal and magnetic properties governing extreme condition performance; analyze key material classes and their interdependent behavior; explore synergistic applications across energy, aerospace, automotive, and electronics; and finally discuss challenges and future perspectives, emphasizing the role of ma- chine learning and additive manufacturing. While prior reviews catalog thermal or magnetic materials separately, this work uniquely synthesizes their synergistic interactions in high power, high temperature regimes, integrating advanced material properties with enabling technologies like ML and AM by representative equations, tables, diagrams as well as simulated figures. By bridging fundamental property analysis with system level applications, the review provides a holistic framework for developing resilient, efficient, and sustainable high-power technologies. This review is structured to provide a systematic examination of the synergetic properties and applications of advanced thermal and magnetic materials. Section 2 explores the fundamental synergistic mechanisms governing thermal-magnetic coupling in high-power, high-temperature systems. Section 3 details the key thermal mate- rial properties—heat capacity, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, and thermal stress—along with the major material types including ceramics, composites, metals, carbon nanotubes, and phase-change materials. Section 4 examines magnetic material properties such as magnetization, permeability, coercivity, and remanence, covering soft and hard magnetic materials, high-temperature superconductors, and nanocrystalline alloys. Section 5 presents synergistic applications across key sectors including energy, aerospace, automotive, and electronics. Section 6 dis- cusses emerging technologies such as machine learning, additive manufacturing, and novel materials like MXenes and high-entropy alloys. Finally, Sect. 7 addresses current challenges and future perspectives, while the last section offers concluding remarks. Through this comprehensive structure, we aim to bridge material fundamentals with system-level applications, providing a holistic reference for researchers working at the intersection of thermal management and magnetic performance in extreme environments. Having established the critical role of advanced materials in addressing high-power and high-temperature challenges, we now turn our focus to the fundamental properties and classifications of thermal and magnetic materials that underpin their performance in extreme environments. Synergetic mechanism in high-power high-temperature systems Thermal and magnetic properties interact significantly in high-power and high-temperature systems, often influencing each other in complex ways. In high-power wireless charging systems, optimizing magnetic layouts reduces thermal gradients and hotspots in ferrite structures, preventing thermal failure and improving efficiency [ 27 ]. Magnetic interactions also affect thermoelectric properties, where spin and quantum effects under magnetic fields can enhance thermopower and performance, especially near critical temperatures, demonstrating synergy between magnetic ordering and thermal transport [ 28 , 29 ]. High-temperature magnetic materials, such as high-entropy alloys with rare-earth elements, maintain stable ferromagnetic ordering and magnetic loss at elevated temperatures, showing that magnetic properties can be engineered to remain robust under thermal stress [ 30 ]. In electrical connectors and motors, ferromagnetic properties influence temperature rise through magnetic hysteresis and resistivity changes, while temperature variations affect magnetic remanence and loss, indicating bidirectional thermal-magnetic coupling [ 31 , 32 ]. Advanced materials for such applications rely on synergistic optimization of electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and mechanical robustness. Thermoelectric materials benefit from strategies such as nano-microstructure control, alloying, and doping to simultaneously reduce lattice thermal conductivity and enhance power factor, im- proving the figure of merit (zT) and device efficiency. For example, Cu-alloying in Bi 2 Te 3 -based materials enhances both thermoelectric performance and mechanical strength through optimized carrier concentration and phonon scattering [ 33 , 34 ]. Similarly, PbTe-based systems benefit from Na 2 S-assisted synthesis, which introduces hierarchical porosity and doping to reduce thermal conductivity while maintaining electrical transport [ 35 , 36 ]. Hybrid and composite materials, including organic-inorganic hybrids and nanostructured superlattices, exhibit synergistic effects that improve thermal and electrical properties for energy harvesting and thermal management. Overall, the interplay between structural design, compositional tuning, and defect engineering is critical for developing materials that perform efficiently under high-power, high-temperature conditions [ 36 – 38 ]. Thermal–magnetic coupling: demonstrating synergistic effects Thermal–magnetic coupling, including magnetocaloric and thermomagnetic effects, quantitatively demonstrates synergy by linking magnetic field changes to measurable thermal responses and vice versa. In Co-based full-Heusler alloys, spin fluctuation and magnon drag mechanisms enhance thermopower beyond conventional limits, achieving large transverse thermoelectric voltages under small temperature gradients [ 37 ]. Ni–Mn–Ga and NiMnIn alloys undergo sharp magnetic phase transitions near room temperature, enabling thermomagnetic generators (TMGs) that convert temperature differences into mechanical motion and electrical power with high power density and cycling stability; for example, NiMnIn exhibits a magnetization change of Δ M ≈ 80 emu/g over a 10 K span, directly translating thermal input into magnetic work [ 38 , 39 ]. In high-speed permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSMs), electromagnetic-thermal bidirectional coupling models predict temperature distributions with <5% error, showing that optimized cooling structures maintain mag- net temperatures below 50.9 C under high-power loads, thereby preserving magnetic performance and preventing demagnetization [ 40 – 42 ]. Homogenized magneto-thermal simulations of foil windings efficiently capture Joule losses and temperature-dependent resistivity, crucial for high-frequency power electronics where thermal management directly impacts magnetic efficiency [ 43 ]. These cases illustrate numerical synergy: magnetic transitions drive thermal energy conversion, while thermal design stabilizes magnetic properties, collectively enhancing system efficiency, power density, and reliability in extreme environments. Thermal–magnetic coupling effect in high power high temperature application of advanced materials The interplay between thermal and magnetic phenomena in advanced materials is crucial for high power and high temperature applications, with significant effects such as magnetocaloric and thermomagnetic coupling. Magnetocaloric materials exhibit thermal responses to magnetic fields enabling efficient solid-state cooling and energy conversion, with recent advances utilizing synchrotron and neutron techniques to optimize performance [ 44 , 45 ]. Magnetic materials also demonstrate unique thermal expansion behaviors, including negative thermal expansion (NTE), which can be controlled by tuning magnetic transitions and exchange interactions, allowing design of materials with tailored thermal properties [ 46 , 47 ]. Thermomagnetic effects like the anomalous Nernst effect enable transverse thermoelectric generation, converting temperature gradients into charge currents, promising for thermal energy harvesting and heat-flux sensing [ 48 , 49 ]. At the nanoscale, strong magnon-phonon coupling in van der Waals magnets modifies thermal transport near magnetic phase transitions, enhancing heat dissipation in devices. Furthermore, magneto-thermal coupling in composites facilitates efficient heat management and reversible shape transformations in high-power electronics and aerospace applications [ 50 – 52 ]. In high-power high-temperature systems, synergy refers to the mutually reinforcing interaction where th0ermal management stabilizes magnetic performance, and optimized magnetic properties reduce thermal losses, leading to enhanced overall system efficiency, reliability, and durability under extreme conditions. This interdependence is critical in applications such as electric motors, aerospace propulsion, and energy conversion systems [ 1 , 3 , 4 ]. The synergy operates through three primary pathways: Thermal → Magnetic stabilization : High thermal conductivity materials (e.g.,SiC, graphene composites) dissipate heat efficiently, preventing magnetic materials from reaching their Curie temperature, thereby preserving magnetization and coercivity [ 53 , 54 ]. Magnetic → Thermal Management : Soft magnetic materials with low hysteresis losses (e.g., Fe-Si-B nanocrystalline alloys) reduce eddy current heating, thereby mitigating thermal stress and material degradation [ 1 , 55 ]. Integrated material design : Advanced composites and hybrid systems (e.g., CNT-reinforced magnetic alloys, ceramic-metal composites) simultaneously tailor thermal and magnetic properties to meet specific application demands, enabling multifunctional performance [ 3 , 56 ]. Figure 1 visualizes the synergistic loop where thermal properties (conductivity, stability, expansion) and magnetic properties (permeability, coercivity, Curie temperature) interact bidirectionally. This interaction enables advanced material systems—such as high-temperature superconductors, nanocomposites, and phase-change magnetic materials—to achieve performance metrics unattainable through isolated property optimization. The outcome is enhanced system efficiency, reliability, and miniaturization across energy, aerospace, automotive, and electronics applications [ 10 , 17 , 57 ]. Fig. 1. Open in a new tab Conceptual diagram of thermal–magnetic synergy in high-power/high-temperature systems. The model illustrates bidirectional interactions between thermal and magnetic properties, their material-level manifestations, and the resulting system-level benefits Fundamental properties of thermal and magnetic materials Selecting materials for high-power and high-temperature applications requires a thorough evaluation of their thermal, chemical, magnetic, and mechanical properties, as well as cost considerations. The fast-paced advancement of electronics also calls for enhanced thermal management solutions. To address this, novel materials with enhanced properties are crucial. Cost-effective production using new chemicals and techniques is essential. Successful integration hinges on precisely designed materials and interfaces. Optimizing performance requires careful control of critical material properties through advanced metrology [ 58 , 59 ]. These properties must ensure that the material can withstand various stresses, including exposure to chemicals, extreme heat, corrosion, and pressure. Cutting-edge thermal and magnetic materials are at the forefront of this transformation, significantly enhancing performance and efficiency for high-power applications. The growing demand for electric vehicles, renewable energy systems, and high-performance electronics is increasing the need for efficient energy storage and advanced materials with unique properties, such as thermal, magnetic, mechanical, and electronic capabilities. By fully understanding the properties and principles of thermal materials, it is possible to make informed decisions when selecting materials for specific applications, ensuring optimal performance and efficiency [ 24 , 60 , 61 ]. Advanced thermal and magnetic materials (e.g., ceramics, composites, superconductors) have played a pivotal role for high-power/high-temperature applications in energy, aerospace, and electronics for enhancing thermal management, energy efficiency, and performance under extreme conditions [ 57 ]. The global demand for more efficient and large-scale energy storage has driven significant research in next-generation batteries and innovative electrode materials. The future energy depends critically on the development of innovative energy storage materials for maximizing the potential of energy sources. Advanced energy storage systems are promising for addressing key grid challenges by improving stability and resilience across the entire network. In the field of nanostructured materials for energy storage, reducing materials to the nanoscale leads to substantial changes in their physical, chemical, and electronic properties. These modifications are crucial for the advancement of energy materials and the meeting of the increasing demands of modern applications. While thermal and magnetic materials are often interdependent in practical applications, understanding their characteristics is essential. Materials designed for high-temperature applications must withstand thermal stress, resist degradation, and maintain structural integrity. The thermal properties of a material describe its characteristics and behaviors related to heat and temperature [ 60 , 62 , 63 , 64 ]. The characteristics of thermal and magnetic materials are essential for numerous applications, and analyzing these properties requires a detailed analysis of their thermal behavior, magnetic interactions, and relevance to real-world uses [ 65 , 66 ]. In the following sections, the specific thermal materials properties—such as heat capacity, thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, and thermal stress are described to excel in demanding scenarios. Thermal materials properties Advanced thermal and magnetic materials must have specific thermal properties to ensure optimal performance, reliability, and durability. These properties include heat capacity, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, and thermal stress, which are critical for designing materials that perform effectively in demanding environments [ 62 , 67 , 68 ]. Understanding these properties [ 9 , 10 , 16 , 69 , 70 , 71 ] is essential for applications in thermal management, material selection, and energy efficiency, as they directly impact thermal expansion, conductivity, and thermoelectric effects in various materials [ 72 , 73 ]. Identifying the properties and characteristics of materials is crucial for developing solutions that meet high-power and temperature demands in industries such as materials manufacturing, power generation, and aerospace, which rely heavily on high-temperature operations. Effective performance at elevated temperatures and power is essential and depends on creating materials capable of withstanding the specific mechanical and environmental stresses of each application [ 74 ]. These properties are defined below and are essential for applications in thermal management and energy efficiency. Heat capacity Heat capacity is a fundamental thermal property that quantifies the heat energy required to change a material’s temperature. For advanced materials operating in high-power, high-temperature environments, a high heat capacity is advantageous as it enables the absorption and storage of significant thermal energy. This characteristic is crucial for maintaining stable operating temperatures, mitigating thermal transients, and preventing overheating, which directly enhances system reliability and energy efficiency [ 62 , 67 ]. The heat capacity C is defined by the differential relationship between heat input and temperature change: 1 where dQ represents an infinitesimal amount of heat energy added and dT is the resulting incremental temperature change. On a microscopic scale, when a material absorbs heat, the energy increases the vibrational, rotational, and sometimes electronic degrees of freedom of the atoms within the lattice, leading to an increase in internal energy and, consequently, temperature. Materials with high heat capacity, such as certain composites, heavy metal alloys, and ceramics, can absorb substantial thermal energy with minimal temperature rise. This property acts as a thermal buffer, stabilizing systems against rapid temperature spikes commonly encountered in high-power applications like electric vehicle power trains, aerospace propulsion, and concentrated solar power receivers [ 15 , 75 ]. The ability to dampen thermal fluctuations reduces thermal gradients within components, thereby lowering thermally induced stresses and extending service life. In the context of thermal energy storage and management, advanced phase change materials exemplify the strategic use of high latent heat capacity. These materials absorb or release large amounts of energy during isothermal phase transitions (e.g., solid–liquid), providing exceptional thermal buffering and enabling precise temperature control in systems prone to intense periodic heating [ 76 , 77 ]. The discovery and optimization of materials with tailored heat capacities have been significantly accelerated by computational and machine learning approaches. Predictive models can screen vast compositional spaces to identify candidates with exceptionally high specific or volumetric heat capacities by analyzing atomic bonding, lattice dynamics, and electronic structure [ 78 ]. Furthermore, advanced estimation models that incorporate vibrational spectra, electronic contributions, and anharmonic effects allow for accurate prediction of heat capacity across wide temperature ranges, which is critical for the informed design of materials for extreme environments [ 79 ]. Ultimately, the effective design of materials for high-power, high-temperature applications requires a holistic optimization of thermal properties. Heat capacity must be balanced alongside high thermal conductivity for efficient heat dissipation, a low coefficient of thermal expansion to minimize mechanical stress, and sufficient mechanical strength. This integrated approach ensures materials can not only withstand intense and cyclic thermal loads but also contribute to overall system efficiency and durability [ 80 , 81 ]. Thermal expansion Thermal expansion describes a material’s dimensional change with temperature, critically affecting structural integrity in high-temperature environments. This behavior is essential for designing materials that withstand thermal stress without failure [ 62 , 67 , 82 ]. The linear expansion relationship is given by: 2 where α is the coefficient of thermal expansion. Materials with low α , such as iron–nickel alloys and ceramics, minimize stress under extreme conditions. In magnetic materials (e.g.,SmCo,NdFeB), excessive expansion can disrupt magnetic alignment or cause mechanical failure. Low-expansion materials (e.g. graphite composites, Invar alloys) are preferred in thermal management systems, aerospace components, and high-power applications for stability un- der thermal cycling [ 83 , 84 ]. Graphite exhibits an anisotropic thermal expansion behavior is temperature-dependent and follows distinct heating and cooling paths up to 3000 K [ 85 ]. Microstructure, flake morphology and graphite content influence CTE; increased graphitic content and coarser graphite generally lower thermal expansion [ 86 , 87 ]. Graphite-metal composites can exhibit low or even negative expansion perpendicular to flake orientation due to mechanical interactions, useful for high temperature applications requiring controlled expansion [ 88 ]. Iron-nickel alloys with high nickel content (e.g.,35% Ni austenitic cast iron) have α values between 3.0–4.0 × 10 −6 K −1 , which can be reduced through annealing to minimize nickel segregation [ 89 ]. Phase transformations and precipitation behavior are influenced by heating methods; heat-conduction heating provides more accurate isothermal transformation data than electromagnetic induction. Managing the thermal expansion mismatch between graphite and iron–nickel alloys is critical to avoid thermomechanical stress in high-power, high-temperature applications [ 90 ]. Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity is a material’s capacity to transfer heat, a crucial property in energy technologies. Materials with high thermal conductivity are essential for efficient heat conduction and dissipation, with examples including graphene, carbon nanotubes, and ceramics such as silicon carbide and aluminum nitride, which are ideal for high temperature applications [ 91 ]. Microscopically, heat conduction occurs via lattice vibrations (phonons), electrons (metals), gas molecules (porous media), or photons (infrared materials) [ 3 , 92 , 93 ]. The mathematical expression of heat flux is given by Fourier’s law: 3 where q is heat flux (W / m 2 ), k is thermal conductivity (W / m·K), and dT/dx is the temperature gradient (K / m). The negative sign indicates heat flows from high to low temperature. Materials with high k enable greater heat flux for a given gradient. High-thermal-conductivity materials prevent overheating in electronics and optimize heat transfer in industrial systems. In aerospace, silicon carbide (SiC) ceramics ( k ≈ 120–200 W/m·K) dissipate heat from hypersonic vehicle surfaces, preventing structural failure during reentry. Graphene-reinforced composites ( k ≈ 3000 W/m·K) manage heat in high-power electronics, reducing thermal throttling in 5G base stations [ 62 , 82 , 91 ]. To ensure realistic comparison, heat flux values are recalculated using a standardized temperature gradient with validated thermal conductivities: brick ( k ≈0.7–1.3 W/m·K, q ≈35–65 W/m 2 ); steel ( k ≈50 W/m·K, q ≈2500 W/m 2 ); aluminum ( k ≈ 235 W/m·K, q ≈ 11750 W/m 2 ); copper ( k ≈ 400 W/m·K, q ≈ 20000 W/m 2 ); silicon carbide ( k ≈120–200 W/m·K, q ≈6000–10000 W/m 2 ); and graphene ( k ≈2000–3000 W/m·K, q ≈100000–150000 W/m 2 ) [ 3 , 53 , 54 , 91 ]. Recent advances further support these ranges: graphene films exhibit thermal conductivities up to 1781 W/mK for films thicker than 100 µm, enabling ultra-high heat flux densities around 2000 W/cm 2 [ 94 ]. Ultrathick graphene films (200 µm) maintain high conductivity (1224 W/mK) for high-frequency, high-power devices [ 95 ]. Aluminum/graphene composites show enhanced thermal interface performance, with conductivity increasing from 11.7 W/mK at 25 °C to 20.9 W/mK at 100 °C [ 96 ]. Graphene coatings on aluminum improve heat dissipation by increasing surface emissivity and reducing temperature under flux [ 97 , 98 ]. For bricks, graphene nanocomposite bricks can be heated to 160 °C with high thermal efficiency (88%) and improved mechanical strength [ 99 ]. Mixtures of aluminum oxide and reduced graphene oxide nanoparticles can enhance critical heat flux by up to 473%, indicating synergistic effects for high heat flux applications [ 100 , 101 ]. Figure 2 visualizes heat flux and compares materials by thermal properties. The horizontal axis denotes position in Fig. 2. Open in a new tab A visualization of heat flux and a comparison of various materials based on their thermal properties meters. Heat flux q, defined as the rate of thermal energy transfer, flows from high to low temperature, as indicated by the negative sign in Fourier’s law. For a fixed temperature gradient ( dT/dx ), the heat flux magnitude is directly proportional to the material’s thermal conductivity k . Thus, higher k yields greater q as expressed on heat flux equation ( 3 ). Table 1 compiles the characteristic ranges of heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and thermal expansion for material classes used in high-power, high-temperature systems. From ultra-conductive carbon nanotubes to insulating bricks and specialized alloys, the data reveals the distinct thermophysical profiles necessary for thermal management and structural integrity in extreme environments. This quantitative overview supports the informed selection of materials based on application-specific requirements [ 3 , 25 , 62 , 91 ]. Table 1. Typical thermal property ranges for key material classes used in high-power and high-temperature applications Material class Heat capa city (J/kg·K) Thermal conductivity (W/m·K) Thermal expansion (10 −6 K −1 ) References Ceramics (SiC, AlN) 700–1200 120–320 4–8 [ 53 , 62 , 82 , 102 ] Metals and Alloys (Cu, Fe–Co) 380–900 20–400 10–25 [ 53 , 83 , 91 , 103 ] Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 600–800 2000–3500 0–2 [ 3 , 54 , 94 , 104 ] PCMs (Molten Salts) 1500–2000 0.5–2 10–30 [ 25 , 59 , 76 , 105 ] Polymer Composites (CNT/Epoxy) 800–1500 1–10 20–60 [ 3 , 77 , 106 , 107 ] Soft Magnetic Alloys (Fe–Si) 450–600 15–50 10–15 [ 1 , 15 , 83 , 108 ] Hard Magnetic Materials (Nd- FeB, SmCo) 400–550 5–15 5–12 [ 82 , 109 , 110 , 111 ] Graphene Films 700–900 1200–3000 1–2 [ 3 , 54 , 94 , 95 ] Graphite 700–900 100–400 (anisotropic) 1–5 (in-plane) [ 85 – 88 ] Iron-Nickel Alloys (Invar-type) 500–600 10–20 3–4 [ 83 , 84 , 89 , 90 ] Aluminum/Graphene Composites 800–1000 12–21 20–25 [ 75 , 96 , 97 , 98 ] Silicon Carbide (SiC) 700–1000 120–200 4–5 [ 53 , 62 , 91 , 112 ] Brick 800–1000 0.7–1.3 5–8 [ 91 , 99 ] Steel 450–500 45–50 11–13 [ 81 , 91 ] Aluminum 900–950 200–240 22–24 [ 91 , 97 , 98 ] Copper 385–400 380–400 16–18 [ 91 ] GrapheneNanocomposite Bricks 850–1100 1.5–3.5 5–10 [ 99 – 101 ] Open in a new tab Thermal stress Thermal stress represents a critical design constraint for advanced materials employed in high-power and high- temperature environments. It originates from the generation of internal forces due to temperature gradients and the differential thermal expansion of materials or their constituents. These stresses can induce mechanical deformation, micro-cracking, delamination, and ultimately catastrophic failure, severely compromising the reliability and lifespan of components [ 112 , 113 ]. The fundamental relationship governing thermally induced stress is derived from the interplay of elastic and thermal properties, expressed as: 4 where σ denotes the thermal stress, E is the elastic modulus (Young’s modulus) governing the material’s stiffness, α is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion dictating dimensional change per unit temperature, and Δ T is the temperature difference across the material or at an interface. This equation highlights that stress amplification occurs under conditions of high stiffness ( E ), high CTE ( α ), or significant temperature gradients (Δ T ), which are prevalent in applications such as power electronics, electric vehicle motors, aerospace propulsion, and fusion reactor components experiencing rapid thermal transients [ 62 , 114 ]. Consequently, material selection and engineering must prioritize a synergistic balance of properties. To withstand severe thermal cycling, materials require a low coefficient of thermal expansion to minimize dimensional mismatch, high thermal conductivity to dissipate heat and reduce temperature gradients, and a robust yet tailored elastic modulus to resist deformation without inducing excessive stress. For instance, in permanent magnets (e.g., SmCo,NdFeB) used in high-speed motors, excessive thermal expansion can disrupt magnetic alignment and lead to mechanical failure, necessitating alloys with minimal α and high Curie temperatures [ 82 ]. Similarly, thermal management systems in power electronics leverage ceramics like silicon carbide ( SiC ) and aluminum nitride ( AlN ) for their excellent thermal conductivity and low thermal expansion. A prominent challenge arises at material interfaces, such as in ceramic-metal joints or composite structures, where thermal expansion mismatch can lead to interfacial debonding and spallation. Functionally Graded Materials offer a sophisticated solution by engineering a gradual spatial variation in composition and microstructure from one material (e.g., a ceramic for thermal/chemical resistance) to another (e.g., a metal for structural integrity). This gradient eliminates sharp property discontinuities, thereby distributing thermal stress more evenly and preventing stress concentration at the interface [ 113 , 115 ]. Advanced packaging and integration strategies further enhance thermal stress resilience. For high-power semiconductor devices, designs such as double-sided cooling with wire-bondless interconnects utilize substrates like aluminum nitride or direct-bonded copper. These approaches not only improve heat dissipation but also reduce thermomechanical strain by providing symmetrical thermal pathways and eliminating weak wire-bond interfaces [ 15 , 116 ]. The integration of compliant interfacial layers or the optimization of sintered nano-silver bonding layers has also proven effective in absorbing strain and improving thermal fatigue resistance in power modules [ 113 ]. Effective thermal stress management is therefore a multi-faceted endeavor, integrating materials science with mechanical and thermal design. It requires the careful selection of base materials with compatible thermomechanical properties, the engineering of interfaces and graded architectures to mitigate stress concentrations, and the adoption of advanced cooling and packaging topologies. Simultaneously, insulation materials with intrinsically low thermal conductivity remain essential for operational safety, protecting surrounding components and personnel in high-temperature systems [ 91 ]. Through these coordinated strategies, the durability, efficiency, and reliability of next-generation high-power and high-temperature technologies can be significantly advanced [ 81 , 117 ]. Types of thermal materials for high-power and high-temperature applications The thermal and magnetic properties of materials designed for high-power and high-temperature applications differ significantly across categories like ceramics, composites, metals and alloys, carbon nanotubes, and phase change materials. Each type exhibits unique characteristics, making them suitable for specific uses, especially in energy storage and thermal management systems. The following sections analyze the properties and applications of these materials in detail. Ceramics Ceramics are highly valued for their remarkable thermal stability and ability to endure extreme temperatures, making them suitable for high-temperature uses. Materials such as silicon carbide, aluminum nitride, and boron nitride are especially recognized for their high thermal conductivity and structural integrity under thermal stress. These advanced ceramic materials are used in a wide spectrum of demanding industrial sectors, including metallurgy, glass and cement production, aerospace, nuclear energy, and power generation. Their unique properties not only enhance performance in these fields, but also contribute significantly to the development of a sustainable society by enabling energy-efficient and durable solutions [ 53 , 62 , 102 , 107 , 118 , 119 ]. Ceramics like SiC and AlN exhibit low thermal expansion ( α ) and high thermal conductivity ( k ), making them ideal for aerospace and nuclear applications [ 53 , 102 ]. These materials typically exhibit low coefficients of thermal expansion, making them highly resistant to thermal shock. In addition, they often possess favorable magnetic properties, especially ferrites, which are widely utilized in high-frequency applications because of their high magnetic permeability and minimal energy losses. Most ceramics are diamagnetic or paramagnetic, with the exception of ferrite ceramics (e.g., Fe 3 O 4 ) that exhibit ferrimagnetism and are used in magnetic applications like inductors and transformers [ 59 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 ]. Composites Composites designed for high-power and high-temperature applications integrate structural integrity with enhanced thermal and electrical properties to meet demanding operational conditions in electronics, aerospace, and energy sectors [ 124 , 125 ]. Multi-phase composite, systems synergistically improve both thermal conductivity and magnetic shielding effectiveness, enhancing the thermal–magnetic performance of electric motors and transformers [ 126 ]. Polymer-based composites, such as polyamide/boron nitride systems, achieve thermal conductivities around 3.6 W/ ( mK ) and tensile strengths near 68 MPa, enabling effective thermal management in devices like LEDs and CPUs above 299 °C. Piezoelectric composites with optimized polymer and ceramic phases offer improved thermal stability and mechanical quality factors for high-power ultrasonic transducers and harsh environment sensing [ 125 , 126 ]. Polymer micro/nanocomposites based on epoxy and cross-linked polyethylene are widely used as electrical insulators in high-voltage equipment, balancing electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties through controlled filler distribution. Oxide-based ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) provide excellent oxidation resistance and thermo- mechanical stability for aerospace and nuclear applications, though their higher thermal expansion can limit certain uses compared to non-oxide CMCs [ 127 – 129 ]. High-temperature composite phase change materials offer thermal energy storage solutions for power peak shaving and waste heat recovery, supporting clean energy goals [ 129 ]. These materials collectively address the challenges of thermal management, mechanical strength, and electrical insulation in extreme high-power, high-temperature environments. Traditional materials for heat and power management are approaching their performance limits, prompting the development of advanced composites with tailored properties. Composites can be broadly categorized into structural composites and functional thermal composites, each addressing specific demands in high-power and high-temperature environments. Structural composites are engineered primarily for mechanical strength, lightweighting, and dimensional stability under thermal stress. Ceramic-reinforced polymers achieve thermal conductivities up to k ≈ 5.75 W/m·K while maintaining dimensional stability [ 3 , 106 , 107 , 108 ]. These materials offer reduced thermal expansion and improved structural integrity, making them ideal for aerospace, automotive, and load-bearing applications where thermal and mechanical performance are critical [ 130 ]. Carbon-fiber-reinforced composites further enhance strength-to-weight ratios and retain stability at elevated temperatures. Boron nitride (BN)-polymer composites, for instance, exhibit excel- lent thermal conductivity, mechanical strength, and chemical stability, making them suitable for high-power thermal management [ 130 , 131 ]. Advanced composites such as Zr-BN hybrid fillers in carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy significantly improve tensile strength and thermal conductivity for structural applications at elevated temperatures [ 132 ]. Additionally, MAX phase boron composites and B4C/Al composites demonstrate enhanced thermal stability and mechanical properties at high sintering temperatures, relevant for aerospace and nuclear industries [ 133 – 135 ]. Functional thermal composites are designed specifically for thermal management and electromagnetic performance. Nanoparticle-reinforced systems, such as graphene–SiC hybrids, improve thermal conductivity and reduce thermal expansion, mitigating stress-induced degradation [ 14 ]. Polymer–CNT blends and magnetic-filler–epoxy composites (e.g., doped with Fe 3 O 4 nanoparticles) provide enhanced heat-transfer efficiency and electromagnetic shielding, protecting sensitive components in harsh environments [ 5 , 135 , 136 ]. Graphene/epoxy composites also show high thermal conductivity and mechanical robustness, though challenges remain in optimizing filler dispersion and interfacial thermal resistance for industrial use [ 137 , 138 ]. Coatings such as Al 2 O 3 or SiC on magnetic alloys (e.g., Fe–Si–B–Nb) prevent oxidation at high temperatures, while corrosion-resistant epoxy-CNT composites shield magnetic components from aggressive conditions [ 53 , 111 , 119 ]. Multifunctional structural composites embedding phase change materials enable thermal energy storage while maintaining mechanical integrity, useful in electric vehicles and lightweight thermal management systems [ 139 , 140 ]. Functionalized aluminosilicate microspheres from thermal power plant ash improve epoxy composites’ mechanical and thermal properties, offering sustainable options for structural and fire-resistant materials [ 141 ]. These categories highlight the tunability and multifunctionality of composites, underscoring their transformative role in modern thermal and power systems for extreme environments. Metals and alloys Metals and alloys exhibit high thermal conductivity and can withstand extreme temperatures, making them ideal for high-power applications and efficient heat dissipation. Their performance can be enhanced through alloying and heat treatment. Common high-temperature metals include tungsten, molybdenum, and tantalum, while steel, nickel, and copper alloys are widely used in aerospace. Copper, aluminum, and advanced superalloys are favored for heat exchangers and thermal management systems [ 53 , 62 , 91 , 103 , 118 ]. However, metals generally have high thermal expansion coefficients, which can limit their use in precision ap- plications under extreme temperatures. Ferromagnetic metals like iron, cobalt, and nickel are valued for strong magnetic field applications. Alloys can be engineered to optimize both thermal and magnetic properties, as seen in soft magnetic alloys used in transformers [ 118 , 142 ]. Thermal material properties dominated by lattice vibrations in insulators and electron conduction in metals are governed by principles including thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, and thermoelectric effects, and are crucial for predicting material behavior under temperature variation. High-temperature ceramics find application in construction, aerospace, nuclear systems, oxide fuel cells, and electronics due to their thermal stability and resistance [ 143 ]. In modern thermal and power applications, nanoparticle-enhanced composites offer superior thermal performance over traditional materials. Their enhanced thermal properties enable more efficient heat transfer, positioning them as leading solutions in advanced thermal and power management systems [ 138 ]. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are nanoscale hollow carbon structures known for exceptional structural, electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties. With axial thermal conductivity up to ∼ 3500 W/m·K, CNTs enable highly efficient heat transfer, making them ideal for high-temperature thermal energy storage and management [ 55 , 105 , 144 , 145 ]. Their lightweight nature and high strength-to-weight ratio suit demanding applications in electronics, biomedicine, solar energy, and composites [ 55 ]. CNTs are inherently diamagnetic but can be doped with magnetic elements like iron or nickel to tailor their magnetic response for specialized electronic and electromagnetic uses [ 108 , 146 ]. This tunability supports multifunctional roles in thermal management and magnetic applications, while their structural stability at extreme temperatures enhances durability in harsh environments [ 146 ]. Modern applications include CNT-polymer composites for cooling high-density server chips and lowering winding temperatures in electric motors, improving torque density and lifespan [ 147 – 150 ]. CNTs exhibit exceptionally high axial thermal conductivity (2000–3500 W/m·K) due to efficient phonon transport along the covalently bonded carbon lattice. In contrast, radial thermal conductivity ( k ) is orders of magnitude lower (1–10 W/m·K) due to weak van der Waals interactions between adjacent walls in Multi-Wall Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNTs) or between neighboring single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNTs) in bundles [ 145 , 151 ]. This anisotropy has important implications for thermal management design: aligned CNT arrays or composites leverage high axial conductivity for in-plane heat spreading, while randomly oriented CNT networks may under- perform if radial thermal resistance dominates [ 107 , 147 ]. Single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) exhibit axial thermal conductivity up to ∼ 3500 W/m·K and are used in high-performance thermal interface materials and advanced electronics cooling [ 55 , 105 ]. They also offer pronounced quantum effects beneficial for thermoelectric applications and spintronic devices, where tunable magnetic behavior can be achieved through functionalization [ 149 , 150 ]. Multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) provide slightly lower thermal conductivity than SWCNTs but offer enhanced mechanical robustness and are more cost-effective for large-scale applications [ 147 , 148 ]. They are commonly used in polymer and ceramic composites for thermal management in electric motors, aerospace components, and high-temperature insulation [ 151 , 152 ]. MWC- NTs also support electromagnetic shielding applications when doped with Fe or Ni [ 107 , 153 ]. CNTs are applied in thermal management, thermoelectric energy conversion, composite reinforcement, and advanced electronics, where their networks improve electrical conductivity and mechanical toughness under harsh conditions [ 151 , 152 , 154 ]. Challenges include uniform dispersion, chirality control, and scalable production, though advances in chemical vapor deposition and nanofabrication are addressing these barriers [ 150 , 155 , 156 ]. Phase change materials (PCMs) The energy crisis has accelerated the adoption of phase-change materials (PCMs) as critical components in thermal energy storage systems. These materials enable efficient energy management by absorbing and releasing latent heat during phase transitions, offering high energy density, reusability, and effective thermal regulation [ 25 , 53 , 62 , 136 , 157 ]. Molten salts (e.g.,NaNO 3 –KNO 3 ) stabilize thermal cycling in solar storage systems, reducing temperature fluctuations [ 158 , 159 ]. By maintaining near-constant temperatures during phase changes, such as solid–liquid or liquid–gas, PCMs enhance energy efficiency, improve heat transfer, and help balance supply-demand mismatches across various systems [ 59 , 118 ]. They are widely used in solar energy, automotive, and construction industries for passive thermal regulation and load-shifting strategies that store excess energy during off-peak hours for later use [ 160 , 161 ]. Despite their typically low to moderate thermal conductivity, performance can be enhanced through nanoparticle integration, which improves heat dissipation. While most PCMs—like paraffin wax and salt hydrates—are nonmagnetic, magnetic variants can be engineered by embedding nanoparticles for specialized applications such as magnetic hyperthermia [ 107 , 162 , 163 ]. Material selection for high-power and high-temperature applications depends on thermodynamic, kinetic, environmental, and economic factors. Therefore, continued research into PCM properties and system integration remains essential for advancing sustainable energy solutions [ 25 , 105 , 159 , 161 , 164 ]. In solar thermal plants, molten salt PCMs store excess daytime heat at 565 C , enabling continuous electricity generation overnight. In electric vehicle batteries, PCM-enhanced thermal interfaces prevent overheating during fast charging. PCMs like paraffin wax leverage latent heat (Δ H ) for thermal energy storage. Their low k is mitigated via nanoparticle additives [ 25 , 59 ]. The heat map at Figure 3 provides a visual representation of materials’ thermal conductivity (measured in W/m·K) across distinct temperature ranges. Metals exhibit high thermal conductivity (300 W/m·K) at low temperatures, decreasing in mid-range and partially recovering above 1000 °C (170 W/m·K), suitable for low- to mid-temperature systems. Ceramics show a steady increase from 20 to 120 W/m·K with temperature, ideal for extreme-heat aerospace applications. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) lead at low/mid-range (2000–3000 W/m·K) but degrade above 1000 °C, limiting use to electronics cooling below this threshold. Partial recovery in metals at ultra-high temperatures occurs in advanced systems (e.g., refractory metals, high-entropy alloys) due to microstructural stability and phonon-mediated transport, as characterized in specialized studies [ 94 , 165 , 166 , 167 ]. Fig. 3. Open in a new tab The heat map, a visual representation of materials’ thermal conductivity across different temperature ranges Table 2 summarizes the thermal properties and applications of five key material classes for high-power, high- temperature systems. Ceramics offer high stability and conductivity, composites provide tunable properties, and metals excel at heat dissipation. Carbon nanotubes enable ultra-efficient cooling, while phase change materials are ideal for thermal energy storage. The comparison guides selection based on specific thermal management needs in demanding environments [ 3 , 25 , 53 , 62 , 104 ]. Table 2. Summary of thermal materials for high-power and high-temperature applications Material type Key thermal properties Applications & benefits References Ceramics High thermal stability, high thermal conductivity ( k ), low thermal expansion ( α ), high resistance to thermal shock Aerospace, nuclear energy, power generation, metallurgy. Provide structural integrity and efficient heat management in extreme environments [ 53 , 62 , 102 , 107 , 118 ] Composites Tunable thermal conductivity (e.g., k ≈5.75 W/m·K), reduced thermal expansion, improved structural strength, lightweight Aerospace, electronics thermal management, automotive. Enable tailored thermal responses, prevent oxidation, and shield components [ 3 , 14 , 53 , 107 , 135 ] Metals and alloys Very high thermal conductivity, withstand extreme temperatures. High thermal expansion can be a limitation Heat exchangers, thermal management systems, aerospace structures. Ideal for efficient heat dissipation in high-power applications [ 53 , 62 , 91 , 103 , 118 ] Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) Exceptional axial thermal conductivity (∼3500 W/m·K), lightweight, high strength-to-weight ratio, stable at high temperatures Electronics cooling (e.g., server chips), advanced composites, biomedicine, solar energy. En- able ultra-efficient heat transfer in compact spaces [ 54 , 104 , 107 , 145 , 147 ] Phase change materials (PCMs) High energy density, latent heat storage (Δ H ), near-isothermal operation during phase transition. Typically, low k , often enhanced with nanoparticles Thermal energy storage (e.g., solar plants, EV batteries), passive thermal regulation, load-shifting. Balance energy supply–demand and prevent overheating [ 25 , 53 , 59 , 62 , 105 ] Open in a new tab Table 3 provides a quantitative comparison of key thermal and magnetic materials for high-power, high-temperature applications. It contrasts essential properties including thermal conductivity, maximum service temperature, Curie temperature, coercivity, cost, and key limitations. The data highlights performance trade-offs, such as the high conductivity of CNTs versus their cost, and the excellent thermal stability of ceramics versus their brittleness, guiding material selection for extreme environments [ 10 , 25 , 91 , 168 ]. Table 3. Comparative overview of key thermal and magnetic materials for high-power/high-temperature applica- tions Material type Thermal conduc- tivity, k (W/m·K) Max. Temp. (°C) Curie temp., T C (°C) Coercivity H c (kA/m) Key limitations References Ceramics (e.g.,AlN, SiC) 120–320 1200–1800 300–600 forfer- rites N/A brittle,difficult to machine [ 53 , 91 , 102 , 119 ] Fe-Co Alloys 20–50 600–800 900–980 0.2–2 High thermal expansion, oxidation above 600 °C [ 1 , 10 ] NdFeB Magnets 5–15 150–200 310–400 800–2400 Low T C , prone to corrosion [ 102 ], [ 103 , 110 , 111 ] Soft Magnetic Composites 1–10 400–600 500–700 0.1–5 Limitedthermal conductivity [ 1 , 3 , 108 ] Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 2000–3500 > 600 N/A (diamagnetic) N/A High cost, alignment dependent properties [ 54 , 104 ] PCMs (e.g., molten salts) 0.5–2 300–600 N/A N/A Low k , limited thermalcycling stability [ 25 ] HTS (YBCO) 5–15 (normal state) < 93 ( T c ) N/A ( T c = 93 K) N/A Brittle,requires cryogenic cooling [ 168 ] Nanocrystalline Alloys (Fe-Si- B) 10–30 500–600 350–600 0.5–10 limitedthermal stabilityabove 600 °C [ 55 , 169 , 170 ] Open in a new tab Operational challenges and mitigation strategies for PCMs PCMs for high-power, high-temperature applications face several operational challenges including thermal cycling durability, phase segregation, corrosion, low thermal conductivity, leakage, supercooling, thermal degradation, and cycling instability. Thermal cycling durability : Repeated phase transitions cause microstructural degradation and reduced latent heat, particularly in molten salt PCMs. Mitigation strategies include microencapsulation, composite formation, and nucleating agents [ 25 , 158 ]. Phase segregation: Differential melting in multicomponent salt systems leads to compositional inhomogeneity. Solutions include eutectic formulation, mechanical stirring, and nanoparticle additives [ 159 , 161 ]. Corrosion control: Molten salts corrode containment materials via oxidation and chlorination. Protective coatings (e.g., Al 2 O 3 , SiO 2 ), inert atmospheres, and corrosion-resistant liners are used in applications like concentrated solar power [ 105 , 158 , 159 ]. Thermal conductivity and leakage: Low conductivity and leakage are addressed by incorporating porous foams, nanomaterials, or metal fins to enhance heat transfer and shape stability. Microencapsulation and support materials also improve reliability [ 171 – 174 ]. Supercooling: PCMs such as salt hydrates can remain liquid below their freezing point, delaying heat release. Nucleating agents (e.g., graphite, boron nitride) and microencapsulation promote timely crystallization [ 25 , 159 ]. Thermal degradation: Organic PCMs may oxidize, while inorganic salts can decompose at high temperatures, reducing latent heat. Mitigation includes antioxidant additives, inert atmosphere encapsulation, and stable eutectic salt mixtures [ 105 , 158 ]. Cycling stability: Repeated melting and freezing cause phase segregation, stratification, and microstructural fatigue. Stabilized eutectic compositions, mechanical stirring, and composite PCMs with porous matrices (e.g., graphite foam) maintain homogeneity and performance [ 59 , 161 ]. Safety and stability: For battery thermal management, PCMs are modified for flame retardancy and thermal stability to mitigate thermal runaway. Phase-engineered composites combine high storage capacity with shape stability for electronic cooling and thermal energy storage [ 175 – 177 ]. Figure 4 presents a circular mind map visualizing the operational challenges and mitigation strategies for phase change materials in high-power, high-temperature applications. Radiating from this core are seven primary challenge categories and each main branch further connects to its corresponding mitigation strategies. The diagram provides a clear hierarchical overview of the key problems and their engineering solutions for PCM performance enhancement. Fig. 4. Open in a new tab Operational challenges and mitigation strategies for PCMs Comparison of organic and inorganic PCMs for high power high-temperature applications Organic and inorganic phase change materials differ significantly in suitability for high-power, high-temperature applications based on operating temperature, thermal properties, durability, and cost. Organic PCMs (e.g., paraffins, fatty acids) offer better chemical stability, lower corrosion, and longer thermal cycling durability, with stable melting and latent heat over hundreds of cycles. They typically operate below 80 °C, have lower thermal conductivity, and are often more cost-effective [ 178 – 181 ]. Inorganic PCMs (e.g., salts, salt hydrates) provide higher thermal conductivity, larger latent heat storage capacity, and suitability for medium to high temperatures (above 100 °C). However, they face challenges such as phase separation, corrosion, and reduced cycling stability, often requiring additives or encapsulation [ 178 , 182 , 183 , 184 ]. Durability & Cost: Organic PCMs maintain performance over extended cycles with less degradation, while inorganic PCMs may degrade faster without stabilization. Organic PCMs are generally cheaper and more available, though their low thermal conductivity may require enhancement. Inorganic PCMs, while sometimes more expensive due to processing and containment, offer superior energy density and thermal performance at elevated temperatures [ 178 , 179 , 184 ]. Organic PCMs are preferred for low to medium temperature applications requiring reliability, whereas inorganic PCMs are favored for high-temperature, high- power systems where thermal conductivity and energy density are critical, despite stability and corrosion challenges [ 180 , 182 , 184 ]. Table 4 compares organic and inorganic phase change materials for high-temperature thermal energy storage. Organic PCMs operate at lower temperatures with good cycling stability, while inorganic PCMs function at higher temperatures with greater latent heat. Inorganic types face challenges like corrosion and phase segregation, but offer higher thermal conductivity. The selection depends on application-specific temperature requirements and durability needs [ 25 , 105 , 158 ]. Table 4. Comparison of organic and inorganic PCMs for high-temperature applications Property Organic PCMs Inorganic PCMs References Temperature range 20–150 °C 150–800 °C [ 25 ] Latent heat (H) 150–250 kJ/kg 100–400 kJ/kg [ 59 ] Thermal conductivity 0.1–0.3 W/m·K (low) 0.5–1.5 W/m·K (moderate) [ 59 , 160 ] Cycling stability Good (1000 + cycles) Moderate (phase