A history of China., [3d ed. rev. and enl.]

INDEX p. 199 : On money policy see Yang Lien-sheng, Katō Shigeru and others. p. 200 : The history of one of the Southern Dynasties has been translated by Ed. H. Schafer, The Empire of Min , Tokyo 1954; Schafer's annotations provide much detail for the cultural and economic conditions of the coastal area.—For tea and its history, I use my own research; for tea trade a study by K. Kawakami and an article in the Frontier Studies , vol. 3, 1943.—Salt consumption according to H. T. Fei, Earthbound China , 1945, p. 163. p. 201 : For salt I used largely my own research. For porcelain production Li Chien-nung and other modern articles.—On paper, the classical study is Th. F. Carter, The Invention of Printing in China , New York 1925 (a revised edition now published by L. C. Goodrich). p. 202 : For paper money in the early period, see Yang Lien-sheng, Money and Credit in China , Cambridge, Mass., 1952. Although the origin of paper money seems to be well established, it is interesting to note that already in the third century A.D. money made of paper was produced and was burned during funeral ceremonies to serve as financial help for the dead. This money was, however, in the form of coins.—On iron money see Yang Lien-sheng; I also used an article in Tung-fang tsa-chih , vol. 35, No. 10. p. 203 : For the Kitan (Chines: Ch'i-tan) and their history see K. A.  Wittfogel and Feng Chia-sheng, History of Chinese Society. Liao , Philadelphia 1949. p. 204 : For these dynasties, I rely upon my own research.—Niida Noboru and Katō Shigeru have studied adoption laws; our specific case has in addition been studied by M. Kurihara. This system of adoptions is non-Chinese and has its parallels among Turkish tribes (A. Kollantz, Abdulkadir Inan, Osman Turan). p. 207 : For the persecution I used K. Tamai and my own research. p. 211 : This is based mainly upon my own research.—The remark on tax income is from Ch'üan Han-sheng. p. 212 : Fan Chung-yen has been studied recently by J. Fischer and D.  Twitchett, but these notes on price policies are based upon my own work.—I regard the statement, that it was the gentry which prevented the growth of an industrial society—a statement which has often been made before—as preliminary, and believe that further research, especially in the growth of cities and urban institutions may lead to quite different explanations.—On estate management I relied on Y.  Sudô's work. p. 213 : Research on place names such as mentioned here, has not yet been systematically done.—On i-chuang I relied upon the work by T. Makino and D. Twitchett.—This process of tax-evasion has been used by K. A.  Wittfogel (1938) to construct a theory of a crisis cycle in China. I do not think that such far-reaching conclusions are warranted. p. 214 : This "law" was developed on the basis of Chinese materials from different periods as well as on materials from other parts of Asia.—In the study of tenancy, cases should be studied in which wealthier farmers rent additional land which gets cultivated by farm labourers. Such cases are well known from recent periods, but have not yet been studied in earlier periods. At the same time, the problem of farm labourers should be investigated. Such people were common in the Sung time. Research along these lines could further clarify the importance of the so-called "guest families" ( k'o-hu ) which were alluded to in these pages. They constituted often one third of the total population in the Sung period. The problem of migration and mobility might also be clarified by studying the k'o-hu. p. 215 : For Wang An-shih, the most comprehensive work is still H.  Williamson's Wang An-shih , London 1935, 3 vol., but this work in no way exhausts the problems. We have so much personal data on Wang that a psychological study could be attempted; and we have since Williamson's time much deeper insight into the reforms and theories of Wang. I used, in addition to Williamson, O. Franke, and my own research. p. 216 : Based mainly upon Ch'ü T'ung-tsu.—For the social legislation see Hsü I-t'ang; for economic problems I used Ch'üan Han-sheng, Ts'en Chung-mien and Liu Ming-shu.—Most of these relief measures had their precursors in the T'ang period. p. 217 : It is interesting to note that later Buddhism gave up its "social gospel" in China. Buddhist circles in Asian countries at the present time attempt to revive this attitude. p. 218 : For slaughtering I used A. Hulsewé; for greeting R. Michihata; on law Ch'ü T'ung-tsu; on philosophy I adapted ideas from Chan Wing-sit. p. 219 : A comprehensive study of Chu Hsi is a great desideratum. Thus far, we have in English mainly the essays by Feng Yu-lan (transl. and annotated by D. Bodde) in the Harvard Journal of Asiat. Stud. , vol. 7, 1942. T. Makino emphasized Chu's influence upon the Far East, J. Needham his interest in science. p. 220 : For Su Tung-p'o as general introduction see Lin Yutang, The Gay Genius. The Life and Times of Su Tungpo , New York 1947.—For painting, I am using concepts of A. Soper here. p. 222 : For this period the standard work is K. A. Wittfogel and Feng Chia-sheng, History of Chinese Society, Liao , Philadelphia 1949.—Po-hai had been in tributary relations with the dynasties of North China before its defeat, and resumed these from 932 on; there were even relations with one of the South Chinese states; in the same way, Kao-li continuously played one state against the other (M. Rogers et al. ). p. 223 : On the Kara-Kitai see Appendix to Wittfogel-Feng. p. 228 : For the Hakka, I relied mainly upon Lo Hsiang-lin; for Chia Ssu-tao upon H. Franke. p. 229 : The Ju-chên (Jurchen) are also called Nü-chih and Nü-chen, but Ju-chen seems to be correct ( Studia Serica , vol. 3, No. 2). Chapter Ten p. 233 : I use here mainly Meng Ssu-liang, but also others, such as Chü Ch'ing-yüan and Li Chien-nung.—The early political developments are described by H. D. Martin, The Rise of Chingis Khan and his Conquest of North China , Baltimore 1950. p. 236 : I am alluding here to such Taoist sects as the Cheng-i-chiao (Sun K'o-k'uan and especially the study in Kita Aziya gakuhō , vol. 2). pp. 236 -7: For taxation and all other economic questions I have relied upon Wan Kuo-ting and especially upon H. Franke. The first part of the main economic text is translated and annotated by H. F. Schurmann, Economic Structure of the Yüan Dynasty , Cambridge, Mass., 1956. p. 237 : On migrations see T. Makino and others.—For the system of communications during the Mongol time and the privileges of merchants, I used P. Olbricht. p. 238 : For the popular rebellions of this time, I used a study in the Bull. Acad. Sinica , vol. 10, 1948, but also Meng Ssu-liang and others. p. 239 : On the White Lotos Society (Pai-lien-hui) see note to previous page and an article by Hagiwara Jumpei. p. 240 : H. Serruys, The Mongols in China during the Hung-wu Period , Bruges 1959, has studied in this book and in an article the fate of isolated Mongol groups in China after the breakdown of the dynasty. pp. 241 -2: The travel report of Ch'ang-ch'un has been translated by A.  Waley, The Travels of an Alchemist , London 1931. pp. 242 : Hsi-hsiang-chi has been translated by S. I. Hsiung. The Romance of the Western Chamber , London 1935. All important analytic literature on drama and theatre is written by Chinese and Japanese authors, especially by Yoshikawa Kôjirô.—For Bon and early Lamaism, I used H. Hoffmann. p. 243 : Lamaism in Mongolia disappeared later, however, and was re-introduced in the reformed form (Tsong-kha-pa, 1358-1419) in the sixteenth century. See R. J. Miller, Monasteries and Culture Change in Inner Mongolia , Wiesbaden 1959. p. 245 : Much more research is necessary to clarify Japanese-Chinese relations in this period, especially to determine the size of trade. Good material is in the article by S. Iwao. Important is also S. Sakuma and an article in Li-shih yen-chiu 1955, No. 3. For the loss of coins, I relied upon D. Brown. p. 246 : The necessity of transports of grain and salt was one of the reasons for the emergence of the Hsin-an and Hui-chou merchants. The importance of these developments is only partially known (studies mainly by H. Fujii and in Li-shih-yen-chiu 1955, No. 3). Data are also in an unpublished thesis by Ch. Mac Sherry, The Impairment of the Ming Tributary System , and in an article by Wang Ch'ung-wu. p. 247 : The tax system of the Ming has been studied among others by Liang Fang-chung. Yoshiyuki Suto analysed the methods of tax evasion in the periods before the reform. For the land grants, I used Wan Kuo-ting's data. p. 248 : Based mainly upon my own research. On the progress of agriculture wrote Li Chien-nung and also Katō Shigeru and others. p. 250 : I believe that further research would discover that the "agrarian revolution" was a key factor in the economic and social development of China. It probably led to another change in dietary habits; it certainly led to a greater labour input per person, i.e. a higher number of full working days per year than before. It may be—but only further research can try to show this—that the "agrarian revolution" turned China away from technology and industry.—On cotton and its importance see the studies by M. Amano, and some preliminary remarks by P. Pelliot. p. 250 -1: Detailed study of Central Chinese urban centres in this time is a great desideratum. My remarks here have to be taken as very preliminary. Notice the special character of the industries mentioned!—The porcelain centre of Ching-tê-chen was inhabited by workers and merchants (70-80 per cent of population); there were more than 200 private kilns.—On indented labour see Li Chien-nung, H. Iwami and Y. Yamane. p. 253 : On pien-wen I used R. Michihata, and for this general discussion R. Irvin, The Evolution of a Chinese Novel , Cambridge, Mass., 1953, and studies by J. Jaworski and J. Prušek. Many texts of pien-wen and related styles have been found in Tunhuang and have been recently republished by Chinese scholars. p. 254 : Shui-hu-chuan has been translated by Pearl Buck, All Men are Brothers . Parts of Hsi-yu-chi have been translated by A. Waley, Monkey , London 1946. San-kuo yen-i is translated by C. H.  Brewitt-Taylor, San Kuo, or Romance of the Three Kingdoms , Shanghai 1925 (a new edition just published). A purged translation of Chin-p'ing-mei is published by Fr. Kuhn Chin P'ing Mei , New York 1940. p. 255 : Even the "murder story" was already known in Ming time. An example is R. H. van Gulik, Dee Gong An. Three Murder Cases solved by Judge Dee , Tokyo 1949. p. 256 : For a special group of block-prints see R. H. van Gulik, Erotic Colour Prints of the Ming Dynasty , Tokyo 1951. This book is also an excellent introduction into Chinese psychology. p. 257 : Here I use work done by David Chan. p. 258 : I use here the research of J. J. L. Duyvendak; the reasons for the end of such enterprises, as given here, may not exhaust the problem. It may not be without relevance that Cheng came from a Muslim family. His father was a pilgrim ( Bull. Chin. Studies , vol. 3, pp. 131-70). Further research is desirable.—Concerning folk-tales, I use my own research. The main Buddhist tales are the Jataka stories. They are still used by Burmese Buddhists in the same context. p. 260 : The Oirat (Uyrat, Ojrot, Ölöt) were a confederation of four tribal groups: Khosud, Dzungar, Dörbet and Turgut. p. 261 : I regard this analysis of Ming political history as unsatisfactory, but to my knowledge no large-scale analysis has been made.—For Wang Yang-ming I use mainly my own research. p. 262 : For the coastal salt-merchants I used Lo Hsiang-lin's work. p. 263 : On the rifles I used P. Pelliot. There is a large literature on the use of explosives and the invention of cannons, especially L. C.  Goodrich and Feng Chia-sheng in Isis , vol. 36, 1946 and 39, 1948; also G. Sarton, Li Ch'iao-p'ing, J. Prušek, J. Needham, and M. Ishida; a comparative, general study is by K. Huuri, Studia Orientalia vol. 9, 1941.—For the earliest contacts of Wang with Portuguese, I used Chang Wei-hua's monograph.—While there is no satisfactory, comprehensive study in English on Wang, for Lu Hsiang-shan the book by Huang Siu-ch'i, Lu Hsiang-shan, a Twelfth-century Chinese Idealist Philosopher , New Haven 1944, can be used. p. 264 : For Tao-yen, I used work done by David Chan.—Large parts of the Yung-lo ta-tien are now lost (Kuo Po-kung, Yüan T'ung-li studied this problem). p. 265 : Yen-ta's Mongol name is Altan Qan (died 1582), leader of the Tümet. He is also responsible for the re-introduction of Lamaism into Mongolia (1574).—For the border trade I used Hou Jen-chih; for the Shansi bankers Ch'en Ch'i-t'ien and P. Maybon. For the beginnings of the Manchu see Fr. Michael, The Origins of Manchu Rule in China , Baltimore 1942. p. 266 : M. Ricci's diary (Matthew Ricci, China in the Sixteenth Century , The Journals of M. Ricci, transl. by L. J. Gallagher, New York 1953) gives much insight into the life of Chinese officials in this period. Recently, J. Needham has tried to show that Ricci and his followers did not bring much which was not already known in China, but that they actually attempted to prevent the Chinese from learning about the Copernican theory. p. 267 : For Coxinga I used M. Eder's study.—The Szechwan rebellion was led by Chang Hsien-chung (1606-1647); I used work done by James B.  Parsons. Cheng T'ien-t'ing, Sun Yueh and others have recently published the important documents concerning all late Ming peasant rebellions.—For the Tung-lin academy see Ch. O. Hucker in J. K.  Fairbank, Chinese Thought and Institutions , Chicago 1957. A different interpretation is indicated by Shang Yüeh in Li-shih yen-chiu 1955, No. 3. p. 268 : Work on the "academies" (shu-yüan) in the earlier time is done by Ho Yu-shen. p. 273 -4: Based upon my own, as yet unfinished research. p. 274 : The population of 1953 as given here, includes Chinese outside of mainland China. The population of mainland China was 582.6 millions. If the rate of increase of about 2 per cent per year has remained the same, the population of mainland China in 1960 may be close to 680 million. In general see P. T. Ho. Studies on the Population of China, 1368-1953 , Cambridge, Mass., 1960. p. 276 : Based upon my own research.—A different view of the development of Chinese industry is found in Norman Jacobs, Modern Capitalism and Eastern Asia , Hong Kong 1958. Jacobs attempted a comparison of China with Japan and with Europe. Different again is Marion Levy and Shih Kuo-heng, The Rise of the Modern Chinese Business Class , New York 1949. Both books are influenced by the sociological theories of T.  Parsons. p. 277 : The Dzungars (Dsunghar; Chun-ko-erh) are one of the four Ölöt (Oirat) groups. I am here using studies by E. Haenisch and W. Fuchs. p. 278 : Tibetan-Chinese relations have been studied by L. Petech, China and Tibet in the Early 18th Century , Leiden 1950. A collection of data is found in M. W. Fisher and L. E. Rose, England, India, Nepal, Tibet, China, 1765-1958 , Berkeley 1959. For diplomatic relations and tributary systems of this period, I referred to J. K. Fairbank and Teng Ssu-yü. p. 279 : For Ku Yen-wu, I used the work by H. Wilhelm.