segregation risk) [ 158 ] Corrosion tendency Low High (requires corrosion-resistant containment) [ 105 ] Cost Moderate to high Low to moderate [ 159 ] Key applications Buildingthermalregulation, low-temperatureelectronics cooling Concentrated solar power, industrial waste heat recovery [ 105 , 158 ] Open in a new tab Environmental and chemical stability of advanced thermal and magnetic materials Environmental and chemical stability are critical for advanced thermal and magnetic materials in high-temperature and high-power applications. Key stability concerns include oxidation resistance in high-temperature alloys, corrosion in molten salt environments, radiation-induced degradation in nuclear settings, and humidity sensitivity in 2D magnetic materials [ 105 , 159 ]. Common degradation mechanisms—oxidation, corrosion, hydrolysis, and radiation damage—are mitigated through strategies such as protective coatings (e.g., Al2O3), alloying for passivation, and encapsulation of phase-change materials [ 185 , 186 ]. High-entropy ceramics and alloys exhibit robust structural, thermal, and chemical stability, enabling resilience in extreme environments. Multi-level ordered structure (MOS) approaches enhance thermal stability and corrosion resistance in magnetic metals, while silicon car- bide polycrystals demonstrate excellent chemical durability in acidic/alkaline settings [ 187 , 188 ]. Solid-solid phase change materials (e.g., Ni–Mn–Ti alloys) offer reliable thermal cycling stability without leakage [ 189 ]. Advances in nanotechnology, additive manufacturing, and material design are thus enabling sustainable, synergistic materials with integrated thermal, magnetic, and chemical stability for demanding applications [ 15 ]. The environmental im- pact and recyclability of advanced magnetic and thermal materials for high power, high temperature applications must be addressed, incorporating eco design and circular economy principles. This includes assessing rare earth magnets and high temperature superconductors to provide critical data for sustainable material strategies [ 190 ]. Magnetic materials properties and applications Magnetic materials are essential in many electronic devices, facilitating energy conversion, data storage, motion control, and signal transmission. They are crucial for the functionality and performance of modern electronics. They ensure efficient voltage regulation in power supplies and transformers, reliable data recording in hard drives and tapes, and precise energy conversion in motors and sensors. They also improve wireless communication by optimizing antennas and RF components. Soft magnetic composites and nanocrystalline materials are pivotal in enhancing the performance of electric motors by improving power density and efficiency. They allow better modeling and understanding of magnetic properties under operational conditions, which is crucial for optimizing motor design [ 1 ]. Just as thermal stability is paramount for managing heat dissipation, magnetic materials must retain their functional integrity under similar extremes. We now shift our focus to the magnetic properties, including magnetization, magnetic susceptibility and permeability, coercivity, and remanence, that define their suitability for high-power systems. Properties of magnetic materials for high-power and high-temperature applications The thermal and magnetic properties of materials engineered for high-power and high-temperature applications exhibit significant variation across different categories, with each material type demonstrating unique characteristics tailored to specific uses. Magnetic materials, in particular, are defined by key properties such as permeability, coercivity, and remanence, which are critical for understanding their performance in diverse applications. Magnetic permeability quantifies a material’s ability to support the formation of magnetic field lines within it; coercivity represents the material’s resistance to demagnetization; and remanence refers to the residual magnetization that persists after the removal of an external magnetic field. The following subsections provide a detailed exploration of these fundamental magnetic principles [ 12 ]. Magnetization Magnetization M quantifies a material’s response to an external magnetic field B , representing the alignment of magnetic moments within the material. In high-power, high-temperature applications, M is critical for optimizing magnetic performance, energy efficiency, and thermal stability. Magnetization directly determines magnetic flux density in transformer and motor cores. High saturation magnetization ( M s ), such as in Fe–Co alloys, enables higher power density and efficiency in electric vehicle traction motors by generating stronger fields in smaller volumes [ 1 , 10 ]. In high-frequency inductors, materials with high M s reduce core size while maintaining inductance, aiding miniaturization and thermal management [ 108 ]. Magnetization is given by: 5 Saturation magnetization, determined by aligned magnetic moments, dictates a material’s capacity to generate strong fields. High M s minimizes losses and enhances thermal stability in demanding environments like electric motors and sensors, though elevated temperatures can reduce saturation, necessitating materials with high Curie temperatures and designs that retain strength under extreme conditions [ 1 , 91 , 191 ]. Magnetic susceptibility ( χ M ) Magnetic susceptibility measures a material’s magnetization response to an applied magnetic field. It directly influences magnetic field concentration or repulsion, which is vital for transformer and motor efficiency. Since susceptibility is temperature-dependent, materials with minimal variation under thermal cycling are preferred for stable operation in extreme environments. Soft magnetic materials with high χ M , such as nanocrystalline Fe–Si–B alloys, exhibit low coercivity and hysteresis losses, critical for high-efficiency transformers at elevated temperatures and frequencies [ 55 , 169 ]. Conversely, low-susceptibility materials are used in magnetic shielding to protect sensitive electronics from electromagnetic interference [ 4 ]. Susceptibility is defined as: 6 χ M , a dimensionless proportionality constant.The differential form dM/dB denotes the instantaneous rate of change of magnetization M with respect to magnetic flux density B. Materials are classified as diamagnetic ( χ M < 0), paramagnetic ( χ M > 0), or ferromagnetic ( χ M ≫ 0). In high-power applications, high susceptibility enhances permeability and energy efficiency. For high-temperature environments, stable susceptibility ensures consistent performance amid thermal fluctuations. The temperature dependence follows the Curie–Weiss law: 7 where C is the Curie constant, T is temperature, and T c is the Curie temperature [ 4 , 109 , 192 ]. Magnetization and magnetic susceptibility critically influence the performance and efficiency of high-power devices by affecting magnetic response, energy losses, and operational stability. Enhanced magnetic susceptibility, achieved through methods such as high magnetic field alignment of magnetic domains, improves temperature stability and efficiency in magnetostrictive materials for high-power transducers, maintaining performance up to the Curie temperature [ 193 ]. In power electronics and magnetic devices, tunable magnetization and susceptibility enable control over inductance and power consumption. Materials exhibiting magnetoelectric effects allow reversible magnetization switching and electric-field tunable susceptibility, leading to more power-efficient and adaptable com- ponents [ 194 , 195 ]. Soft magnetic materials with optimized magnetization properties are essential for reducing losses and improving efficiency in high-frequency power converters and electrical machines. In these applications, minor hysteresis loops and skin effects significantly influence device behavior under high-frequency operation [ 196 , 197 ]. The interplay between magnetization dynamics and susceptibility also affects the design of integrated inductors and transformers, where domain wall motion and magnetic domain alignment determine inductance and energy loss characteristics [ 197 ]. Overall, controlling magnetization and susceptibility in magnetic materials and heterostructures is key to enhancing the performance, durability, and energy efficiency of high-power devices across various temperatures and frequencies [ 193 , 194 , 196 ]. Figure 5 illustrates how magnetization decreases as temperature approaches the Curie temperature T c for a ferromagnetic material [ 83 , 91 ]. Below T c , the material retains strong magnetization; above T c , it transitions to paramagnetic behavior with weak susceptibility [ 4 , 109 ]. The ferromagnetic region ( T < T c ) maintains near-saturation magnetization ( M sat ) due to aligned moments [ 1 , 108 ]. In the paramagnetic region ( T > T c ), thermal energy disrupts magnetic order, causing magnetization to drop sharply according to the Curie-Weiss law [ 109 , 192 ]. Cooling systems must keep temperatures below T c to preserve magnetic efficiency; materials with T c well above operational temperatures are essential for high-power applications like electric vehicle motors to avoid demagnetization. Fig. 5. Open in a new tab Effect of temperature on magnetization Table 5 lists the Curie temperatures ( T C ) for key magnetic materials used in high-power, high-temperature applications. Fe–Co alloys exhibit the highest T C , followed by SmCo and NdFeB magnets. Soft ferrites and pure elements are also included, showing their respective thermal stability limits. These values are crucial for selecting materials that retain magnetic properties under extreme operational conditions [ 10 , 91 , 109 ]. Table 5. Representative Curie temperatures ( T C ) of key magnetic materials for high-power and high-temperature applications Material class Specific composition/type T C (°C) References Fe–Co alloys Fe 50 Co 50 (Hiperco) 980 [ 1 , 10 ] SmCo magnets SmCo 5 720 [ 55 , 109 ] Sm 2 Co 17 800–850 [ 110 ] NdFeB magnets Nd 2 Fe 14 B 310–400 [ 109 , 111 ] Soft ferrites Mn–Zn Ferrite 120–250 [ 108 , 119 ] Pure elements Iron (Fe) and Cobalt (Co) 770 and 1127 [ 4 , 83 , 91 ] Open in a new tab Magnetic permeability Magnetic permeability is a fundamental property that quantifies a material’s ability to be magnetized in response to an external magnetic field. Materials with higher permeability magnetize more easily, enhancing their interaction with magnetic fields. This property significantly influences heat and fluid flow dynamics in systems where magnetic fields are present. Understanding permeability is crucial for analyzing the interplay between magnetic fields and thermal or fluid processes, optimizing performance in applications like magnetic cooling and energy systems [ 84 , 198 ]. Magnetic permeability quantifies a material’s ability to support the formation of a magnetic field within itself when subjected to an external magnetic field. Materials with high permeability, such as soft iron, facilitate the efficient passage of magnetic flux with minimal opposition, enhancing their effectiveness in applications like electromagnets and transformers. Conversely, materials with low permeability, such as air or vacuum, present significant resistance to magnetic flux, making them less suitable for such applications. Permeability is a pivotal parameter in designing magnetic circuits, optimizing energy transfer in transformers, and implementing effective magnetic shielding solutions [ 84 ]. Permeability ( µ ) affects eddy current loss because high permeability materials (e.g., nanocrystalline alloys with µ r > 50 , 000) concentrate flux but may also exhibit higher eddy currents if electrical resistivity is low. In high frequency transformers (>10 kHz), materials with high resistivity and moderate permeability (e.g., Mn–Zn ferrites) are preferred to minimize P e [ 55 , 108 ]. Coercivity ( H c ) Coercivity quantifies a material’s resistance to demagnetization, serving as a crucial parameter in evaluating magnetic materials for specific applications. It is defined as the intensity of the applied magnetic field needed to reduce a material’s magnetization to zero after it has reached saturation. Materials are categorized as either soft (low coercivity) or hard (high coercivity). Soft magnetic materials, with their low coercivity, are optimal for applications requiring frequent magnetization and demagnetization cycles, such as transformers and inductors. Conversely, hard magnetic materials, characterized by high coercivity, are resistant to demagnetization, making them ideal for permanent magnets used in motors and data storage devices. This distinction is vital for selecting materials that meet the performance demands of various technological applications [ 83 , 142 , 199 , 200 ]. Materials with tailored coercivity and high thermal stability are essential for maintaining performance in demanding environments. A detailed understanding of the interplay between coercivity, thermal properties, and magnetic behavior is crucial for effective material selection and design in such applications [ 168 , 170 , 201 ]. Coercivity directly scales with hysteresis loss P h . Soft magnetic materials with low H c (<10 A/m), such as Fe–Si–B amorphous alloys, exhibit significantly reduced hysteresis loss at high frequencies, making them suitable for high-efficiency inductors in power electronics [ 169 , 170 ]. In contrast, hard magnets with high H c (>500 kA/m) like NdFeB are designed to resist demagnetization but are not used in alternating field applications due to excessive losses. Accurate magnetic loss prediction is crucial for designing efficient electromagnetic devices, as losses affect energy dissipation, thermal performance, and device sizing [ 202 ]. Analytical models enable rapid estimation and physical insight. The total core loss P core under alternating fields can be expressed as: 8 where P h is hysteresis loss, P e is eddy current loss, and B m is peak flux density. The coefficients k h and k e are directly linked to intrinsic material properties: k h is proportional to coercivity H c , reflecting hysteresis loop area, while k e is inversely proportional to resistivity ρ and influenced by permeability µ . Quantitatively, k e ∝ 1 / ( ρµ ), so higher permeability or lower resistivity increases eddy current loss. The exponent n in P h , typically between 1.5 and 2.5, is material-dependent and related to domain wall dynamics. The frequency scaling—linear for P h and quadratic for P e —shows that at high frequencies, eddy current effects dominate unless permeability is reduced or resistivity increased. These relationships allow designers to tailor materials and operating conditions to minimize total loss [ 83 , 202 ]. Remanence Remanence, or residual magnetization, is the magnetization that remains in a material after an external magnetic field is removed. High remanence is desirable in permanent magnets, influencing their applications in motors and generators. High-remanence materials retain a strong magnetic field even without an external field, making them suitable for permanent magnets. Low-remanence materials retain little or no magnetization after the field is removed. Remanence determines the strength of a permanent magnet’s field [ 110 , 203 , 204 , 205 , 206 ]. The growing need for sustainable energy drives electrification, making efficient devices crucial. These devices require materials with strong magnetic properties, mechanical durability, and resistance to heat. Numerous industries, from aerospace to energy production, rely on high-temperature materials in critical components. As performance demands increase, these materials must withstand increasingly extreme heat while remaining cost-effective, requiring exceptional strength and thermal stability [ 1 , 12 , 207 , 208 ]. The following sections provide an overview of the key properties of soft and hard magnetic materials, high- temperature superconductors, nanocrystalline and amorphous alloys, and ferromagnetic materials. Magnetic material types for high-power and high-temperature applications The magnetic properties of materials are known to depend on temperature. As the thermal vibrations in a solid increase, the magnetic moments can rotate and align in random directions. The Curie temperature T C is where the magnetic saturation decreases rapidly to zero with increasing temperature. For certain materials like iron, Fe 3 O 4 , the ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic properties disappear, and the material becomes paramagnetic [ 91 ]. There are some important examples of advanced magnetic materials used in high-temperature and high-power applications. High-power-density electric motors benefit from advanced magnetic materials, such as soft magnetic composites and nanocrystalline materials, which enhance efficiency and performance in electric vehicles [ 1 , 209 , 210 , 211 ]. Soft magnetic materials Soft magnetic materials are characterized by high magnetization under minimal external fields, due to low coercivity and high magnetic permeability, enabling easy magnetization and demagnetization for electrical and electronic applications. Common materials include iron–silicon alloys (e.g., silicon steel sheets) and soft magnetic ferrites, essential for efficient energy conversion and signal processing, as reflected by their thin, narrow hysteresis curves compared to hard magnets [ 1 , 91 , 108 , 210 ]. Iron–cobalt (Fe–Co) alloys, ferrites, and amorphous alloys are widely used in transformers and inductors, with silicon steel and ferrites minimizing energy losses during flux changes—critical for high-power device efficiency. The increasing demand for high-temperature, mechanically resilient electrical ma- chines requires alloys that maintain consistent magnetic and mechanical performance under thermal stress, driven by higher operating speeds and