—A man who deserves special mention in this period is the scholar Huang Tsung-hsi (1610-1695) as the first Chinese who discussed the possibility of a non-monarchic form of government in his treatise of 1662. For him see Lin Mou-sheng, Men and Ideas , New York 1942, and especially W. T. de Bary in J. K. Fairbank, Chinese Thought and Institutions , Chicago 1957. p. 280 -1: On Liang see now J. R. Levenson, Liang Ch'i-ch'ao and the Mind of Modern China , London 1959. p. 282 : It should also be pointed out that the Yung-cheng emperor was personally more inclined towards Lamaism.—The Kalmuks are largely identical with the above-mentioned Ölöt. p. 286 : The existence of hong is known since 1686, see P'eng Tse-i and Wang Chu-an's recent studies. For details on foreign trade see H. B.  Morse, The Chronicles of the East India Company Trading to China 1635-1834 , Oxford 1926, 4 vols., and J. K. Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast. The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842-1854 , Cambridge, Mass., 1953, 2 vols.—For Lin I used G. W.  Overdijkink's study. p. 287 : On customs read St. F. Wright, Hart and the Chinese Customs , Belfast 1950. p. 288 : For early industry see A. Feuerwerker, China's Early Industrialization: Sheng Hsuan-huai (1844-1916) , Cambridge, Mass., 1958. p. 289 : The Chinese source materials for the Mohammedan revolts have recently been published, but an analysis of the importance of the revolts still remains to be done.—On T'ai-p'ing much has been published, especially in the last years in China, so that all documents are now available. I used among other studies, details brought out by Lo Hsiang-lin and Jen Yu-wen. p. 291 : For Tsêng Kuo-fan see W. J. Hail, Tsêng Kuo-fan and the T'ai-p'ing Rebellion , Hew Haven 1927, but new research on him is about to be published.—The Nien-fei had some connection with the White Lotos, and were known since 1814, see Chiang Siang-tseh, The Nien Rebellion , Seattle 1954. p. 292 : Little is known about Salars, Dungans and Yakub Beg's rebellion, mainly because relevant Turkish sources have not yet been studied. On Salars see L. Schram, The Monguors of Kansu , Philadelphia 1954, p. 23 and P. Pelliot; on Dungans see I. Grebe. p. 293 : On Tso Tsung-t'ang see G. Ch'en, Tso Tung T'ang, Pioneer Promotor of the Modern Dockyard and Woollen Mill in China , Peking 1938, and Yenching Journal of Soc. Studies , vol. 1. p. 294 : For the T'ung-chih period, see now Mary C. Wright, The Last Stand of Chinese Conservativism. The T'ung-chih Restoration, 1862-1874 , Stanford 1957. p. 295 : Ryukyu is Chinese: Liu-ch'iu; Okinawa is one of the islands of this group.—Formosa is Chinese: T'ai-wan (Taiwan). Korea is Chinese: Chao-hsien, Japanese: Chôsen. p. 297 : M. C. Wright has shown the advisers around the ruler before the Empress Dowager realized the severity of the situation.—Much research is under way to study the beginning of industrialization of Japan, and my opinions have changed greatly, due to the research done by Japanese scholars and such Western scholars as H. Rosovsky and Th. Smith. The eminent role of the lower aristocracy has been established. Similar research for China has not even seriously started. My remarks are entirely preliminary. p. 298 : For K'ang Yo-wei, I use work done by O. Franke and others. See M. E. Cameron, The Reform Movement in China, 1898-1921 , Stanford 1921. The best bibliography for this period is J. K. Fairbank and Liu Kwang-ching, Modern China: A Bibliographical Guide to Chinese Works, 1898-1937 , Cambridge, Mass., 1950. The political history of the time, as seen by a Chinese scholar, is found in Li Chien-nung, The Political History of China 1840-1928 , Princeton 1956.—For the social history of this period see Chang Chung-li, The Chinese Gentry , Seattle 1955.—For the history of Tzŭ Hsi Bland-Backhouse, China under the Empress Dowager , Peking 1939 (Third ed.) is antiquated, but still used For some of K'ang Yo-wei's ideas, see now K'ang Yo-wei: Ta T'ung Shu. The One World Philosophy of K'ang Yu Wei , London 1957. Chapter Eleven p. 305 : I rely here partly upon W. Franke's recent studies. For Sun Yat-sen (Sun I-hsien; also called Sun Chung-shan) see P. Linebarger, Sun Yat-sen and the Chinese Republic , Cambridge, Mass., 1925 and his later The Political Doctrines of Sun Yat-sen , Baltimore 1937.—Independently, Atatürk in Turkey developed a similar theory of the growth of democracy. p. 306 : On student activities see Kiang Wen-han, The Ideological Background of the Chinese Student Movement , New York 1948. p. 307 : On Hu Shih see his own The Chinese Renaissance , Chicago 1934 and J. de Francis, Nationalism and Language Reform in China , Princeton 1950. p. 310 : The declaration of Independence of Mongolia had its basis in the early treaty of the Mongols with the Manchus (1636): "In case the Tai Ch'ing Dynasty falls, you will exist according to previous basic laws" (R. J. Miller, Monasteries and Culture Change in Inner Mongolia , Wiesbaden 1959, p. 4). p. 315 : For the military activities see F. F. Liu, A Military History of Modern China, 1924-1949 , Princeton 1956. A marxist analysis of the 1927 events is Manabendra Nath Roy, Revolution and Counter-Revolution in China , Calcutta 1946; the relevant documents are translated in C.  Brandt, B. Schwartz, J. K. Fairbank, A Documentary History of Chinese Communism , Cambridge, Mass., 1952. Chapter Twelve For Mao Tse-tung, see B. Schwartz, Chinese Communism and the Rise of Mao , second ed., Cambridge, Mass., 1958. For Mao's early years; see J. E. Rue, Mao Tse-tung in Opposition, 1927-1935 , Stanford 1966. For the civil war, see L. M. Chassin, The Communist Conquest of China: A History of the Civil War, 1945-1949 , Cambridge, Mass., 1965. For brief information on communist society, see Franz Schurmann and Orville Schell, The China Reader , vol. 3, Communist China , New York 1967. For problems of organization, see Franz Schurmann, Ideology and Organization in Communist China , Berkeley 1966. For cultural and political problems, see Ho Ping-ti, China in Crisis , vol. 1, China's Heritage and the Communist Political System , Chicago 1968. For a sympathetic view of rural life in communist China, see J. Myrdal, Report from a Chinese Village , New York 1965; for Taiwanese village life, see Bernard Gallin, Hsin Hsing, Taiwan: A Chinese Village in Change , Berkeley 1966. INDEX Abahai, ruler, 269 Abdication, 92 -3, 182 , 227 , 302 Aborigines, 323 Absolutism, 196 , 208 , 210 , 232 ff., 247 ( see Despotism, Dictator, Emperor, Monarchy) Academia Sinica, 307 Academies, 221 , 255 , 267 -8, 272 Administration, 64 , 82 -4, 138 ff, 142 , 144 , 154 , 170 , 173 -4, 210 ; provincial, 85 ( see Army, Feudalism, Bureaucracy) Adobe (Mud bricks), 16 , 19 , 32 Adoptions, 204 Afghanistan, 146 -7 Africa, 201 , 259 Agriculture, development, 54 , 198 ff., 249 -50, 275 ; Origin of, 10 , 11 ; of Shang, 21 ; shifting (denshiring), 32 ( see Wheat, Millet, Rice, Plough, Irrigation, Manure, Canals, Fallow) An Ti, ruler of Han, 92 Ainu, tribes, 9 Ala-shan mountain range, 88 Alchemy, 49 , 104 ( see ) Elixir Alexander the Great, 146 -7 America, 276 , 300 ( see ) United States Amithabha, god, 188 Amur, river, 278 An Chi-yeh, rebel, 293 An Lu-shan, rebel, 184 ff., 189 , 195 Analphabetism, 65 Anarchists, 47 Ancestor, cult, 24 , 32 Aniko, sculptor, 243 Animal style, 17 Annam (Vietnam), 97 , 160 , 209 , 219 , 234 , 258 , 265 , 295 , 330 Anyang (Yin-ch'ü), 19 , 22 Arabia, 258 ; Arabs, 104 , 178 , 183 , 185 , 266 Architecture, 147 , 256 Aristocracy, 25 , 26 , 36 , 122 , 195 ( see Nobility, Feudalism) Army, cost of, 211 ; organization of, 24 , 118 , 174 , 236 ; size of, 53 ; Tibetan, 127 ( see War, Militia, tu-tu, pu-ch'ü) Art, Buddhist, 146 -7 ( see Animal style, Architecture, Pottery, Painting, Sculpture, Wood-cut) Arthashastra, book, attributed to Kautilya, 59 Artisans, 19 , 26 , 31 , 33 , 56 , 79 ; Organizations of, 58 ( see Guilds, Craftsmen) Assimilation, 144 , 152 , 166 , 244 ( see Colonization) Astronomy, 266 Austroasiats, 10 , 12 Austronesians, 12 Avars, tribe, 140 ( see Juan-juan) Axes, prehistoric, 10 Axis, policy, 51 Babylon, 65 Baghdad, city, 201 Balasagun, city, 224 Ballads, 133 Banks, 265 , 305 Banner organization, 268 , 291 Barbarians (Foreigners), 109 , 122 , 246 , 278 Bastards, 41 Bath, 217 Beg, title, 289 Beggar, 239 Bengal, 250 , 283 Boat festival, 23 Bokhara (Bukhara), city, 46 Bon, religion, 242 Bondsmen, 31 , 117 , 143 ( see pu-ch'ü , Serfs, Feudalism) Book, printing, 201 ; B burning, 66 Böttger, inventor, 256 Boxer rebellion, 299 Boycott, 314 Brahmans, Indian caste, 34 , 106 Brain drain, 326 Bronze, 17 , 20 , 22 , 29 , 33 , 40 , 106 , 180 -1 ( see Metal, Copper) Brothel (Tea-house), 163 , 217 Buddha, 46 ; Buddhism, 20 , 106 , 108 -9, 125 , 127 , 133 ff., 145 ff., 150 , 161 , 164 , 168 , 178 , 179 ff., 188 , 217 , 218 , 236 , 257 , 259 , 266 , 306 ( see Ch'an, Vinaya, Sects, Amithabha, Maitreya, Hinayana, Mahayana, Monasteries, Church, Pagoda, Monks, Lamaism) Budget, 168 , 175 , 209 , 210 , 215 , 261 ( see Treasury, Inflation, Deflation) Bullfights, 182 Bureaucracy, 24 , 33 , 63 , 72 ; religious B, 25 ( see Administration; Army) Burgher ( liang-min ), 143 , 183 , 216 Burma, 12 , 146 , 234 , 248 , 265 , 269 , 283 , 318 , 319 , 322 , 329 , 330 Businessmen, 64 ( see Merchants, Trade) Byzantium, 177 Calcutta, city, 283 Caliph (Khaliph), 185 Cambodia, 234 , 295 Canals, 170 , 246 ; Imperial C, 168 , 235 -6 ( see Irrigation) Cannons, 232 , 263 Canton (Kuang-chou), city, 67 , 77 , 89 , 97 , 159 , 190 , 209 , 237 , 262 , 266 , 286 , 287 , 308 , 309 , 312 , 314 Capital of Empire, 144 ( see Ch'ang-an, Si-an, Lo-yang, etc.) Capitalism, 180 -1, 212 , 297 , 303 ( see Investments, Banks, Money, Economy, etc.) Capitulations (privileges of foreign nations), 273 , 287 , 290 , 312 , 316 Caravans, 86 , 98 , 121 , 129 , 181 ( see Silk road, Trade) Carpet, 243 Castes, 106 ( see Brahmans) Castiglione, G., painter, 281 Cattle, breeding, 155 Cavalry, 53 ( see Horse) Cave temples, 146 -7 ( see Lung-men, Yün-kang, Tun-huang) Censorate, 84 Censorship, 254 Census, 143 ( see Population) Central Asia, 25 , 87 -88, 90 , 113 , 119 , 135 , 169 , 179 , 209 , 259 , 277 , 330 ( see Turkestan, Sinkiang, Tarim, City States) Champa, State, 249 Ch'an (Zen), meditative Buddhism, 164 , 175 , 218 , 263 Chan-kuo Period (Contending States), 51 ff. Chancellor, 82 Ch'ang-an, capital of China, 123 , 127 , 129 , 167 , 172 , 176 , 184 , 185 , 190 , 207 ( see Sian) Chang Ch'ien, ambassador, 88 Chang Chü-chan, teacher, 265 Chang Hsien-chung, rebel, 268 , 271 Chang Hsüeh-liang, war lord, 316 Chang Ling, popular leader, 101 , 136 , 147 , 264 Chang Ti, ruler, 99 Chang Tsai, philosopher, 218 Chang Tso-lin, war lord, 312 , 316 Chao, state, 53 , 63 ; Earlier Chao, 124 ; Later Chao, 124 Chao K'uang-yin (T'ai Tsu), ruler, 208 , 209 Chao Meng-fu, painter, 243 Charters, 30 Chefoo Convention, 295 Ch'en, dynasty, 162 ff. Ch'en Pa-hsien, ruler, 162 Ch'en Tu-hsiu, intellectual, 307 , 320 Ch'eng Hao, philosopher, 219 Cheng Ho, navy commander, 258 Ch'eng I, philosopher, 219 Cheng-i-chiao, religion, 263 -4 Ch'eng Ti, ruler of Han, 92 ; ruler of Chin, 156 Ch'eng Tsu, ruler of Manchu, 257 Ch'eng-tu, city, 110 , 120 Ch'i, state, 40 ; short dynasty, 190 , 225 ; Northern Ch'i, 148 ff., 149 , 150 ff., 161 , 162 , 168 Ch'i-fu, clan, 129 ff. Chi-nan, city, 55 Ch'i-tan ( see Kitan) Ch'i Wan-nien, leader, 118 Chia, clan, 120 Chia-ch'ing, period, 285 Chia Ssŭ-tao, politician, 228 Ch'iang, tribes, 21 , 118 ( see Tanguts) Chiang Kai-shek, president, 264 , 311 , 314 , 315 , 316 , 317 , 318 , 321 , 322 , 324 , 326 Ch'ien-lung, period, 272 , 282 , 284 , 285 ch'ien-min (commoners), 143 Chin, dynasty, 229 ff. ( see Juchên); dynasty, 114 , 115 ff.; Eastern Chin dynasty, 152 ff., 155 ff.; Later Chin dynasty, 139 Ch'in, state, 36 ; Ch'in, dynasty, 53 , 59 , 60 , 62 ff., 80 ; Earlier Ch'in dynasty, 126 , 157 ; Later Ch'in dynasty, 129 , 139 , 159 ; Western Ch'in dynasty, 129 , 140 Ch'in K'ui, politician, 226 Chinese, origin of, 2 , 8 ff. Ching Fang, scholar, 255 Ching-tê (-chen), city, 201 , 256 ching-t'ien system, 33 Ching Tsung, Manchu ruler, 260 Ch'in Ying, painter, 255 Chou, dynasty, 29 f., 76 ; short Chou dynasty, 180 ; Later Chou dynasty, 206 ; Northern Chou dynasty, 148 , 149 , 150 ff., 169 , 172 Chou En-lai, politician, 320 Chou-k'ou-tien, archaeological site, 8 Chou-kung (Duke of Chou), 33 , 93 Chou-li, book, 33 Chou Tun-i, philosopher, 218 Christianity, 179 , 266 , 282 , 290 ( see Nestorians, Jesuits, Missionaries) Chronology, 7 , 335 Ch'u, state, 38 , 199 ff., 205 Chu Ch'üan-chung, general and ruler, 190 , 191 , 203 , 204 Chu Hsi, philosopher, 219 , 263 , 279 Chu-ko Liang, general, 111 Chu Tê general, 321 Chu Tsai-yü, scholar, 255 Chu Yüan-chang (T'ai Tsu), ruler, 239 ff., 243 ff., 246 , 247 , 256 , 257 chuang , 181 , 212 -13, 345 ( see Manors, Estates) Chuang Tzŭ;, philosopher, 47 -8, 50 Chün-ch'en, ruler, 88 Ch'un-ch'iu, book, 43 , 80 chün-t'ien system (land equalization system), 142 -3, 173 , 187 chün-tzü (gentleman), 42 , 44 Chung-ch'ang T'ung, philosopher, 50 Chungking (Ch'ung-ch'ing), city, 38 , 110 , 318 Church, Buddhistic, 146 , 147 , 188 , 218 ; Taoistic, 136 , 147 ( see Chang Ling) Cities, 36 , 37 ; spread and growth of cities, 31 , 55 -6, 175 , 229 , 250 -1, 252 ; origin of cities, 19 ; twin cities, 33 ( see City states, Ch'ang-an, Sian, Lo-yang, Hankow, etc.) City States (of Central Asia), 97 , 132 , 177 Clans, 31 , 196 Classes, social classes, 79 , 143 -4, 207 , 216 ( see Castes, ch'ien-min , liang-min , Gentry, etc.) Climate, changes, 9 Cliques, 91 , 160 , 197 , 257 , 261 Cloisonné, 256 Cobalt, 221 , 256 Coins, 78 , 94 , 116 , 199 , 209 ( see Money) Colonialism, 278 , 283 , 329 ( see Imperialism) Colonization, 97 , 102 , 111 , 116 , 153 , 209 , 248 ff. ( see Migration, Assimilation) Colour prints, 256 Communes, 331 Communism, 314 , 320 ff. ( see Marxism, Socialism, Soviets) Concubines, 100 , 227 Confessions, 102 Confucian ritual, 78 -9; Confucianism, 93 , 136 , 145 , 150 , 163 -4, 168 , 175 , 183 -4, 188 , 306 ; Confucian literature, 78 ; false Confucian literature, 93 -4; Confucians, 40 ff., 134 ( see Neo-Confucianism) Conquests, 122 , 270 ( see War, Colonialism) Conservatism, 219 Constitution, 311 Contending States, 40 ff. Co-operatives, 319 Copper, 17 , 211 ( see Bronze, Metal) Corruption, 51 , 200 Corvée (forced labour), 82 , 173 , 187 , 196 , 238 ( see Labour) Cotton, 250 Courtesans, 182 ( see Brothel) Coxinga, rebel, 267 , 271 Craftsmen, 26 , 105 , 183 , 197 , 216 , 247 -8 ( see Artisans) Credits, 215 Criminals, 146 , 218 , 248 Crop rotation, 249 Dalai Lama, religious ruler of Tibet, 278 , 310 Dance, 105 Deflation, 215 Deities, 23 ( see Tien, Shang Ti, Maitreya, Amithabha, etc.) Delft, city, 256 Demands, the twenty-one, 311 , 313 Democracy, 305 , 301 Denshiring, 12 Despotism, 81 , 196 ( see Absolutism) Dewey, J., educator, 307 Dialects, 64 -5 ( see Language) Dialecticians, 59 Dictators, 38 , 47 ( see Despotism) Dictionaries, 65 Diploma, for monks, 208 Diplomacy, 223 , 226 Disarmament, 115 , 120 Discriminatory laws, 189 , 233 ff., 270 ( see Double Standard) Dog, 54 Dorgon, prince, 269 Double standard, legal, 80 Drama, 242 , 255 , 280 Dress, changes, 53 Dungan, tribes, 292 Dynastic histories ( see History), 2 Dzungars, people, 277 Eclipses, 43 Economy, 53 ff., 94 ff., 100 , 109 , 112 -13, 142 ff.; Money economy, 198 ; Natural economy, 107 -8, 116 ( see Agriculture, Nomadism, Industry, Denshiring, Money, Trade, etc.) Education, 73 , 103 , 201 , 306 , 326 , 327 ( see Schools, Universities, Academies, Script, Examination system, etc.) Elements, the