demanding sustainable-energy environments [ 1 , 208 , 210 , 211 , 212 ]. Nanocrystalline Fe–Si–B alloys, for example, reduce core losses by 50% at 20kHz switching frequencies in electric-vehicle traction inverters, improving range and efficiency. Materials with Curie temperatures near the operational limit exhibit the highest permeability, ensuring optimal performance under extreme conditions [ 1 , 56 , 109 , 203 ]. Among key soft magnetic families Fe–Si alloys are used in transformers and motors up to 400Hz, with saturation magnetization M s ≈ 2.0T and grain-oriented loss optimization [ 91 , 108 ]. Fe–Co alloys offer high saturation ( M s ≈ 2.4T) and Curie temperature ( T C ≈ 980 °C), suitable for aerospace and high-temperature motors, though with higher cost and brittleness [ 1 , 10 ]. Ferrites (Mn–Zn, Ni–Zn) provide high resistivity and low eddy-current losses for high-frequency (>10 kHz) applications, albeit with lower M s and temperature sensitivity [ 55 , 119 ]. Amorphous alloys (Fe–Si–B) feature low coercivity ( H c <10 A/m) and near-zero magnetostriction, ideal for high-efficiency transformers and sensors, yet limited by thickness and thermal stability [ 170 , 201 ]. Nanocrystalline alloys ( FeSiBNbCu ) deliver superior high-frequency performance with high permeability and low losses up to 100 kHz, widely adopted in EV inverters and switch-mode power supplies [ 55 , 169 ]. Fe based amorphous and nanocrystalline alloys, enhanced by longitudinal magnetic field annealing or Co doping, achieve high saturation magnetization (up to 1.9T), ultra-low coercivity, and high permeability—essential for elevated-temperature operation [ 213 – 215 ]. Nanocrystalline alloys with fine grain structures in an amorphous matrix offer excellent thermal stability and electrical resistivity, reducing core losses in high-frequency AC applications [ 216 ]. Chemical heterogeneity and controlled crystallization promote smooth domain-wall motion and lower magnetic anisotropy, further improving softness and efficiency [ 217 , 218 ]. Ferrites remain valued for high resistivity and thermal stability, though with lower saturation magnetization compared to Fe-based alloys. Overall, amorphous and nanocrystalline Fe-based materials provide an optimal balance of high saturation magnetization, thermal stability, low coercivity, and mechanical ductility, making them ideal for high-power, high-temperature power electronics, transformers, and electric motors [ 215 , 219 ]. Hard magnetic materials Hard magnets, or permanent magnets, retain their magnetic properties over extended periods and resist demagnetization, making them essential for electrovoltaics, wind turbines, and hard drives [ 1 , 220 , 221 ]. Rare-earth magnets such as NdFeB and SmCo are prominent due to their high coercivity and energy density, critical for efficient motors and generators. For example, NdFeB magnets enable direct-drive generators in offshore wind turbines, eliminating gearboxes and reducing maintenance costs by 40% in harsh marine environments. SmCo based magnets exhibit high Curie temperature and exceptional magnetocrystalline anisotropy, making them valuable for scientific and high-temperature applications [ 55 , 109 ]. Miniaturization demands powerful permanent magnets with high coercivity and remanence, which are crucial for advancing smaller, lighter devices [ 110 , 204 , 207 ]. Hard magnetic materials are characterized by thick hysteresis loops, high maximum magnetic energy density stored in the magnet’s external field (a higher value indicates a stronger, more efficient magnet capable of producing a larger magnetic field in a given volume), large coercivity, and the ability to retain magnetism under strong external fields [ 111 , 208 , 222 ]. High-temperature permanent magnets—including ceramics, high-temperature superconducting (HTS) magnets, and ferrites—are increasingly used in energy, transportation, and medical fields due to their stability under extreme conditions [ 9 , 12 , 223 , 224 , 225 ]. Among these, NdFeB magnets exhibit the highest maximum energy product ((BH)max), exceeding 334 kJ/m 3 with coercivity (Hcj) around 3500 kA/m, and can operate stably up to 280 C through advanced grain-structure design and heavy-rare-earth diffusion [ 226 ]. SmCo magnets, though generally having lower (BH)max, offer superior thermal stability and retain magnetic properties better above 150 °C; hybrid SmCo/NdFeB nanocomposites balance energy product and thermal stability with (BH)max around 123 kJ/m 3 [ 227 ]. Ferrite magnets have significantly lower (BH)max values (25.2 kJ/m 3 ) and coercivity but provide good thermal stability and cost-effectiveness for moderate-performance applications [ 228 ]. NdFeB magnets typically possess higher remanence and energy density but suffer from reduced coercivity and thermal stability without heavy rare-earth additions, whereas SmCo magnets maintain coercivity better at elevated temperatures with lower temperature coefficients [ 229 – 231 ]. The trade-off between coercivity and (BH)max in Nd- FeB magnets is addressed via microstructural engineering such as double-shell core structures and grain-boundary diffusion, enhancing both energy product and temperature tolerance [?], [ 226 , 231 ]. Overall, NdFeB magnets dominate high-power applications requiring high energy density, SmCo magnets are favored for high-temperature stability, and ferrites serve cost-sensitive or moderate-performance roles in high-temperature environments [ 111 , 227 , 228 ]. Table 6 provides a quantitative comparison of the maximum energy product ( BH ) max for key permanent magnet materials. NdFeB exhibits the highest value, making it the strongest commercial magnet, though it requires doping for thermal stability. SmCo offers excellent high-temperature performance with a lower but substantial maximum energy. Hard ferrites present a cost-effective option with a moderate ( BH ) max , suitable for less demanding applications. These metrics guide material selection based on the required magnetic strength, operating temperature, and budget constraints [ 226 , 232 , 233 ]. Table 6. Quantitative comparison of maximum energy product ( BH ) max for permanent magnet materials Material ( BH ) max (kJ/m 3 ) Description References NdFeB > 334 Highest ( BH ) max ; requires heavy rare-earth doping for high-temperature stability [ 226 , 234 ] SmCo ~ 123–255 Excellent thermal stability; lower ( BH ) max than NdFeB but better high-temperature performance [ 227 , 232 ] Hard ferrites ~ 25.2 Low cost; moderate ( BH ) max ; good for applications where cost is critical [ 228 , 233 ] Open in a new tab Figure 6 presents the hysteresis loops of hard magnetic materials, including NdFeB (with high (BH) max ), SmCo (known for high-temperature stability), and hard ferrite (cost-effective). The plot shows magnetization M against magnetic field H , highlighting the large coercivity H c values, such as H c ≈ 1200 kA / m for NdFeB, H c ≈ 900 kA / m Fig. 6. Open in a new tab Hysteresis loops of hard magnetic materials for high-power and high-temperature applications emphasize the trade-offs between magnetic performance, thermal stability, and cost in selecting hard magnets for engineering applications. For SmCo, and H c ≈300 kA / m for hard ferrite, demonstrating the resistance to demagnetization of these materials [ 111 ]. The right figure compares the maximum energy product for these materials. Hard ferrite exhibits the lowest (BH) max , while SmCo and NdFeB show significantly higher energy densities, with NdFeB achieving up to 200 kJ / m 3 or more. The figure also notes temperature stability, with SmCo stable up to approximately 250 °C, hard ferrite stable around the same range, and NdFeB reaching stability near 280 °C when doped with heavy rare-earth elements and optimized via microstructure engineering [ 4 , 235 ] High-temperature superconductors (HTS) High-temperature superconductors (HTS) such as Y BCO and MgB 2 enable lossless power transmission and high- field applications by operating above liquid nitrogen temperatures. They are essential for technologies like fusion reactors, MRI systems, and efficient power grids due to their zero electrical resistance and strong magnetic performance [ 109 , 200 , 223 ].YBCO (YBa 2 Cu 3 O 7 −x ) operates near its critical temperature T c ≈ 90 K, with optimal performance between 20 and 30 K under high magnetic fields (12–20 T), as required in fusion magnets like ITER [ 11 ]. At 77 K and self-field, typical J c values range from 10 5 to 10 6 A/cm 2 , with industrial tapes exceeding 3 × 10 6 A/cm 2 at 4.2 K in high fields [ 236 ]. Thin-film forms can achieve J c ≈ 90 MA/cm 2 at 5 K [ 237 ]. YBCO is preferred for ultra-high-field applications near liquid nitrogen temperatures, such as fusion magnets and advanced MRI systems [ 238 ]. Magnesium Diboride (MgB 2 ) has a lower T c ≈ 39 K but performs effectively in the 10–30 K range, offering a cost-effective alternative for intermediate-field applications. At 20 K and 1 T, J c reaches ∼ 10 5 A/cm 2 , with doped bulk samples achieving up to 6.75 × 10 5 A/cm 2 [ 239 , 240 ]. M gB 2 wires show high stability in the 10–15 K range, suitable for MRI magnets and certain fusion components [ 241 , 242 ]. Its simpler fabrication and good mechanical properties support use in cryogenically efficient systems. The critical current density and temperature ranges in YBCO bulk melt-textured samples exhibit J c ≈ 10 4 –10 5 A/cm 2 at 77 K in self-field, increasing at lower temperatures. Coated conductors achieve J c > 3 × 10 6 A/cm 2 at 4.2 K in high fields, with recent long-length tapes reporting I c > 1 , 750 A at 65 K and 0.25 T. MgB 2 wires reach J c > 1.30 × 10 5 A/cm 2 at 4.2 K and 5 T, maintaining practical performance up to 30 K with doping [ 243 ]. YBCO operates effectively between 50–77 K, while MgB 2 is typically used at 20–30 K. YBCO maintains superior J c in fields up to at least 9 T due to engineered pinning centers such as Zr doping [ 244 ]. MgB 2 exhibits faster J c degradation with field but benefits from doping to improve irreversibility fields. YBCO coated conductors are produced via advanced A-MOCVD methods, enabling long-length, high- I c tapes suitable for high-power applications, albeit at higher cost. MgB 2 wires are fabricated using simpler powder-in-tube (PIT) processes, offering cost-effective solutions for cables and magnets operating at 20–30 K [ 243 – 245 ]. Power transmission cables favor MgB 2 at 20–30 K due to lower cost, while YBCO enables compact designs at 65–77 K. Motors and generators prefer YBCO for high-torque applications, whereas MgB 2 suits smaller machines at 20–30 K. Fault current limiters use both, with YBCO offering higher current handling at elevated temperatures. Magnetic energy storage and trapped field magnets benefit from YBCO’s high-field retention, while MgB 2 is suitable for lower-field systems prioritizing cost and cooling simplicity. YBCO offers ultra-high J c at elevated temperatures and excellent high-field performance but involves higher cost and complex manufacturing. MgB 2 provides lower cost, simpler processing, and good performance at 20–30 K, but suffers from lower T c and faster J c degradation in high fields. Ongoing advances in doping, nanostructuring, and processing continue to enhance both materials for high-power, high-temperature superconducting applications [ 244 ]. Low Temperature Superconductors (LTS), such as Nb–Ti and Nb 3 Sn, operate below 23K (typically at 4.2K with liquid helium cooling). They are well established in whole body MRI magnets and certain high field re- search magnets, though they rely on costly cryogenic systems [ 168 , 200 ]. High Temperature Superconductors (HTS), including YBCO (YBa 2 Cu 3 O 7 −δ ) and MgB 2 , operate above 20K and up to 93K (liquid nitrogen range), enabling more practical cryogenics and higher operational temperatures for fusion, power cables, and high field applications [ 11 , 223 ]. In fusion magnets, HTS tapes (e.g.,YBCO) permit magnetic fields exceeding 20T at elevated temperatures (20–30K), crucial for advanced plasma confinement in devices such as ITER and future re- actors [ 11 , 236 ]. For MRI and high field magnets, LTS remain dominant for whole body imaging, while HTS are emerging in compact, high field niche systems. In power grid and cable applications, HTS enable loss less transmission and fault current limiters, particularly valuable for high density urban grids and renewable energy integration [ 12 , 236 ]. Table 7 provides a detailed comparative overview of two prominent high-temperature superconductors (HTS), YBCO and MgB 2 , highlighting their critical performance parameters, manufacturing routes, and application landscapes. YBCO operates at higher temperatures (liquid nitrogen range) and exhibits ultra-high critical current densities ( J c ), making it suitable for demanding applications like fusion magnets (ITER) and high-field MRI. In contrast, MgB 2 offers a significantly lower cost and simpler manufacturing process, with excellent high-field performance suited for medium-field fusion components, fault current limiters, and SMES systems [ 11 , 223 , 243 ]. Table 7. Comparative overview of high-temperature superconductors YBCO and MgB 2 Parameter YBCO MgB 2 References Critical temperature ( T c ) ~ 90 K ~ 39 K [ 11 , 240 ] Operating temperature 50–77 K (liquid nitrogen range) 10–30 K (cryocooler range) [ 243 , 244 ] Critical current density ( J c ) 10 5 –10 6 A/cm 2 at 77 K (self-field) > 3 × 10 6 A/cm 2 at 4.2 K (high field); [ 236 ] ~ 90 MA/cm 2 in thin films at 5 K ~ 10 5 A/cm 2 at 20 K, 1 T [ 237 , 243 ] Up to 675 × 10 5 A/cm 2 (doped bulk) > 1.30 × 10 5 A/cm 2 at 4.2 K, 5 T [ 239 , 240 ] High field performance Superior J c up to ≥ 9 T; strong pinning via Zr doping Faster J c degradation; improved irreversibility field via doping [ 244 ] Manufacturing Advanced A-MOCVD coated conductors; complex multilayer Simpler PIT and sintering; scalable wire production [ 243 , 245 ] Cost & Complexity Highermaterial/processingcost; complex architecture Lower cost; economical for large-scale applications [ 243 , 245 ] Key applications Fusion magnets (ITER) High-field MRI systems [ 11 ] High-torque motors/generators FCL; SMES [ 241 , 242 ] MRI magnets (10–15 K) Medium-field fusion components [ 243 , 245 ] Power transmission cables Small-scale motors FCL [ 243 , 245 ] Advantages Ultra-high J c at high-T; Excellent high-field performance [ 245 ] Proven scalability Lower cost,simpler manufacturing [ 243 ] Good 20–30 K performance; Good mechanical stability [ 243 , 245 ] Disadvantages High cost Complex stabilization [ 244 ] Anisotropic properties Lower T c [ 243 ] Faster J c degradation in field Limited high-T performance [ 244 ] Recent Advances Zr doping; thick films; long-length conductors ( I c > 1750 A at .65 K) Nanostructuring; C/Dy 2 O 3 doping; enhanced pinning [ 239 , 243 ] Open in a new tab Nanocrystalline and amorphous alloys Nanocrystalline and amorphous alloys are essential for high-power, high-temperature applications due to their exceptional thermal and magnetic properties, featuring high permeability and low coercivity for easy magnetization and demagnetization. They are widely used in high-frequency inductors, transformers, and magnetic cores for power electronics [ 56 , 169 , 246 ]. Their soft magnetic properties—including reduced core losses, improved efficiency, and compact designs—arise from high permeability for efficient flux conduction and low coercivity that minimizes energy loss during magnetization cycles, making them ideal for demanding environments [ 170 , 247 , 248 , 249 ]. Fe-based systems such as Fe–Co–B and Fe–Ni–Co-based alloys are particularly promising, offering high saturation induction (up to ∼ 1.96 T), low coercivity, and excellent thermal stability [ 216 ]. Nanocrystalline Fe-Si-B alloys used for high-frequency applications for enhanced permeability and reduced core losses [ 250 ]. Rapid annealing and controlled heat treatments produce fine nanocrystalline grains embedded in an amorphous matrix, enhancing soft magnetic properties, mechanical toughness, and electrical resistivity to reduce eddy-current losses in high-frequency devices [ 216 , 251 ]. Chemical heterogeneity refines grain size and reduces magnetic anisotropy, further improving softness and efficiency. These materials exhibit near-zero magnetostriction and low coercivity, enabling stable performance under mechanical stress and elevated temperatures, vital for power electronics, transformers, and electric motors. Powder cores with insulating layers show ultra-low core losses and high-frequency performance, suitable for automotive and data-storage power conversion. Overall, the synergy of amorphous and nanocrystalline structures in Fe-based alloys provides an optimal balance of high magnetic performance, thermal stability, and mechanical robustness for demanding high-power, high-temperature applications [ 251 , 252 ]. Ferromagnetic materials Ferromagnetic materials are crucial in high-temperature and high-power applications, where precise temperature management and efficient energy conversion are essential [ 253 , 254 ]. Ongoing research aims to enhance their utility by improving heat resistance, magnetic stability, and structural integrity. A key challenge is maintaining consistent magnetic performance under heat exposure, as these materials often lose magnetic strength near their Curie temperature, the point at which they can no longer retain magnetic properties. Thus, materials with high Curie temperatures are sought after for applications involving extreme heat and power [ 192 , 208 , 255 ]. As temperatures rise, ferromagnetic materials experience a decline in properties like magnetization and magnetostriction, as their magnetic order diminishes approaching the Curie temperature [ 256 ]. Despite these challenges, ferromagnetic materials are indispensable in various industries. They serve as cores in electric motors and generators, facilitating efficient