five, 60 Elephants, 26 Elite, 73 , 74 , 196 , 218 ( see Intellectuals, Students, Gentry) Elixir, 187 ( see Alchemy) Emperor, position of, 81 , 92 , 210 , 304 ; Emperor and church, 218 ( see Despotism, King, Absolutism, Monarchy, etc.) Empress ( see Lü, Wu, Wei, Tzŭ Hsi) Encyclopaedias, 219 , 264 , 279 England, 265 , 283 , 285 ( see Great Britain) Ephtalites, tribe, 150 Epics, 133 Equalization Office, 91 , 94 ( see chün-t'ien ) Erotic literature, 254 Estates ( chuang, ), 154 , 175 , 181 , 212 , 236 Ethics, 45 ( see Confucianism) Eunuchs, 91 , 100 , 191 , 253 , 259 -60, 261 , 267 , 272 Europe, 143 , 212 ; Europeans, 209 , 233 , 237 , 246 , 263 , 272 , 297 , 299 Examination system, 74 , 78 , 85 -6, 91 , 175 , 197 , 216 , 252 -3, 259 , 280 ; Examinations for Buddhists, 207 Fables, 259 Factories, 250 , 251 Fallow system, 54 , 249 Falsifications, 93 ( see Confucianism) Family structure, 24 , 29 , 31 , 42 , 54 , 138 -9, 196 , 332 ; Family ethics, 58 ; Family planning, 331 Fan Chung-yen, politician, 212 , 213 Fascism, 264 Federations, tribal, 117 Felt, 33 Fêng Kuo-chang, politician, 312 Fêng Meng-lung, writer, 254 , 255 Fêng Tao, politician, 201 Fêng Yü-hsiang, war lord, 312 , 315 Ferghana, city, 88 Fertility cults, 23 ; differential fertility, 73 Fertilizer, 54 Feudalism, 24 , 29 , 30 ff., 37 , 38 , 40 , 42 , 44 , 45 , 85 ; end of feudalism, 51 , 59 , 62 -3; late feudalism, 71 -2, 77 ff.; new feudalism, 81 ; nomadic feudalism, 76 , 131 ( see Serfs, Aristocracy, Fiefs, Bondsmen, etc.) Fiefs, 30 , 54 , 78 , 82 Finances, 209 ( see Budget, Inflation, Money, Coins) Fire-arms ( see Rifles, Cannons) Fishing, 94 Folk-tales, 254 , 258 Food habits, 54 -5, 155 Foreign relations, 84 ( see Diplomacy, Treaty, Tribute, War) Forests, 26 Formosa (T'aiwan), 152 , 267 , 276 , 277 , 295 , 296 , 323 ff. France, 287 , 295 , 296 , 313 , 317 Frontier, concept of, 38 Frugality, 58 Fu Chien, ruler, 126 ff., 130 , 131 , 136 , 139 , 157 -8 Fu-lan-chi (Franks), 263 Fu-lin, Manchu ruler, 269 Fu-yü, country, 141 Fukien, province, 167 , 228 , 237 , 248 , 249 , 250 , 251 , 276 Galdan, leader, 277 Gandhara, country, 146 Gardens, 154 Geisha ( see Courtesans), 217 Genealogy, 52 , 167 , 196 Genghiz Khan, ruler, 225 , 230 , 241 Gentry (Upper class), 44 , 78 , 80 , 101 , 108 , 133 , 138 , 143 , 144 , 166 , 173 , 174 , 196 , 197 , 203 , 209 , 210 , 214 , 236 , 239 , 252 ff., 257 , 268 , 272 , 297 , 303 -4, 307 ; colonial gentry, 163 ; definition of gentry, 72 ; gentry state, 71 ff., southern gentry, 153 Germany, 296 , 311 , 312 , 317 Gök Turks, 149 ff. Governors, role of, 184 ff. Grain ( see Millet, Rice, Wheat) Granaries, 216 , 290 Great Britain, 285 , 293 , 294 , 295 , 310 ( see England) Great Leap Forward, 331 Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, 333 Great Wall, 57 Greeks, 59 , 60 Guilds, 58 , 197 Hakka, ethnic group, 228 , 289 , 323 Hami, city state, 245 Han, dynasty, 71 ff., 122 ; Later Han dynasty, 206 Han Fei Tzu, philosopher, 59 Han T'o-wei, politician, 226 -7 Han Yü, philosopher, 182 , 217 , 218 Hankow (Han-k'ou), city, 38 , 156 , 162 , 251 , 290 , 314 Hangchow (Hang-chou), city, 38 , 225 , 228 Heaven, 42 , 81 ( see Shang Ti, T'ien) Hermits, 46 ff. ( see Monks, Sages) Hinayana, religion, 135 Historians, 2 Histories, dynastic, 2 , 242 ; falsification of histories, 43 , 52 , 93 ; Historiography, 43 , 103 -4 Hitler, Adolf, dictator, 317 , 319 Hittites, ethnic group, 25 Ho Ch'eng-t'ien, scholar, 255 Ho-lien P'o-p'o, ruler, 139 , 140 , 159 , 225 Ho Ti, Han ruler, 99 hong , association, 286 Hong Kong, colony, 286 , 319 , 325 Hopei, province, 296 Horse, 11 , 90 , 186 , 223 , 237 ; horse chariot, 25 ; horse riding, 53 ; horse trade, 63 Hospitals, 216 Hou Ching, ruler, 161 -2 Houses, 19 , 33 ( see Adobe) Hsi-hsia, kingdom, 214 , 221 , 223 , 224 ff., 231 Hsi-k'ang, Tibet, 310 Hsia, dynasty, 17 -18, 21 , 25 ; Hunnic Hsia dynasty, 139 ( see Hsi-hsia) Hsia-hou, clan, 113 Hsia Kui, painter, 221 Hsiao Tao-ch'eng, general, 160 Hsiao Wu Ti, Chin ruler, 158 Hsieh, clan, 157 Hsieh Hsüan, general, 128 Hsien-feng, period, 294 Hsien-pi, tribal federation, 98 , 102 , 114 , 116 , 117 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 123 , 126 , 127 , 128 ff., 130 , 131 , 132 , 136 , 137 , 138 , 140 , 148 , 169 Hsien Ti, Han ruler, 100 Hsien-yün, tribes, 21 Hsin, dynasty, 92 Hsin-an merchants, 251 , 263 Hsin Ch'ing-nien , journal, 307 Hsiung-nu, tribal federation, 67 ff., 75 ff., 81 , 86 ff., 90 , 95 , 96 , 97 ff., 102 , 108 , 113 , 114 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 224 , 226 ( see Huns) Hsü Shih-ch'ang, president, 312 Hsüan-tê, period, 259 Hsüan-tsang, Buddhist, 181 Hsüan Tsung, T'ang ruler, 181 ; Manchu ruler, 259 , 288 Hsüan-t'ung, period, 300 Hsün Tzŭ, philosopher, 57 -8 Hu, name of tribes, 118 ( see Huns) Hu Han-min, politician, 314 -15 Hu Shih, scholar and politician, 307 , 320 Hu Wei-yung, politician, 257 Huai-nan Tzŭ, philosopher, 50 , 104 Huai, Ti, Chin ruler, 123 , 124 Huan Hsüan, general, 158 , 159 Huan Wen, general, 157 -8 Huang Ch'ao, leader of rebellion, 189 ff., 195 , 203 Huang Ti, ruler, 52 Huang Tsung-hsi, philosopher, 247 , 352 Hui-chou merchants, 251 , 254 hui-kuan , association, 197 Hui Ti, Chin ruler, 120 ; Manchu ruler, 257 Hui Tsung, Sung ruler, 221 Hui Tzŭ, philosopher, 59 Human sacrifice, 19 , 23 Hung Hsiu-ch'üan, leader of rebellion, 289 ff. Huns, 57 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 124 , 125 , 126 , 127 , 130 , 131 , 136 , 139 , 140 , 147 , 148 , 151 , 278 ( see Hu, Hsiung-nu) Hunting, 25 -6 Hutuktu, religious ruler, 310 Hydraulic society, 56 i-chuang , clan manors, 213 Ili, river, 282 ff., 293 , 330 Imperialism, 76 , 265 , 285 ff., 294 , 295 , 329 ( see Colonialism) India, 20 , 26 , 34 , 45 , 60 , 89 , 106 , 111 , 118 , 125 , 134 -5, 145 , 146 , 164 , 181 , 182 , 198 , 243 , 265 , 287 , 288 , 310 , 329 ( see Brahmans, Bengal, Gandhara, Calcutta, Buddhism) Indo-China, 234 , 258 ( see Cambodia, Annam, Laos). Indo-Europeans, language group, 15 , 25 , 29 , 150 ( see Yüeh-chih, Tocharians, Hittites) Indonesia, 10 , 201 , 209 , 319 ( see Java) Industries, 198 , 214 , 250 ff.; Industrialization, 275 , 325 -26, 327 -28, 331 -32; Industrial society, 212 ( see Factories) Inflation, 20 , 211 , 215 , 237 Inheritance, laws of, 24 , 54 Intellectuals, 300 , 309 ( see Élite, Students) Investments, 198 , 212 , 212 -14 Iran (Persia), 60 , 61 , 234 Iron, 40 , 55 , 96 , 198 ; Cast iron, 56 ; Iron money, 202 ( see Steel) Irrigation, 56 , 62 Islam, 179 , 183 , 202 -3 ( see Muslims) Istanbul (Constantinople), 256 , 259 , 293 Italy, 317 Japan, 9 , 10 , 26 , 44 , 88 , 106 , 112 , 114 , 126 , 144 , 145 , 170 , 178 , 179 , 181 , 196 , 201 , 234 , 245 -6, 254 , 256 , 258 , 263 , 264 , 265 , 275 , 294 ff., 297 , 298 , 300 , 308 , 309 , 311 , 312 , 313 , 314 , 316 , 317 ff., 322 , 323 , 324 , 325 ( see Meiji, Tada, Tanaka) Java, 234 Jedzgerd, ruler, 178 Jehol, province, 11 , 287 Jen Tsung, Manchu ruler, 285 Jesuits, 266 , 278 Jews, 179 Ju (scribes), 34 , 41 Ju-chen (Chin Dynasty, Jurchen), 221 -2, 223 , 225 , 226 , 227 , 229 ff, 244 , 265 Juan-juan, tribal federation, 114 , 140 , 149 Jurchen ( see Ju-chen) K'ai-feng, city ( see Yeh, Pien-liang), 203 , 230 Kalmuk, Mongol tribes, 282 , 283 , 284 ( see Ölöt) Kang-hsi, period, 272 , 277 , 279 K'ang Yo-wei, politician and scholar, 298 -99 Kansu, province, 12 , 14 , 86 , 87 , 121 , 124 , 125 , 129 , 131 , 132 , 139 , 140 , 142 , 159 , 163 , 225 , 292 , 293 , 324 ( see Tun-huang) Kao-ch'ang, city state, 177 Kao, clan, 148 Kao-li, state, 126 , 141 , 222 ( see Korea) Kao Ming, writer, 242 Kao Tsu, Han ruler, 71 , 77 Kao Tsung, T'ang ruler, 179 , 180 Kao Yang, ruler, 148 Kapok, textile fibre, 250 Kara Kitai, tribal federation, 223 -4 Kashgar, city, 