energy transfer in transformers by directing magnetic flux. Additionally, they are critical for sensor applications in automotive and industrial automation, detecting magnetic fields. In data storage, these materials enable high-speed data writing and reading, even under extreme conditions. Furthermore, they provide a sustainable alternative to conventional refrigeration systems and are ideal for electrical devices, transformers, and magnetic sensors due to their exceptional conductivity and magnetic properties. Materials with high thermal stability and strong magnetic induction are highly desirable for demanding applications. For instance, Fe-Co alloys (Tc=980 °C) in jet engine sensors can withstand 800 °C exhausts, delivering real-time performance data without signal degradation [ 257 – 259 ]. Table 8 provides a comparative summary of five types of magnetic materials for high-power and high-temperature applications. Soft Magnetic Materials are characterized by low coercivity, high permeability, and low core losses, making them ideal for high-frequency operation in transformers, inductors, and electric motors to enhance efficiency. Table 8. Summary of magnetic materials for high-power and high-temperature applications Material type Key properties Applications References Soft magnetic materials Low coercivity, high magnetic permeability, high magnetization with minimal field, low core losses Transformers, inductors, electric motors (e.g., EV traction inverters). En- hance efficiency, reduce energy losses, ideal for high-frequency operation [ 1 , 56 , 91 , 108 , 109 , 207 , 210 , 212 ] Hard magnetic materials High coercivity, high remanence, high energy product ( BH ) max , high Curie temperature, resistance to demagnetization Motors, generators, wind turbines (e.g., direct-drive), hard drives. Enable miniaturization, reduce maintenance, operate in harsh environments [ 1 , 55 , 110 , 111 , 204 , 208 , 220 , 221 ] High-temperature superconductors (HTS) Zero electrical resistance above liquid nitrogen temperatures, high critical current density, generate extremely strong magnetic fields Fusion reactors (e.g., ITER), MRI machines, lossless power transmission, magnetic levitation. Enable plasma confinement, high-field magnets, and highly efficient energy systems [ 11 , 200 , 223 , 236 ] Nanocrystalline & amorphous alloys High initial permeability, very low coercivity, reduced core losses, excellent high-frequency performance High-frequency transformers, magnetic cores for power electronics, inductors. Enable compact, lightweight, and highly efficient designs [ 55 , 170 , 248 , 249 , 260 ] Ferromagnetic materials High saturation magnetization, high Curie temperature ( T C ), strong magnetic induction, good thermal stability Electric motors, generators, sensors (e.g., in jet engines), data storage, transformers. Provide structural and magnetic integrity under extreme thermal and mechanical stress [ 192 , 208 , 253 , 254 , 257 , 259 ] Open in a new tab Hard Magnetic Materials, or permanent magnets, possess high coercivity, remanence, and energy product, enabling their use in motors, generators, and wind turbines for miniaturization and reliable operation in harsh environments. High-Temperature Superconductors exhibit zero electrical resistance and can generate extremely strong magnetic fields, which are critical for applications like fusion reactors (ITER), MRI machines, and lossless power transmission systems. Nanocrystalline and Amorphous Alloys offer high initial permeability and very low coercivity, providing reduced core losses and excellent high-frequency performance for compact and efficient designs in high-frequency transformers and power electronics. Ferromagnetic Materials are defined by high saturation magnetization and high Curie temperature, allowing them to maintain structural and magnetic integrity under extreme stress in applications such as motors, generators, and high-temperature sensors [ 260 , 261 ]. The interplay between thermal and magnetic properties becomes evident when these materials are integrated into real-world systems. The next section explores how their combined use drives innovation in various sectors such as in energy, aerospace, automotive, electronics and telecommunications, data storage, and signal processing, highlighting their complementary roles. Applications of advanced thermal and magnetic materials for high power and high-temperature This field advances solid-state refrigeration to replace conventional systems. Performance is enhanced by stronger magnetic fields, which amplify thermal response and cooling efficiency. Multicaloric coupling, where materials respond to multiple fields (e.g., magnetic, electric), enables enhanced performance and multimode operation [ 215 , 257 ]. Reduced dimensionality materials (ribbons, thin films, nanostructures) offer improved heat exchange and integration potential. Examples include van der Waals ferromagnets like Cr 2 Ge 2 Te 6 , which exhibit combined magnetocaloric and barocaloric effects. The advancement of high-power and high-temperature technologies depends on the creation and use of sophisticated thermal and magnetic materials. In vital industries, these materials enhance performance, dependability, and efficiency, fostering innovation and sustainability. High-temperature materials have many industrial uses and are essential to sustainable engineering. Their importance in production and processing emphasizes the need for materials research that is centered on end-use needs. The goal of sustainable engineering is to develop solutions that promote long-term sustainability, improve resource efficiency, and reduce environmental impact [ 262 , 263 ]. Thermal Energy Storage (TES) systems store thermal energy by heating or cooling a storage medium for later use and help to mitigate peak load demands and lower operational costs. Given their frequent application in high-temperature environments, TES systems commonly utilize phase-change materials and thermochemical materials to enhance energy storage efficiency and stability [ 264 , 265 ]. Energy sector High-temperature thermal storage materials, including molten salts and advanced ceramics, are pivotal in enhancing the efficiency of concentrated solar power systems. These materials facilitate operation at elevated temperatures, boosting thermal efficiency and lowering costs. Concurrently, high-performance magnetic materials, especially rare-earth permanent magnets like neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB), are crucial for direct-drive generators in wind turbines, significantly improving efficiency and minimizing maintenance needs [ 235 , 265 , 266 ]. In Concentrated Solar Power systems, advanced thermal materials like molten salts enable efficient heat storage and transfer, operating at temperatures exceeding 565 °C to improve power generation efficiency. High-performance magnetic materials, with their high magnetic flux density, facilitate compact and efficient direct-drive designs, particularly advantageous for offshore wind farms due to lower maintenance needs and increased reliability [ 159 , 267 , 268 , 269 , 270 , 271 ]. In renewable energy systems, materials such as molten salt phase-change materials enable efficient thermal energy storage in concentrated solar power plants, increasing capacity factors and reducing intermittency [ 25 , 158 ]. High-performance rare-earth magnets like NdFeB enhance the power density and reliability of direct-drive wind turbine generators, lowering maintenance and improving energy yield in offshore environments [ 109 , 110 ]. Geothermal energy Geothermal energy harnesses the Earth’s internal heat for sustainable building heating and power generation. Systems rely on advanced thermal and magnetic materials that endure extreme temperatures while maintaining efficient heat transfer and stable magnetic properties. High thermal conductivity materials such as copper optimize heat exchange, while ferromagnetic materials with high Curie temperatures and advanced rare-earth magnets ensure reliable motor and generator operation in high-temperature environments [ 272 , 273 ]. Low-temperature geothermal systems (50–150 °C) are used for direct heating and binary power plants with outputs up to 50MW [ 272 , 273 ]. Medium- to high-temperature systems (150–300 °C) support flash and dry-steam power generation with typical plant capacities of 5–100MW [ 273 , 274 ]. Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) can exceed 300 °C at depths >3km, targeting higher power densities and improved thermal-to-electric efficiency [ 272 ]. Advanced materials enable geothermal extraction across a wide temperature range, from moderate (90 °C) to ultra-high (>450 °C) conditions [ 271 ]. For wells operating at 200–300 °C, carbon steels and corrosion-resistant alloys are common, though their tensile strength decreases above 350 °C. High-nickel alloys and titanium alloys maintain mechanical performance up to 500–550 °C, ensuring well integrity in harsh environments [ 275 , 276 ]. Thermo- electric materials such as Bi 2 Te 3 and Mg-based compounds enable direct heat-to-electricity conversion at near-room to moderate temperatures, offering clean, low-maintenance power generation. Advanced composites combining polymers with thermally conductive fillers like silicon carbide improve thermal conductivity and corrosion resistance in ground heat exchangers operating around 90 °C [ 277 ]. Copper pipes in ground-source heat pumps operate at 0–40 °C and require corrosion-resistant coatings for longevity in saline geothermal fluids [ 273 ]. Downhole components in high-enthalpy systems use corrosion-resistant alloys (e.g., stainless steel 316, Inconel) to withstand temperatures up to 300 °C, pressures >10MPa, and aggressive chemical environments ( H 2 S, CO 2 , chlorides) [ 272 , 274 ]. Scaling and corrosion challenges in geothermal brines are addressed by materials such as duplex stainless steels, epoxy coatings, and thermally sprayed aluminum, which show low corrosion rates under high-temperature brine exposure. Thermal insulation materials including calcium silicate and aerogels maintain structural integrity up to 650 °C in geothermal steam lines, reducing thermal losses by >20% compared to conventional materials [ 273 ]. Material performance limits are defined by thermal stability, corrosion resistance, mechanical strength, and scaling behavior, with ongoing research focused on tailored coatings, composites, and alloys to optimize efficiency and longevity in geothermal power systems. Power electronics Power electronics are essential for managing and transforming electrical energy in various applications. In electric and hybrid vehicles, they regulate energy flow between the battery, motor, and other components. They also convert and control electricity from renewable sources like solar panels and wind turbines, and ensure efficient power delivery to energy-intensive data centers. Modern electronics rely on high-temperature and high-power materials with optimal thermal and magnetic properties. For example, the oil and gas industry uses high-temperature materials for drilling tools, while aerospace depends on high-power devices. High thermal conductivity materials are crucial to prevent overheating and ensure safe, efficient operation of electronic equipment [ 59 , 60 , 278 ]. Operating semiconductors at high temperatures presents significant challenges, including exponential increases in junction leakage currents and substantial variations in device parameters. Traditional silicon-based devices typically operate only up to 125 °C, necessitating materials capable of reliable performance between 200 and 400 °C. Wide bandgap semiconductors, such as silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN), show promise for high-temperature electronics, despite their existing limitations [ 59 , 279 , 280 , 281 ]. Polymers have also been explored as potential candidates, particularly for high-energy capacitors that operate efficiently at elevated temperatures [ 282 ]. Characterization techniques are crucial for understanding how the structure of these materials behaves under high temperatures. Furthermore, as electricity and magnetism are fundamentally interconnected, the magnetic characteristics of materials play a crucial role in advancing high-temperature and high-power electronics [ 279 – 282 ]. Table 9 compares critical properties of silicon (Si), silicon carbide (SiC), and gallium nitride (GaN) power semiconductor materials. The data highlights the superior performance of wide bandgap (WBG) materials: SiC and GaN exhibit higher bandgaps, breakdown fields, and maximum junction temperatures than Si. Notably, SiC offers excellent thermal conductivity (300–500 W/m·K) and GaN enables ultra-high switching frequencies (up to 10 MHz). These attributes make WBG semiconductors essential for high-temperature, high-power applications in electric vehicles, renewable energy systems, and fast-switching power electronics [ 59 , 279 , 280 , 281 ]. Table 9. Comparison of key properties and performance metrics for Si, SiC, and GaN power semiconductor materials Parameter Si SiC GaN References Bandgap (eV) 1.1 3.3 3.4 [ 59 , 280 ] Breakdown field (MV/cm) 0.3 2.5–3.5 3.3–3.5 [ 279 , 280 ] Thermal conductivity (W/m·K) 150 300–500 130–250 [ 59 , 281 ] Max. junction temp.(°C) 125–150 200–400 150–250 [ 279 , 280 ] Electron mobility (cm 2 /V·s) 1400 800–1000 2000 [ 280 , 281 ] Switching frequency range < 100 kHz 10–500 kHz 500 kHz–10 MHz [ 59 , 279 ] Key applications Low-frequency inverters, IGBTs EV traction, solar inverters, industrial drives RFamplifiers, fast chargers, data centers [ 280 , 281 ] Open in a new tab Nuclear power In nuclear power applications, advanced thermal and magnetic materials are critical for reactor cooling and plasma confinement. Thermal materials and coolants manage heat transfer in fission reactors, while superconducting mag- nets enable magnetic confinement in fusion systems [ 281 , 283 , 284 ]. Fission Reactor Materials focus on thermal management and structural integrity. Zirconium alloys (cladding), stainless steels (pressure vessels), and advanced composites ( SiC/SiC ) are used in fuel cladding and core structures for Gen-III/IV reactors [ 185 , 186 ]. Coolants include water, liquid metals (sodium, lead-bismuth), and molten salts ( FLiBe ), each imposing specific thermal, corrosion, and irradiation stability requirements [ 185 , 284 ]. Operational temperatures range from 300 °C in light-water reactors to >800 °C in high-temperature gas-cooled reactors [ 186 ]. Fusion reactor materials emphasize magnetic confinement and plasma-facing components. High-temperature superconductors (HTS) such as Nb 3 Sn and Y BCO are used in toroidal and poloidal field coils for tokamaks (e.g., ITER, DEMO) [ 11 , 236 ]. Plasma-facing materials (e.g., tungsten, graphite) and breeding blanket materials (e.g., Li–Pb, ceramic pebbles) must withstand extreme neutron flux and heat loads (>10MW/m 2 ) [ 186 , 283 ]. Operating temperatures for fusion blankets exceed 500 °C, requiring high thermal conductivity and radiation resistance [ 283 ]. These advanced materials—including silicon carbide composites, liquid metals, and superconducting magnets—ensure safe, efficient, and durable performance under the extreme conditions of both fission and fusion energy systems. Aerospace and defense In aerospace and defense, advanced magnetic materials such as ferrites and garnets are essential for radar systems, enabling effective signal processing and transmission. These materials provide high permeability and low losses at high frequencies, ensuring efficient radar performance in critical defense applications [ 285 , 286 ]. Furthermore, magnetic materials are integral to electromagnetic propulsion systems, which are essential to develop advanced propulsion technologies in aircraft and spacecraft [ 287 , 288 ]. To manage the extreme heat and intense magnetic fields generated during operation, high-temperature superconductors and thermal management materials are employed in these propulsion systems. These materials enable high-speed propulsion, making them vital for defense applications [ 167 , 289 ]. In aerospace technologies, ceramic matrix composites withstand temperatures exceeding 1500 °C in turbine components, improving fuel efficiency and thrust-to-weight ratios [ 53 , 102 ]. Concurrently, high-temperature superconductors such as YBCO provide strong, stable magnetic fields for electromagnetic launch and airborne power systems with minimal losses , collectively enabling lighter, more efficient propulsion and power systems [ 11 , 236 ]. Automotive industry Thermal and magnetic materials are essential in the automotive sector, particularly for high-power, high-temperature applications such as electric vehicle (EV) motors and power electronics. Rare-earth magnets like NdFeB provide high torque density and efficiency, enabling compact, high-performance motor designs [ 287 , 288 , 290 ]. Thermal mate- rials—including phase-change materials and thermally conductive polymers—manage heat dissipation in batteries and power electronics, ensuring reliability under extreme conditions and extending component life. Together, these materials improve energy efficiency, reduce losses, and enhance durability, supporting the transition to sustainable transportation [ 110 , 281 , 291 , 292 ]. Torque Density Comparison: Induction motors with traditional silicon-steel cores achieve torque densities of ∼20–30Nm/L. Permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) using NdFeB magnets reach ∼40–60Nm/L [ 110 , 292 ]. Advanced PMSMs employing high-grade NdFeB and improved cooling systems can attain up to 70–90Nm/L in high-performance EVs [ 1 , 110 ]. Motor Efficiency Improvements: Conventional silicon-steel motors exhibit peak efficiencies of ∼90–92%. Motors with nanocrystalline Fe–Si–B cores achieve ∼95–97% peak efficiency due to reduced core losses at high