99 , 282 , 292 Kazak, tribal federation, 282 , 283 Khalif ( see Caliph), 293 Khamba, Tibetans, 310 Khan, Central Asian title, 149 , 169 , 176 , 177 , 186 Khocho, city, 177 Khotan, city, 99 , 135 , 174 King, position of, 24 , 34 , 42 , 43 ; first kings, 19 ; religious character of kingship, 37 ( see Yao, Shun, Hsia dynasty, Emperor, Wang, Prince) Kitan (Ch'i-tan), tribal federation, 184 , 186 , 203 , 204 , 205 , 206 , 207 , 208 , 209 , 221 , 222 ff., 229 , 241 ( see Liao dynasty) Ko-shu Han, general, 184 -5 Korea, 9 , 88 -89, 112 , 126 , 169 ff., 178 , 181 , 201 , 219 , 222 , 265 , 268 , 295 , 296 , 324 , 329 ( see Kao-li, Pai-chi, Sin-lo) K'ou Ch'ien-chih, Taoist, 147 Kowloon, city, 287 Ku Yen-wu, geographer, 279 Kuan Han-ch'ing, writer, 242 Kuang-hsü, period, 295 ff. Kuang-wu Ti, Han ruler, 96 ff. Kub(i)lai Khan, Mongol ruler, 234 , 241 Kung-sun Lung, philosopher, 59 K'ung Tzu (Confucius), 40 ff. Kuo-min-tang (KMT), party, 313 , 321 , 323 , 324 , 325 Kuo Wei, ruler, 206 Kuo Tzŭ-hsing, rebel leader, 239 Kuo Tzŭ-i, loyal general, 184 , 186 Kyakhta (Kiachta), city, 278 Labour, forced, 235 , 237 ( see Corvée); Labour laws, 198 ; Labour shortage, 251 Lacquer, 256 Lamaism, religion, 242 -3 Land ownership, 31 , 32 , 54 ( see Property); Land reform, 94 , 142 -3, 172 -3, 229 , 290 , 315 , 325 , 330 ( see chün-t'ien, ching-t'ien ) Landlords, 54 , 55 , 154 , 155 , 198 , 212 , 213 , 236 -7, 251 ; temples as landlords, 134 Language, 36 , 46 ; dialects, 64 -5, 167 ; Language reform, 307 -8, 324 Lang Shih-ning, painter, 281 La Tzŭ, philosopher, 45 ff., 101 , 136 Laos, country, 12 Law codes, 56 , 66 , 80 , 81 -2, 93 ( see Li K'ui, Property law, Inheritance, Legalists) Leadership, 73 -4 League of Nations, 316 Leibniz, philosopher, 281 Legalists ( fa-chia ), 47 , 63 , 65 , 66 , 80 , 81 Legitimacy of rule, 44 , 111 ( see Abdication) Lenin, V., 320 , 333 Lhasa, city, 278 , 329 Li An-shih, economist, 142 Li Chung-yen, governor, 315 Li Hung-chang, politician, 291 , 296 , 297 Li K'o-yung, ruler, 190 , 191 , 203 , 204 Li Kuang-li, general, 88 Li K'ui, law-maker, 56 , 80 Li Li-san, politician, 320 Li Lin-fu, politician, 184 Li Lung-mien, painter, 220 Li Shih-min ( see T'ai Tsung), T'ang ruler, 170 , 172 , 178 Li Ssŭ, politician, 66 Li Ta-chao, librarian, 320 Li T'ai-po, poet, 182 Li Tzŭ-ch'eng, rebel, 268 , 269 , 271 Li Yu, writer, 280 Li Yu-chen, writer, 280 Li Yüan, ruler, 172 Li Yüan-hung, politician, 301 , 302 , 312 Liang dynasty, Earlier, 124 , 130 ; Later Liang, 130 , 150 , 162 , 191 , 203 ff., 207 ; Northern Liang, 130 ff., 132 , 133 , 140 ; Southern Liang, 132 ; Western Liang, 131 , 140 Liang Ch'i-ch'ao, journalist, 280 -1 liang-min (burghers), 143 Liao, tribes, 12 ; Liao dynasty ( see Kitan), 203 , 208 , 222 ff.; Western Liao dynasty, 224 Liao-chai chih-i , short-story collection, 280 Libraries, 66 , 201 -2 Lin-chin, city, 55 Lin-ch'uan, city, 263 Lin Shu, translator, 280 Lin Tse-hsü, politician, 286 Literati, 73 ( see Scholars, Confucianists) Literature, 66 , 103 ff., 182 ff., 220 , 253 ff. ( see pien-wen , pi-chi , Poetry, Drama, Novels, Epics, Theatre, ballads, Folk-tales, Fables, History, Confucians, Writers, Scholars, Scribes) Literary revolution, 307 , 320 Liu Chi, Han ruler, 68 , 71 ff. Liu Chih-yüan, ruler, 206 Liu Chin, eunuch, 261 Liu Hsiu ( see Kuang-wu Ti), Han ruler, 96 Liu Lao-chih, general, 158 liu-min (vagrants), 198 Liu Pang ( see Liu Chi) Liu Pei, general and ruler, 100 , 101 , 102 Liu Shao-ch'i, political leader, 333 Liu Sung, rebel, 284 Liu Tsung-yüan, writer, 182 Liu Ts'ung, ruler, 123 , 124 Liu Yao, ruler, 124 Liu Yü, general, 158 , 159 ; emperor, 225 Liu Yüan, sculptor, 243 ; emperor, 119 , 122 , 123 , 124 , 126 , 127 , 131 , 137 , 139 Lo Kuan-chung, writer, 254 Loans, to farmers, 94 ; foreign, 288 Loess, soil formation, 9 Logic, 46 Long March, 321 Lorcha War, 287 , 291 Loyang (Lo-yang), capital of China, 32 , 33 , 36 , 37 , 55 , 97 , 113 , 122 , 127 , 142 , 144 , 145 , 148 , 149 , 150 , 160 , 168 , 176 , 180 , 184 , 185 , 215 Lu, state, 41 , 43 Lü, empress, 77 ff. Lu Hsiang-shan, philosopher, 263 Lu Hsün, writer, 320 Lü Kuang, ruler, 130 Lü Pu, general, 100 Lü Pu-wei, politician, 63 , 103 Lun, prince, 120 Lun-heng , book, 104 Lung-men, place, 150 Lung-shan, excavation site, 14 , 15 ff., 19 Lytton Commission, 316 Ma Yin, ruler, 199 -200 Ma Yüan, general, 97 ; painter, 221 Macchiavellism , 60 , 164 , 263 -4 Macao, Portuguese colony, 227 , 266 , 286 Mahayana, Buddhist sect, 135 , 145 Maitreya, Buddhist deity, 147 , 189 ( see Messianic movements) Malacca, state, 263 Malaria, 249 Managers, 212 -13 Manchu, tribal federation and dynasty, 76 , 232 , 265 , 267 , 270 ff., 301 , 312 , 329 , 330 Manchuria, 9 , 11 , 14 , 111 , 114 , 137 , 222 , 246 , 275 , 277 , 296 , 311 , 316 , 317 Manichaeism, Iranian religion, 46 , 179 , 187 Manors ( chuang , see Estates), 154 Mao Tun, Hsiung-nu ruler, 75 , 76 , 119 , 122 , 139 , 170 Mao Tse-tung, party leader, 320 , 321 , 333 Marco Polo, businessman, 238 , 317 Market, 56 ; Market control, 85 Marriage systems, 73 -5, 167 , 196 , 332 Marxism, 304 , 306 , 322 , 331 , 333 ; Marxist theory of history, 75 ( see Materialism, Communism, Lenin, Mao Tse-tung) Materialism, 58 , 164 Mathematics, 61 Matrilinear societies, 24 Mazdaism, Iranian religion, 101 , 179 , 187 , 342 May Fourth Movement, 307 , 320 Medicine, 219 ; Medical doctors, 144 , 216 -17 Meditation ( see Ch'an) Megalithic culture, 20 Meiji, Japanese ruler, 294 Melanesia, 10 Mencius (Meng Tzŭ), philosopher, 57 Merchants, 31 , 55 , 56 , 62 , 63 , 65 , 79 , 90 -1, 104 -5, 134 , 160 , 163 , 179 , 189 , 198 , 200 , 201 , 202 , 212 , 215 -16, 247 -8, 251 , 276 -7, 297 ; foreign merchants, 190 , 234 , 237 , 281 -2 ( see Trade, Salt, Caravans, Businessmen) Messianic movements, 61 , 147 Metal, 15 , 20 ( see Bronze, Copper, Iron) Mi Fei, painter, 220 Middle Class, 195 , 254 , 297 , 304 , 309 , 310 , 314 ( see Burgher, Merchant, Craftsmen, Artisans) Middle East ( see Near East) Migrations, 54 , 116 , 120 ff., 130 , 142 , 152 ff., 228 , 237 , 248 , 275 -6, 294 ; forced migrations, 54 , 167 ( see Colonization, Assimilation, Settlement) Militarism, 63 Militia, 174 , 215 , 291 Millet, 11 , 21 , 32 Mills, 181 , 213 Min, state in Fukien, 205 Ming dynasty, 243 ff. Ming Jui, general, 283 Min Ti, Chin ruler, 123 Ming Ti, Han ruler, 99 ; Wei ruler, 114 ; Later T'ang ruler, 204 Minorate, 24 Missionaries, Christian, 266 , 281 , 287 , 289 ( see Jesuits) Mo Ti, philosopher, 58 Modernization, 296 -7 Mohammedan rebellions, 292 ff. ( see Muslim) Mon-Khmer tribes, 10 Monarchy, 47 , 247 , 281 ( see King, Emperor, Absolutism, Despotism) Monasteries, Buddhist, 144 , 207 , 236 ; economic importance, 125 , 134 , 180 -1, 187 ff. Money, 20 , 55 , 180 -1; Money economy, 56 , 58 , 107 -8; Origin of money, 40 ; paper money, 202 , 211 , 347 ( see Coins, Paper, Silver) Mongolia, 8 , 9 , 11 , 98 , 283 , 317 Mongols, tribes, tribal federation, dynasty, 17 , 40 , 53 , 57 , 76 , 102 , 114 , 117 , 119 , 120 , 137 , 140 , 175 , 220 , 225 , 227 , 228 , 230 ff., 232 ff., 240 , 243 , 244 , 257 , 259 , 264 , 266 , 268 , 270 , 277 , 281 , 284 , 291 , 329 , 330 ( see Yüan dynasty, Kalmuk, Tümet, Oirat, Ölöt, Naiman, Turgut, Timur, Genghiz, Kublai) Monks, Buddhist, 134 , 146 , 164 , 188 , 207 , 218 , 239 , 246 , 253 -4 Monopolies, 85 , 91 , 200 , 215 Mound-dwellers, 16 Mu-jung, tribes, 119 , 126 , 128 -9 Mu Ti, East Chin ruler, 157 Mu Tsung, Manchu ruler, 294 Mulberries, 143 Munda tribes, 10 Music, 163 , 182 -3, 255 ( see Theatre, Dance, Geisha) Muslims, 179 , 233 , 278 , 289 ; Muslim rebellions, 289 , 292 ff. ( see Islam, Mohammedans) Mysticism, 46 Naiman, Mongol tribe, 233 Nan-chao, state, 171 Nan-yang, city, 96 Nanking (Nan-ching), capital of China, 38 , 121 , 156 , 162 , 225 , 228 , 235 , 246 , 250 , 254 , 257 , 262 , 263 , 266 , 270 , 286 , 287 , 290 , 291 , 302 , 315 , 316 , 318 ; Nanking regime, 314 ff. Nationalism, 76 , 131 , 233 , 284 -5 ( see Kuo-min-tang) Nature, 46 ; Nature philosophers, 60 Navy, 258 Near East, 16 , 81 , 106 , 109 , 111 , 140 , 146 , 221 , 238 ( see Arabs, Iran, etc.) Neo-Confucianism, 218 ff., 263 Neolithicum, 9 Nepal, 243 , 283 Nerchinsk, place, 278 Nestorian Christianity, 187 Ni Tsan, painter, 243 Nien Fei, rebels, 291 -2 Niu Seng-yu, politician, 188 Nobility, 31 , 80 , 124 , 131 , 138 ; Nomadic nobility, 76 ( see Aristocracy) Nomadism, 10 , 40 , 67 , 222 -3; Economy of nomads, 35 -6, 137 ; Nomadic society structure, 75 Novels, 254 ff., 280 Oil, 294 Oirat, Mongol tribes, 260 Okinawa ( see Ryukyu) Ölöt, Mongol tribes, 277 Opera, 242 , 255 -6 Opium, 276 , 286 ; Opium War, 286 Oracle bones, 22 , 24 Ordos, area, 9 , 17 , 20 , 67 , 86 , 125 , 129 , 133 , 148 , 170 , 225 Orenburg, city, 282 Organizations, 58 ( see hui-kuan Guilds, hong , Secret Societies) Orphanages, 218 Ottoman (Turkish) Empire, 293 Ou-yang Hsiu, writer, 254 Outer Mongolia, 310 -11, 330 Pagoda, 243 Pai-chi (Paikche), state in Korea, 141 Pai-lien-hui ( see White Lotos) 239 Painting, 56 , 105 , 183 , 220 ff., 243 , 255 , 281 Palaeolithicum, 8 ff. Pan Ch'ao, general, 99 , 100 pao-chia , security system, 173 Paper, 105 , 183 , 251 ; Paper money, 202 , 228 , 237 ( see Money) Parliament, 300 -1 Party ( see Kuo-min-tang, Communists) Pearl Harbour, 319 Peasant rebellions, 238 ff. ( see Rebellions) Peking, city, 169 , 184 , 197 , 207 , 208 , 221 , 223 , 235 , 239 , 246 , 256 , 257 , 262 , 264 , 265 , 266 , 268 , 269 , 272 , 278 , 283 , 287 , 290 , 291 , 297 , 299 , 305 , 307 , 308 , 309 , 311 , 312 , 313 , 318 ; Peking Man, 8 Pensions, 217 , 247 People's Democracy, 294 Persecution, religious, 147 , 188 , 207 Persia (Iran), 256 , 258 , 259 ; Persian language, 234 Peruz, ruler, 178 Philippines, state, 295 , 323 , 325 Philosophy, 44 , 217 ff., 263 ff. ( see Confucius, Lao Tzŭ, Chuang Tzŭ, Huai-nan Tzŭ, Hsün Tzŭ, Mencius, Hui Tzŭ, Mo Ti, Kung-sun Lung, Shang Tzŭ, Han Fei Tzŭ, Tsou Yen, Legalists, Chung-ch'ang, T'ung, Yüan Chi, Liu Ling, Chu Hsi, Ch'eng Hao, Lu Hsiang-shan, Wang Yang-ming, etc.) pi-chi , literary form, 220 pieh-yeh (see Manor), 154 Pien-liang, city ( see K'ai-feng), 230 pien-wen , literary form, 253 Pig, 54 , 199 Pilgrims, 245 P'ing-ch'eng, city, 122 Pirates, 245 , 263 Plantation economy, 154 Plough, 54 Po Chü-i, poet, 182 , 220 Po-hai, state, 171 , 222 , 229 Poetry, 48 , 163 , 175 , 182 ff., 227 , 241 , 255 ; Court Poetry, 105 ; Northern Poetry, 133 Poets, 219 ff. ( see T'ao Ch'ien, Po Chü-i, Li T'ai-po, Tu Fu, etc.) Politicians, migratory, 52 Pontic migration, 16 Population changes, 21 , 55 , 62 , 78 , 108 , 236 , 238 , 273 -4; Population decrease, 107 ( see Census, Fertility) Porcelain, 20 , 183 , 201 , 221 , 251 , 256 , 281 Port Arthur, city, 296 Portsmouth, treaty, 296 Portuguese 262, 263 ( see Fu-lan-chi, Macao) Potter, 32 ; Pottery, 14 , 15 ff., 20 ; black pottery, 16 ( see Porcelain) Price controls, 212 Priests, 24 , 34 ( see Shamans, Ju, Monks) Primogeniture, 54 Princes, 115 , 120 , 123 Printing, 201 -2 ( see Colour, Book) Privileges of gentry, 173 Proletariate, 305 , 320 ( see Labour) Propaganda, 93 Property relations, 31 , 54 , 196 ( see Laws, Inheritance, Primogeniture) Protectorate, 82 Provinces, administration, 85 pu-ch'ü, bondsmen, 143 , 174 Pu-ku Huai-en, general, 185 , 186 P'u Sung-lin, writer, 280 P'u Yi, Manchu ruler, 300 , 312 Puppet plays, 255 Railways, 301 , 324 ; Manchurian Railway, 296 Rebellions, 95 -6, 156 , 158 , 184 ff., 189 ff., 238 ff., 261 ff., 267 ff., 284 , 289 ff., 291 ff., 299 , 301 ( see Peasants, Secret Societies, Revolutions) Red Eyebrows, peasant movement, 95 ff. Red Guards, 333 Reforms, 298 , 299 ; Reform of language, 307 -9 ( see Land reform) Regents, 89 Religion, 8 , 22 -4, 37 , 42 , 44 , 48 , 135 -6; popular religion, 101 ( see Bon, Shintoism, Persecution, Sacrifice, Ancestor cult, Fertility cults, Deities, Temples, Monasteries, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Mazdaism, Manichaeism, Messianic religions, Secret societies, Soul, Shamanism, State religion) Republic, 303 ff. Revolutions, 244 ; legitimization of revolution, 57 ( see Rebellions) Ricci, Matteo, missionary, 266 Rice, 12 , 155 , 219 , 235 , 249 Rifles, 263 Ritualism, 34 , 42 Roads, 30 , 56 , 65 Roman Empire, 31 , 51 , 107 , 144 , 210 Roosevelt, F. D., president, 322 Russia, 246 , 259 , 278 , 282 , 283 , 284 , 293 , 294 , 296 , 298 , 300 , 310 , 311 , 313 -14, 315 , 317 , 320 , 321 , 322 , 323 , 328 -29, 330 , 333 , 334 ( see Soviet Republics) Ryukyu (Liu-ch'iu), islands, 295 Sacrifices, 19 , 23 , 26 Sages, 47 Sakhalin (Karafuto), island, 295 , 296 Salar, ethnic group, 292 Salary, 213 , 227 Salt, 40 ; Salt merchants, 189 , 238 , 248 -9, 262 ; Salt trade, 200 -1 Samarkand, city, 45 , 183 , 241 San-min chu-i, book, 305 Sang Hung-yang, economist, 91 Sassanids, Iranian dynasty, 178 Scholars ( Ju ), 34 , 41 , 52 , 59 , 60 , 100 ( see Literati, Scribes, Intellectuals, Confucianists) Schools, 79 , 196 , 324 -25 ( see Education) Science, 60 -1, 104 -5, 219 , 281 ( see Mathematics, Astronomy, Nature) Scribes, 34 Script, Chinese, 22 , 29 , 65 , 225 , 308 Sculpture, 19 -20, 106 , 147 , 183 , 243 ; Buddhist sculptures, 146 sê-mu (auxiliary troops), 233 Seal, imperial, 92 -3 Secret societies, 61 , 95 ff., 289 ( see Red Eyebrows, Yellow Turbans, White Lotos, Boxer, Rebellions) Sects, 135 ; Buddhist sects, 188 Seng-ko-lin-ch'in, general, 291 Serfs, 21 , 26 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 53 -4, 72 , 143 , 197 , 216 ( see Slaves, Servants, Bondsmen) Servants, 32 Settlement, of foreigners, 177 ; military, 248 ( see Colonization) Sha-t'o, tribal federation, 187 , 190 , 203 , 204 , 206 , 207 , 222 , 230 Shadow theatre, 255 Shahruk, ruler, 258 Shamans, 160 , 184 ; Shamanism, 34 , 242 , 135 ff., 146 Shan tribes of South East Asia, 12 Shan-hai-ching , book, 103 Shan-yü, title of nomadic ruler, 88 , 89 , 90 , 95 , 103 , 119 , 125 , 151 Shang dynasty, 19 ff., 41 Shang Ti, deity, 23 , 24 , 25 Shang Tzŭ, philosopher (Shang Yang), 59 Shanghai, city 246, 250 , 287 , 288 , 301 , 305 , 308 , 314 -15, 316 , 318 Shao Yung, philosopher, 220 Sheep, 54 , 118 Shen Nung, mythical figure, 52 Shen Tsung, Sung ruler, 196 ; Manchu ruler, 265 , 267 Sheng Tsu, Manchu ruler, 272 Shih-chi , book, 103 Shih Ching-t'ang, ruler, 204 , 222 Shih Ch'ung, writer, 49 Shih Hêng, soldier, 260 Shih Hu, ruler, 125 ff. Shih Huang-ti, ruler, 63 ff., 78 Shih Lo, ruler, 123 , 124 , 125 , 126 Shih-pi, ruler, 170 Shih Ssŭ-ming, 185 Shih Tsung, Manchu ruler, 264 , 282 Shih-wei, Mongol tribes, 141 Shintoism, Japanese religion, 44 Ships, 168 ( see Navy) Short stories, 255 Shoulder axes, 10 Shu (Szechwan), area and/or state, 219 Shu-Han dynasty, 108 , 110 , 111 , 115 Shun, dynasty, 268 ; mythical ruler, 17 Shun-chih, reign period, 270 Sian (Hsi-an, Ch'ang-an), city, 31 , 33 , 35 , 97 Siao Ho (Hsiao Ho), jurist, 80 Silk, 20 -1, 56 , 90 -1, 105 , 116 , 143 , 185 , 186 , 209 , 214 , 276 , 289 , 303 ; Silk road, 86 Silver, 211 , 251 -2, 276 Sin-lo (Hsin-lo, Silla), state of Korea, 141 Sinanthropos, 8 Sinkiang (Hsin-Chiang, Turkestan), 14 , 248 , 294 , 329 , 330 Slash and burn agriculture (denshiring), 12 Slaves, 26 , 32 , 79 , 94 , 123 , 137 -8, 143 ; Slave society, 26 ; Temple slaves, 146 Social mobility, 73 -4, 196 , 197 , 218 -19; Social structure of tribes, 117 Socialism, 93 ff., 291 ( see Marxism, Communism) Sogdiana, country in Central Asia, 45 , 60 , 134 -5, 163 , 174 , 184 Soul, concept of soul, 32 South-East Asia, 9 , 10 , 14 , 198 , 201 250, 275 , 324 ( see