frequencies [ 55 , 169 ]. When paired with SiC-based inverters, total drive-system efficiency can exceed 97% under typical driving cycles [ 59 , 281 ]. These advancements underscore how advanced thermal and magnetic materials directly enhance torque density and efficiency, enabling more powerful, compact, and energy-efficient electric vehicles. In electric motors, nanocrystalline soft magnetic alloys (e.g., Fe–Si–B–Nb) reduce core losses by up to 50% at high frequencies, boosting efficiency and power density in electric vehicle drivetrains [ 1 , 55 ]. Concurrently, advanced thermal interface materials and cooling systems using carbon nanotubes or graphene composites manage heat dissipation, preventing thermal degradation and preserving magnetic performance [ 3 , 54 ]. Table 10 this table compares the performance of electric vehicle motor technologies enhanced by advanced thermal and magnetic materials. It illustrates the progression from traditional induction motors to permanent magnet synchronous motors with high-grade NdFeB and nanocrystalline cores, showing significant improvements in torque density. The integration of wide-bandgap semiconductors further boosts overall drive system efficiency [ 1 , 59 , 110 , 292 ] Table 10. Performance comparison of electric vehicle motor technologies with advanced thermal and magnetic materials Motor type/material Torque density (Nm/L) Peak efficiency (%) References Induction Motor (traditional Si–steel) 20–30 90–92 [ 110 , 292 ] PMSM with standard NdFeB magnets 40–60 93–95 [ 110 , 292 ] PMSM with high-grade NdFeB & improved cooling 70–90 95–97 [ 1 , 110 ] Motor with nanocrystalline Fe–Si–B core – 95–97 [ 55 , 169 ] Full drive system (nanocrystalline core + SiC inverter) – > 97 [ 59 , 281 ] Open in a new tab Electronics and telecommunications In electronics and telecommunications, advanced thermal and magnetic materials are crucial for heat dissipation and electromagnetic performance in high-power semiconductors and 5G infrastructure. Magnetic materials such as ferrites and rare-earth magnets enable efficient transformers, inductors, and motors, offering high permeability and thermal stability. Thermal materials, including thermal interface materials (TIMs) and heat sinks, manage heat dissipation to prevent overheating and maintain device integrity in power electronics, communication devices, and data centers, ensuring sustained operation and energy efficiency [ 293 – 297 ]. Thermal interface materials (TIMs) : Graphene-enhanced TIMs (e.g., graphene–epoxy composites) achieve thermal conductivity k ≈ 5–15W/m·K, reducing junction-to-case thermal resistance by up to 40% in 5G power amplifiers [ 3 , 9 ]. Phase-change TIMs (e.g., paraffin-based) maintain consistent thermal contact under thermal cycling, used in high-density server CPUs and GPU modules [ 60 , 160 , 298 ]. Advanced heat sinks : Vapor-chamber heat sinks with embedded CNT wicks enable heat-flux dissipation >500 W/cm 2 , critical for 5G base-station power amplifiers and high-performance computing [ 55 , 147 ]. Additively manufactured aluminum–SiC composite heat sinks with tailored fin structures improve convective heat-transfer coefficients by 30–50% compared to traditional extruded designs [ 3 , 107 ]. EMI-shielding materials : MXene (Ti 3 C 2 T x ) coatings provide shielding effectiveness >50dB at thicknesses <10 µ m, used in 5G smartphone housings and antenna modules [ 299 , 300 ]. Magnetic polymer composites with Fe 3 O 4 or Ni nanoparticles offer dual-function thermal management and EMI suppression, with permeability µ r > 10 and k ≈ 1–3 W/m·K [ 5 , 54 ]. Data storage and signal processing Magnetic materials underpin data-storage technologies, where thin-film alloys and spintronic materials enable high-density storage and rapid processing in hard drives and signal-processing devices. Advances in high-coercivity rare-earth magnets and soft magnetic composites enhance performance under extreme conditions. Thermal management materials—including TIMs, heat sinks, and phase-change materials—are essential for dissipating heat in solid-state drives (SSDs) and hard disk drives (HDDs), as well as in signal-processing units [ 268 , 293 , 298 , 299 , 300 , 301 ]. Magnetic storage (HDD) relies on thin-film magnetic media (e.g., Co–Cr–Pt alloys), read/write heads using giant magnetoresistance (GMR) or tunneling magnetoresistance (TMR) materials, and precision actuators [ 294 , 301 ]. Thermal challenges include head–disk interface heating and lubricant stability; advanced TIMs and passive cooling maintain operational temperatures below 60 °C [ 268 , 298 ]. Solid-state storage (SSD) utilizes NAND flash memory cells, controller chips, and DRAM caches, employing materials such as high- dielectrics (e.g., Hf O 2 ), copper interconnects, and underfill polymers [ 293 , 299 ]. Thermal management is critical due to high power density during read/write cycles; solutions include graphene heat spreaders, phase-change TIMs, and integrated heat pipes [ 3 , 59 ]. Emerging and hybrid technologies include storage-class memory (SCM) such as 3DXPoint, which combines attributes of both HDD and SSD, underscoring the ongoing role of advanced thermal and magnetic materials in future storage architectures [ 300 , 301 ]. Figure 7 illustrates the synergistic applications of advanced thermal and magnetic materials across five key high-power, high-temperature sectors: Energy, Aerospace, Automotive, Electronics, and Data Storage. Each sector comprises specific sub-applications where thermal-material integration is critical: from CSP systems using molten salts [ 158 ] and EV motors employing NdFeB magnets [ 111 ], to aerospace CMCs [ 54 ] and 5G TIMs [ 3 ]. The circular visualization highlights the interconnected nature of these technologies, emphasizing that material performance in extreme environments depends on co-optimized thermal and magnetic properties rather than isolated characteristics [ 4 ]. Fig. 7. Open in a new tab Synergistic applications of advanced thermal and magnetic materials Case studies that illustrate the practical application and impact of advanced thermal and magnetic materials Case studies demonstrate the practical synergy of thermal and magnetic materials in high-power systems. In fusion energy, YBCO high-temperature superconducting tapes in ITER’s toroidal field coils operate at 20–30 K under >12T fields, enabling stable plasma confinement while managing thermal loads through cryogenic insulation [ 11 , 236 ]. For 5G infrastructure, graphene-enhanced thermal interface materials in base-station power amplifiers reduce junction temperature by 15–20 °C, improving reliability under high-frequency operation [ 3 , 7 ]. In electric vehicles, Fe–Si–B nanocrystalline soft magnetic cores in traction inverters cut core losses by 50% at 20 kHz, enabling higher power density and efficiency [ 1 , 55 ]. Advanced materials have significant impact across industries. Nanocrystalline and amorphous magnetic materials reduce power loss and improve thermal dissipation in high-power-density transformers and electrical machines, mitigating temperature rise and degradation [ 302 ]. High-temperature superconductors enable efficient power generation and transport through improved electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties. Magnetocaloric and pyromagnetic materials offer energy-efficient cooling and thermal harvesting, with research focused on over- coming deployment barriers [ 303 , 304 ]. Innovative thermal management techniques, such as magnetically regulated phase-change materials, provide rapid heat transfer and temperature control in thermal storage devices. Permeability-engineered nanocrystalline alloys maintain stability above 300 °C and high frequencies, enabling reliable operation of power components in extreme environments [ 305 ]. These cases illustrate how co-optimized material selection yields quantifiable gains in temperature reduction, efficiency, and system reliability. Emerging technologies and materials Machine learning (ML) and additive manufacturing (AM) are increasingly integrated to accelerate material design, optimize process parameters, and improve quality control, particularly for advanced materials in high-power and high-temperature environments [ 306 , 307 ]. Traditional parametric models become infeasible due to the numerous sources of variation affecting component properties, but ML effectively handles these intricate, high-dimensional relationships [ 308 , 309 ]. ML models surpass traditional physical models in identifying nonlinear relationships between process parameters, microstructures, and mechanical properties [ 309 , 310 ], which is critical for optimizing AM processes where materials must withstand extreme thermal and mechanical loads. The integration of ML with AM represents a paradigm shift in developing and optimizing advanced materials for extreme environments, enabling real-time process control and defect detection to enhance build consistency and performance. Machine learning Machine learning (ML) is increasingly applied in additive manufacturing (AM) to accelerate material design, optimize process parameters, and improve quality control, particularly for advanced materials used in high power and high temperature environments. Key datasets such as the Materials project and AFLOW provide extensive materials properties data that support training of ML models [ 309 – 312 ]. These databases demonstrate the transformative power of data democratization in materials science, and similar comprehensive data infrastructure is needed for AM to accelerate the development of optimized processes for high-temperature applications [ 311 ]. Common ML models in this domain include graph neural networks (GNNs), which capture complex material structures, and XGBoost, known for efficient regression and classification tasks [ 313 , 314 ]. Deep learning approaches show exceptional results, with Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) extensively used for real-time porosity prediction and microstructure analysis [ 7 , 315 ], and Residual-Recurrent CNN architectures achieving 99.49% accuracy for porosity prediction [ 312 ]. Physics-informed neural networks (PINNs) have recently emerged to integrate physical laws with data-driven learning, improving prediction accuracy of temperature and melt pool dynamics in metal AM processes under extreme conditions [ 316 , 317 ]. Machine learning-driven approaches have reduced experimental trial-and-error cycles in designing high-temperature superconductors, enabling rapid discovery of materials with tailored thermal stability and magnetic flux-pinning capabilities. PINNs further optimize magnetic hysteresis loops in electric motors, enhancing efficiency under thermal stress by predicting performance degradation and enabling real-time material adjustments [ 318 , 316 ]. ML revolutionizes the ability to predict and control microstructure formation and porosity in AM processes. The approach involves analyzing sensor data to predict outcomes like hardness, surface roughness, and porosity, based on the hypothesis that anomalies like pores have characteristic signatures in temperature timeseries. Deep Learning- based porosity prediction enables real-time prediction using thermal images of melt pools, with Res-RCNN achieving 99.49% accuracy and 8.67ms inference time [ 315 ], which is particularly important for high-temperature materials where porosity compromises component performance. ML algorithms identify intricate relationships among nonlinear variables without requiring specific physical models, making them valuable for determining mechanical properties and understanding complex process-structure-property relationships. ML models for microstructure prediction rely on diverse input features including process parameters, thermal history, grain orientation, microstructural images, in-situ monitoring data, and material-specific attributes, with CNNs widely used for defect detection, grain size estimation, porosity analysis, and phase segmentation [ 318 ]. Additive manufacturing In additive manufacturing (AM), critical process variables such as laser power, scanning speed, and build temperature strongly influence microstructure evolution and porosity formation, which in turn affect mechanical properties and part reliability [ 319 – 321 ]. The temperature field created during AM builds critically determines microstructure, porosity, and grain size [ 322 ]. Key AM process parameters including laser power, scanning speed, layer thickness, hatch spacing, and beam diameter significantly influence material properties and defect formation [ 319 – 321 ]. In high-power, high-temperature environments, the melt pool shape—affected by laser power and scan velocity—directly determines material properties [ 323 ], requiring careful parameter selection to achieve de- sired geometry with high density and low porosity [ 319 ]. Melt pool characteristics and key AM parameters strongly influence defect mechanisms like lack of fusion, balling phenomena, and keyhole formation [ 314 ]. Additional factors including part orientation, powder feed rate, and powder quality significantly affect manufacturing processes for advanced materials in extreme environments [ 320 ], making ML algorithms for automatic defect detection and parameter optimization particularly valuable [?], [ 314 ]. ML models enable prediction and optimization of these process effects, facilitating real-time process control and defect detection to enhance build consistency and performance. Physics-informed neural networks (PINNs) have recently emerged to integrate physical laws with data-driven learning, improving prediction accuracy of temperature and melt pool dynamics in metal AM processes under extreme conditions [ 313 , 316 , 317 ]. Additive manufacturing unlocks novel material architectures such as 3D-printed ceramic- matrix composites (CMCs), offering lightweight, high-strength solutions for aerospace thermal management that withstand temperatures exceeding 1500 °C while maintaining structural integrity [ 324 , 325 ]. Laser powder bed fusion enables magnetic components with spatially graded permeability, minimizing eddy current losses in high-frequency transformers operating at elevated temperatures [ 185 , 326 ]. AM advances thermal and magnetic materials for high-power/high-temperature applications via complex geometries and functional grading, integrating functionalities into monolithic structures for aerospace actuators and power electronics [ 327 – 330 ]. It enhances thermal management through magnetic regenerators and embedded cooling channels. Soft magnetic alloys improve permeability, while graded Fe–Co/Fe–Ni alloys ensure microstructural stability at high temperatures [ 331 , 332 ]. AM-compatible composites like magnetite-polymers and FeSi alloys provide tun- able responses. Machine learning synergizes with AM to accelerate material development for energy-dense systems in renewable grids and electric propulsion. Future innovations leverage multi-material processes to address thermal degradation and hysteresis, solidifying AM’s role in extreme environments [ 333 – 336 ]. By leveraging comprehensive materials databases and employing sophisticated ML models including GNNs, XGBoost, CNNs, and specialized neural architectures, researchers effectively model complex relationships between AM process parameters and material properties. This data-driven approach enables real-time process monitoring, defect prediction, and parameter optimization that traditional physics-based models cannot achieve efficiently. As AM data infrastructure develops and ML algorithms become more sophisticated, the potential for accelerating reliable, high-performance materials for extreme environments continues to increase. Emerging materials: 2D magnetic materials, MXenes, and high-entropy alloys Emerging materials such as two-dimensional (2D) magnetic materials, MXenes, and high-entropy alloys (HEAs) are pivotal for high-power, high-temperature applications due to their exceptional structural, electronic, and magnetic properties. 2D magnetic materials like CrI 3 and Cr 2 Ge 2 Te 6 exhibit room-temperature ferromagnetism with Curie temperatures ( T C ) exceeding 300 K and enhanced magnetocaloric effects, enabling high-temperature spintronic sensors and magnetic-cooling devices [ 337 – 339 ]. Specific experimental metrics include magnetocaloric entropy changes of up to 15 J/kgK near T C under moderate magnetic fields, demonstrating their capacity for solid-state refrigeration. MXenes (e.g., T i 3 C 2 T x ) demonstrate outstanding electrical conductivity (> 10 4 S/cm), thermal stability up to 500 °C in air, and electromagnetic-shielding effectiveness > 50 dB at thicknesses < 10 µm [ 299 , 300 , 340 ]. Experimentally, MXene-based supercapacitors achieve specific capacitances > 350F/g with > 90% capacity retention after 10,000 cycles at elevated temperatures. Magnetic MXene variants and Janus structures show robust ferromagnetism with T C values up to ∼ 1100 K and magnetic moments exceeding 3 µ B per formula unit, making them suitable for high-temperature spintronics and integrated electromagnetic components [ 341 , 342 ]. High-entropy alloys such as CoCrFeNiMn and Hf NbTaTiZr provide exceptional thermal stability above 1000 °C, compressive strengths > 1.2 GPa, and yield strengths > 800 MPa at 600 °C, directly addressing thermal degradation challenges in aerospace and nuclear systems [ 165 , 166 , 343 ]. High-entropy MXenes combine chemical complexity with 2D morphology, offering enhanced mechanical hardness (> 15 GPa) and configurational entropy > 1.5 R for harsh-environment ap- plications where both thermal and structural resilience are required [ 344 – 346 ]. Machine learning accelerates the discovery and optimization of these emerging materials. For HEAs, ML predicts phases, mechanical properties, and oxidation resistance, enabling targeted design for extreme environments [ 347 – 349 ]. Automated AI-driven cycles integrate high-throughput screening and robotic laboratories, drastically reducing development time [ 350 , 351 ]. ML interatomic potentials enhance molecular-dynamics simulations, providing atomic-level insights into high-temperature performance [ 352 , 353 ]. ML-guided additive manufacturing optimizes process parameters with >90% prediction accuracy, enabling the fabrication of graded HEA and MXene-reinforced structures with precisely tailored thermal-mechanical properties [ 354 , 355 ]. Hybrid material systems that integrate HEAs, MXenes, and 2D magnets leverage complementary strengths for multifunctional applications. How- ever, challenges in scalable synthesis, long-term stability under cyclic thermal loading, and interfacial compatibility remain active research frontiers [ 310 , 356 ]. ML-optimized compositions are particularly well-suited for additive-manufacturing processes such as laser powder-bed fusion, where ML also optimizes processing parameters and detects defects, enabling the production of high-performance components for aerospace and energy systems. Data-driven approaches, including high-throughput virtual screening and Bayesian optimization, expedite the discovery of materials with tailored thermal, magnetic, and mechanical properties [ 357 ]. Collectively, ML-driven material design and advanced manufacturing promise a new generation of efficient, durable, and multifunctional materials capable of operating reliably in extreme high-power, high-temperature environments. Table 11 summarizes key performance metrics of emerging materials for high-power, high-temperature ap- plications. It compares 2D magnetic materials, MXenes, high-entropy alloys (HEAs), and their hybrid variants, quantifying their electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties. The table provides numerical benchmarks and supporting references to substantiate each material class’s capabilities in extreme environments. Table 11. Comparative summary of emerging materials for high-power, high-temperature applications Material Class Key metrics Typical values References 2DMagnetic Materials Room-temperature ferromagnetism, Curie temperature, magnetocaloric effect T C > 300 K, Δ S m ∼15 J/kg·K [ 333 – 335 ] MXenes Electrical conductivity, shielding effectiveness, thermal stability, magnetic properties > 10 4 S/cm, > 50 dB at < 10 µm, stable up to 500 °C, T C up to ∼ 1100 K [ 296 , 297 , 336 , 337 ] High-Entropy Alloys (HEAs) Thermal stability, mechanical strength, corrosion resistance Stable > 1000 °C, yield strength > 800 MPa at 600 °C [ 165 , 166 , 309 ] High-Entropy MXenes Entropy stabilization, mechanical hardness, tunable electronic structure Hardness > 15GPa, configurational entropy > 1.5 R [ 339 – 341 ] Machine-Learning Guided Manufacturing Process optimization accuracy, property prediction > 90% parameter optimization accuracy, predictive R 2 > 0.85 [ 350 , 351 ] Open in a new tab Distinct features of emerging materials Emerging materials for high-power and high-temperature applications distinguish themselves from traditional materials through enhanced multifunctional properties, improved thermal stability, and novel structural designs. Key examples include 2D magnetic materials (e.g., CrI 3 , Fe 3 GeTe 2 ), which offer atomic-scale thickness, tunable magnetism via strain or doping, and unique quantum phenomena absent in bulk ferromagnets [ 337 , 338 ]; MXenes (e.g., Ti 3 C 2 T x ), combining high electrical conductivity, hydrophilicity, and mechanically flexible 2D layers for multifunctional use in EMI shielding and flexible electronics [ 299 , 300 ]; and high-entropy alloys (HEAs) (e.g., CoCrFeNiMn), which derive stability from configurational entropy, yielding exceptional high-temperature strength, corrosion resistance, and irradiation tolerance compared to conventional superalloys [ 165 , 343 ]. Traditional materials such as SiGe alloys, oxides, and half-Heusler compounds have been widely used due to established reliability and moderate thermoelectric efficiency, but they often face limitations in power output and thermal conductivity at very high temperatures [ 358 ]. In contrast, emerging materials like advanced composites, nanostructured thermoelectrics, wide-bandgap semiconductors, and novel dielectric and magnetic materials offer superior thermal management, higher power factors, and improved mechanical robustness through doping, heterostructures, and nanoscale engineering [ 15 , 359 , 360 ]. For instance, hybrid organic–inorganic thermoelectric materials and nanocomposites demonstrate synergistic effects that enhance both electrical conductivity and thermal stability beyond traditional materials [ 360 ]. Additionally, advanced thermal interface materials and novel die attach materials improve heat dissipation and packaging reliability in high-power electronics, addressing challenges that traditional materials struggle with. Overall, emerging materials provide a pathway to higher efficiency, greater power density, and longer operational lifetimes in harsh environments, driven by innovations in material synthesis, architecture, and interdisciplinary approaches [ 15 , 359 ]. Table 12 provides a synoptic view of advanced thermal and magnetic materials, correlating their intrinsic proper- ties with targeted high-power, high-temperature applications. Each material class is characterized by its dominant thermal and magnetic attributes, which dictate its suitability for specific functions—from the high conductivity of metals for heat exchangers to the zero-resistance of superconductors for power transmission. The summary serves as a cross-functional selection guide for engineers designing systems that must simultaneously manage extreme thermal loads and magnetic performance [ 12 , 84 , 105 , 208 , 361 ]. Table 12. Applications of advanced thermal and magnetic materials for high-power and high-temperature Systems Material type Thermal Properties MagneticProper- ties Applications References Ceramics High thermal stability, low thermal conductivity, high melting point Non-magnetic (except ferrites: ferrimagnetic) Insulators, sensors, high temperature coatings [ 120 , 361 ] Composites Tailorablethermal conductivity, low thermal expansion Non-magneticunless magnetic fillers added Light weight structures, Thermal management, electromagnetic shielding [ 107 , 361 ] Metals and Alloys Highthermalconductivity and melting point Ferromagnetic (Fe, Ni, Co), high T C Motors, generators, heat exchangers, magnetic storage [ 92 , 142 , 362 ] CNTs Extremely high thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion Diamagnetic, tunable with doping Thermal interfaces, sensors, electromagnetic shielding [ 105 ] PCMs High latent heat capacity, low thermal conductivity Non-magnetic Thermal energy storage and regulation [ 63 , 160 , 363 ] Soft Magnetic Materials Moderate thermal conductivity, high T C High permeability, low coercivity and hysteresis losses Transformers, inductors, electric motors [ 1 , 84 , 110 , 142 ] Hard Magnetic Materials Moderate thermal conductivity, high thermal stability Highcoercivity,remanence, and energy product ( BH ) max Permanent magnets, sensors, high temperature motors [ 84 , 142 , 222 ] HTS Low thermal conductivity in superconducting state, high critical temperature T c Zero resistance, high critical magnetic field Power transmission, magnetic levitation, high-field magnets [ 12 , 168 , 200 ] Nanocrystalline & Amorphous Alloys Low thermal conductivity, high thermal stability up to crystallization temperature High permeability, low coercivity, low hysteresis losses Transformers, sensors, magnetic shielding [ 56 , 249 ] Ferromagnetic Materials Moderate to high thermal conductivity, high T C Highmagnetization, spontaneous magnetization below T C Motors, generators, magnetic storage devices [ 192 , 208 , 254 ] Open in a new tab Challenges and future perspectives The development and large-scale adoption of advanced thermal and magnetic materials for high-power, high-temperature applications face significant challenges. Key issues include thermal degradation near the Curie point, leading to demagnetization and reduced efficiency; high manufacturing costs and scalability constraints, especially for rare-earth magnets; and material degradation under extreme thermal and mechanical stresses, which limits reliability and lifespan [ 1 , 4 , 12 , 14 , 208 ]. Additionally, phase segregation in molten-salt PCMs, corrosion at elevated temperatures, and the difficulty of simultaneously optimizing thermal conductivity, magnetic saturation, and mechanical strength complicate material design and integration into existing systems [ 2 , 13 , 15 ]. Emerging technologies such as machine learning (ML) and additive manufacturing (AM) offer promising pathways to address these challenges. Machine learning accelerates material discovery by training on high-throughput datasets to predict critical properties such as Curie temperature, thermal conductivity, and hysteresis losses, thereby reducing experimental trial-and-error and enabling the design of rare-earth-free magnetic compositions or optimized high-entropy alloys [ 299 , 343 , 364 , 365 ]. ML also supports real-time process monitoring, defect detection, and parameter optimization in manufacturing, improving consistency and reducing costs [ 310 , 313 , 366 , 367 ]. Additive manufacturing enables the fabrication of complex, graded, and multi-material architectures that are unattainable with conventional methods. AM can produce components with embedded cooling channels for enhanced thermal management or 3D-printed magnetic parts with spatially varying permeability to minimize eddy-current losses [ 324 , 326 ]. By supporting rapid prototyping and small-batch production, AM lowers the barrier to testing and scaling new material systems, while physics-informed neural networks and ML-assisted multiscale design further enhance predictive modeling and process control [ 316 , 368 ]. Together, ML and AM facilitate the scalable, cost-effective production of advanced materials tailored for demanding high-power, high-temperature environments. Future Perspectives: The future of advanced thermal and magnetic materials hinges on integrating cutting-edge technologies, innovative material design, and efficient energy conversion systems. Key focus areas include enhancing electric vehicle technologies and developing robust aerospace solutions, with emphasis on smart materials that adapt to dynamic conditions for improved performance and reliability in extreme environments [ 365 , 369 , 370 ]. Machine learning and computational modeling accelerate the discovery of tailored materials, while advanced characterization techniques operating under high temperatures and strong magnetic fields provide deeper insight into material behavior under extreme conditions [ 59 , 220 , 371 ]. Future research should focus on accelerating the development of multifunctional material systems that seamlessly integrate thermal management, magnetic performance, and structural integrity, such as self-regulating magnetic composites and graded ceramic–metal hybrids for aerospace and energy applications [ 364 ]. Advances in physics-informed machine learning frameworks are essential to predict long-term material degradation under coupled thermal, magnetic, and mechanical stresses, enabling digital twins for extreme-environment components [ 58 ]. Sustainable and circular material strategies must be prioritized, including the design of rare-earth-free magnets, recyclable high-temperature superconductors, and bio-derived thermal interface materials to reduce environmental impact and supply-chain dependencies. Interdisciplinary collaboration between materials scientists, computational modelers, and industrial engineers should be fostered to establish standardized testing protocols, open-access material databases, and scalable manufacturing pathways that bridge laboratory innovation and commercial deployment [ 343 , 325 ]. Actionable recommendations are needed to address scalability, sustainability, and performance gaps. Accelerate ML-guided material discovery by establishing open-access high-temperature material databases and deploying generative AI to design rare-earth-free magnets such as Mn-Al-C systems [ 372 ]. Standardize additive manufacturing through protocols for laser powder bed fusion of ceramic–metal composites and optimization of Fe-Si-B-Nb alloy processing to achieve low porosity, facilitated by industry consortia like the Advanced Manufacturing Collaborative [ 185 , 326 ]. Scale sustainable production via solvent-free CNT-polymer synthesis and pilot roll-to-roll graphene-enhanced phase-change materials, supported by incentives for bio-based binders. Enhance recycling infrastructure through hydrometallurgical processes for high Nd/Co recovery and blockchain-tracked reuse of high-temperature superconducting magnets, enforced by Extended Producer Responsibility laws. Foster cross-disciplinary training via graduate programs and funded innovation hubs for ML-driven thermal-stress modeling in fusion materials. These steps will bridge lab-scale innovations to industrial adoption, unlocking the full potential of advanced thermal and magnetic materials for high-power, high-temperature applications [ 373 – 375 ]. Fig. 8. Open in a new tab Challenges and future directions Conclusion The advancement of high-power, high-temperature technologies across renewable energy, aerospace, and electronics demands materials capable of withstanding extreme thermal and magnetic stresses. This review highlights that performance in these environments is governed by synergistic thermal-magnetic coupling, where effective thermal management preserves magnetic properties and optimized magnetic design reduces thermal losses. Specific materials demonstrate notable advantages: Fe–Co alloys achieve Curie temperatures up to 980 °C, nanocrystalline Fe–Si–B alloys reduce core losses by up to 50% at high frequencies, and YBCO superconductors reach critical current densities exceeding 10 6 A/cm 2 at 77 K. Emerging technologies like machine learning and additive manufacturing further enhance design capabilities, enabling more efficient and complex material architectures. These insights underscore the need for integrated, system-level material design rather than isolated property optimization. Significant research gaps remain, including limited datasets linking atomic-scale composition to macroscopic performance under coupled stresses, poorly characterized long-term degradation mechanisms for novel composites, and a lack of validated predictive models and standardized testing protocols for extreme conditions. Technological barriers include the high cost and scalability challenges of manufacturing advanced materials (e.g., aligned CNT composites with thermal conductivity up to 3500 W/m·K), integration issues at material interfaces with failure rates up to 15%, volatile rare-earth supply chains, and low recycling efficiency (30–50% recovery rates). Future research should prioritize: (1) developing rare-earth-free magnets with Curie temperatures >400 °C and energy products >100 kJ/m 3 ; (2) creating physics-informed ML frameworks with high accuracy for degradation prediction; (3) establishing open-access databases with>10 4 data points across 20–1000 °C;(4) advancing additive manufacturing for multi-material components with interfacial thermal resistance <10 −4 m 2 ·K/W; and (5) implementing circular economy strategies targeting >80% material recovery. This review also notes inherent material trade-offs, such as high thermal conductivity (>300 W/m·K) often correlating with high thermal expansion, and the performance limitations of NdFeB magnets despite their high magnetic energy density (>334 kJ/m 3 ). Limitations of this analysis include the predominance of lab-scale data, inadequate long-term degradation models, insufficient economic assessments, and the rapidly evolving nature of the field. Ad- dressing these challenges through interdisciplinary collaboration will be essential for developing the next generation of efficient, sustainable, and resilient high-power technologies. Abbreviations C Heat capacity (specific) (J·kg −1 ·K −1 ) [Eq. ( 1 )] Q Heat energy (J) [Thermal energy transfer] T Temperature (K) [Absolute temperature] dT/ dx Thermal gradient (K/m) [Fourier’s law, Eq. ( 3 )] K Thermal conductivity (W·m −1 ·K −1 ) [Fourier’s law, Eq. ( 3 )] q Heat flux (W·m −2 ) [Fourier’s law, Eq. ( 3 )] α Thermal expansion coefficient ( K −1 ) [Eq. ( 2 )] σ Thermal stress (Pa) [ σ = Eα Δ T (Eq. ( 4 ))] E Material’s stiffness (Pa) [Modulus (Eq. ( 4 ))] M Magnetization (A·m −1 or T) [Magnetic moment per volume (Eq. ( 5 ))] B Magnetic flux density (T) [Magnetic field strength] H Magnetic field intensity (A·m −1 ) [Applied magnetic field] µ 0 Permeability of free space (H·m −1 ) [4 π × 10 −7 H·m −1 ] T C Curie temperature (K) [Ferromagnetic–paramagnetic transition] H c Coercivity (A·m −1 ) [Resistance to demagnetization] M r Remanence(A·m −1 or T) [Residual magnetization] M s Saturation magnetization (A·m −1 or T) [Maximum magnetization] ( BH ) max Maximum energy product (J·m −3 or T·A·m −1 ) [Permanent magnet performance] J c Critical current density (A·m −2 ) [Superconductors] Δ H Latent heat of phase change (J·kg −1 ) [PCM] P core Total core loss per volume (W·m −3 ) [Eq. 8 ] P h Hysteresis loss per volume (W·m −3 ) [ P h = k h f B n m (Eq. ( 8 ))] P e Eddy current loss per volume (W·m −3 ) [ P e = k e f 2 B 2 m (Eq. ( 8 ))] k h Hysteresis loss coefficient (J·m −3 ·Hz −1 ·T −n ) [Proportional to H c (Eq. ( 8 ))] k e Eddy current loss coefficient (Ω −1 ·m·Hz −2 ·T −2 ) [ k e ∝ 1 / ( ρµ ) (Eq. ( 8 ))] B m Peak magnetic flux density (T) [Maximum flux density in cycle] ρ Electrical resistivity (Ω·m) [Influences k e (Eq. ( 8 ) Author contributions All authors contributed to the design, writing, editing, compiling, and submission of the paper. 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