Burma, Champa, Cambodia, Annam, Laos, Vietnam, Tonking, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Mon-Khmer) Soviet Republics, 294 , 312 , 328 ( see Russia) Speculations, financial, 227 Ssŭ-ma, clan, 113 -14 Ssŭ-ma Ch'ien, historian, 103 -4 Ssŭ-ma Kuang, historian, 220 Ssŭ-ma Yen, ruler, 114 , 115 Standardization, 64 ff. States, territorial and national, 37 , 51 ; State religion, 145 -6, 180 Statistics, 83 ( see Population) Steel, 56 , 198 Steppe, 9 Stone age, 8 ff. Stratification, social, 29 ( see Classes, Social mobility) Strikes, 198 Students, 304 -5, 306 , 320 Su Chün, rebel, 156 Su Tsung, T'ang ruler, 185 Su Tung-p'o, poet, 219 su-wang (uncrowned king), 43 Sui, dynasty, 151 Sun Ts'ê, ruler, 100 , 101 Sun Yat-sen (Sun I-hsien), revolutionary leader, president, 280 , 299 , 300 , 302 , 305 , 309 , 311 , 312 , 313 , 315 , 318 , 321 Sung, dynasty, 207 , 208 ff., 238 ; Liu-Sung dynasty, 159 ff. Szechwan (Ssŭ-ch'uan), province, 101 , 139 , 156 , 157 , 159 , 185 , 190 , 199 , 200 , 202 , 207 , 214 , 215 , 219 , 262 , 301 ( see Shu) Ta-tan (Tatars), tribal federation, 233 Tada, Japanese militarist, 295 Tai, tribes, 17 , 19 , 21 , 111 , 152 ( see Thailand) Tai Chen, philosopher, 279 Tai Ch'ing dynasty (Manchu), 267 T'ai P'ing, state, 274 , 289 ff., 333 T'ai Tsu, Sung ruler, 209 ; Manchu ruler, 257 T'ai Tsung, T'ang ruler 174, 178 ( see Li Shih-min) Taiwan (T'ai-wan, see Formosa), 323 ff, 334 T'an-yao, priest, 146 Tanaka, Japanese militarist, 295 T'ang, dynasty, 83 -4, 144 , 147 , 172 ff.; Later T'ang dynasty, 204 ff. T'ang Hsien-tsu, writer, 255 T'ang Yin, painter, 255 Tanguts, Tibetan tribal federation and/or state, 99 , 102 , 118 , 224 -5, 233 ( see Ch'iang) Tao, philosophical term, 42 , 46 , 47 Tao-kuang, reign period, 285 ff., 288 Tao-tê-ching, book, 46 T'ao-t'ieh, mythical emblem, 22 Tao-yen, monk, 264 Taoism, religion, 101 -2, 133 , 136 , 150 , 183 , 188 , 236 , 266 ; Taoists, 46 , 61 , 104 , 241 , 263 -4 ( see Lao Tzŭ, Chuang Tzŭ, Chang Ling, etc.) Tarim basin, 89 , 179 Tatars (Ta-tan) Mongolian tribal federation, 190 , 230 , 233 Taxation, 33 , 55 , 65 , 78 , 143 , 154 , 173 , 175 , 178 , 210 , 211 , 212 , 213 , 247 , 252 ; Tax collectors, 55 , 74 , 116 ; Tax evasion, 214 , 226 , 246 ; Tax exemptions, 188 , 213 , 236 ; Taxes for monks, 208 ; Tax reform, 187 Tê Tsung, Manchu ruler, 295 , 299 Tea, 276 ; Tea trade, 200 ; Tea house ( see Brothel), 182 Teachers, 74 ( see Schools) Technology, 219 Tell, archaeological term, 16 Temples, 101 , 183 ( see Monasteries) Tengri khan, ruler, 186 Textile industry, 198 ( see Silk, Cotton) Thailand, state, 12 , 248 , 265 ( see Tai tribes) Theatre, 182 -3, 242 ( see Shadow, Puppet, Opera) Throne, accession to, 150 ( see Abdication, Legitimacy) Ti, Tibetan tribes, 21 , 118 Tibet, 12 , 15 , 19 , 29 , 30 , 35 , 102 , 110 , 116 , 118 -19, 120 , 121 , 126 , 127 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 135 , 139 , 145 , 169 , 174 , 177 , 179 , 181 , 186 , 187 , 200 , 224 -5, 242 , 273 , 278 , 283 , 284 , 293 , 310 , 329 ( see Ch'iang, Ti, T'u-fan, T'u-yü-hun, Lhasa Tanguts) T'ien, deity, 32 Tientsin (T'ien-chin), city, 287 , 290 , 299 Timur, ruler, 258 Tin, 17 Ting-ling, tribal federation, 89 , 102 T'o-pa ( see Toba) T'o-t'o, writer, 241 -2 Toba, Turkish tribal federation, 76 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 123 , 126 , 127 , 132 , 136 ff., 159 , 160 , 161 , 168 , 169 , 172 , 173 , 174 , 177 , 214 , 222 , 224 Tocharians, Central Asian ethnic group, 150 Tokto ( see T'o-t'o) Tölös, Turkish tribal group, 169 , 178 , 185 Tombs, 19 , 34 Tonking, state, 10 , 54 , 295 , 330 Tortoise, 22 , 47 -8 Totalitarianism, 80 ( see Dictatorship, Fascism, Communism) Tou Ku, general, 99 T'ou-man, ruler, 67 Towns ( see City) Trade, 88 -9, 90 , 99 , 127 ; barter trade, 57 ; international trade, 60 , 62 , 86 , 127 -8, 139 , 178 , 179 , 198 , 209 , 223 , 245 , 258 , 264 -5, 276 , 286 ( see Merchants, Commerce, Caravans, Silk road) Translations, 135 , 182 , 280 , 307 Transportation, 56 , 168 , 235 , 247 , 283 ( see Roads, Canals, Ships, Post, Caravans, Horses) Travels of emperors, 66 Treasury, 84 , 206 Treaty, international, 77 , 226 , 278 , 286 , 290 -1, 293 , 295 , 296 Tribal organization, 76 , 223 , 224 ( see Banner, Army, Nomads) Tribes, disappearance of, 133 , 151 -2; social organization, 117 ; military organization, 149 Tribute ( kung ), 33 , 88 , 209 , 214 , 226 , 230 , 248 tsa-hu, social class, 144 Tsai T'ien, prince, 295 Ts'ai Yüan-p'ei, scholar, 307 Ts'ao Chih, poet, 48 Ts'ao Hsüeh-ch'in, writer, 280 Ts'ao K'un, politician, 312 Ts'ao P'ei, ruler, 102 , 109 , 113 Ts'ao Ts'ao, general, 100 , 101 , 102 Tsewang Rabdan, general, 277 Tseng Kuo-fan, general, 291 Tso Tsung-t'ang, general, 293 Tsou Yen, philosopher, 60 -1 Ts'ui, clan, 113 , 147 , 181 T'u-chüeh, Gök Turk tribes, 149 ( see Turks) Tu Fu, poet, 182 T'u-fan, Tibetan tribal group, 171 , 177 , 205 Tu-ku, Turkish tribe, 124 , 151 T'u-shu chi-ch'eng , encyclopaedia, 279 tu-tu , title, 174 T'u-yü-hun, Tibetan tribal federation, 130 , 141 , 169 , 177 Tuan Ch'i-jui, president, 312 Tümet, Mongol tribal group, 265 Tung Ch'i-ch'ang, painter, 255 T'ung-chien kang-mu, historical encyclopaedia, 43 T'ung-chih, reign period, 294 Tung Chung-shu, thinker, 80 , 104 Tung Fu-hsiang, politician, 298 Tung-lin academy, 267 Tungus tribes, 11 , 19 , 117 , 222 , 229 , 265 ( see Ju-chen, Po-hai, Manchu) Tunhuang (Tun-huang), city, 85 , 324 Turfan, city state, 245 Turgut, Mongol tribal federation, 283 Turkestan, 45 , 60 , 62 , 85 , 86 ff., 88 , 95 , 97 , 99 , 113 , 114 , 125 , 127 , 130 , 132 , 134 , 135 , 139 , 141 , 142 , 146 , 147 , 159 , 163 , 176 , 177 , 178 , 187 , 220 , 224 , 241 , 245 , 259 , 273 , 277 , 278 , 282 , 289 , 293 , 294 ( see Central Asia, Tarim, Turfan, Sinkiang, Khotan, Ferghana, Samarkand, Khotcho, Tocharians, Yüeh-chih, Sogdians, etc.) Turkey, 259 Turks, 11 , 15 , 17 , 25 , 29 , 30 , 32 , 35 , 53 , 57 , 108 , 109 , 117 , 119 , 122 , 127 , 133 , 135 , 137 , 140 , 146 ff., 149 ff., 169 ff., 174 , 176 ff., 179 , 180 , 181 , 184 , 185 , 203 , 206 , 230 , 282 , 294 , 329 ( see Gök Turks, T'u-chüeh, Toba, Tölös, Ting-ling, Uighur, Sha-t'o, etc.) Tzŭ Hsi, empress, 294 ff., 296 ff. Uighurs, Turkish federation, 171 , 174 , 176 , 177 , 178 , 181 , 185 , 186 ff., 190 , 233 , 234 , 278 United States, 287 , 304 , 309 , 313 , 322 , 342 ( see America) Ungern-Sternberg, general, 311 Urbanization, 31 , 250 ( see City) Urga, city, 310 University, 304 -5, 306 , 307 , 318 , 320 Usury, 94 Vagrants ( liu-min ), 198 , 213 Vietnam, 330 , 334 ( see Annam) Village, 23 ; Village commons, 94 , 154 Vinaya Buddhism, 188 Voltaire, writer, 242 Walls, 57 ; Great Wall, 57 , 67 , 256 Wan-li, reign period, 265 , 266 Wang (king), 38 Wang An-shih, statesman, 215 ff., 217 -18, 254 Wang Chen, eunuch, 260 Wang Ching-wei, collaborator, 315 , 318 Wang Ch'ung, philosopher 104-5 Wang Hsien-chih, peasant leader, 189 -90 Wang Kung, general, 158 Wang Mang, ruler, 92 ff., 97 , 100 , 101 Wang Shih-chen, writer, 255 Wang Shih-fu, writer, 242 Wang Tao-k'un, writer, 254 Wang Tun, rebel, 156 -7 Wang Yang-ming, general and philosopher, 261 ff. War, 82 ; size of wars, 21 , 53 ; War-chariot, 25 , 29 , 30 , 53 ; cost of wars, 90 ; War lords, 309 ff.; Warrior-nomads, 36 ( see Army, World War, Opium War, Lorcha War, Fire-Arms) Washington, conference, 313 Wei, dynasty, 102 , 113 ff.; small state, 40 ; empress, 180 Wei Chung-hsien, eunuch, 267 -8 Wei T'o, ruler in South China, 77 Welfare state, 215 ff. Well-field system ( ching-t'ien ), 33 Wen Ti, Han ruler, 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 86 ; Wei ruler 113; Toba ruler, 144 ; Sui ruler, 167 ff. Wen Tsung, Manchu ruler, 294 Whampoa, military academy, 314 Wheat, 11 , 21 , 32 White Lotos sect (Pai-lien), 239 , 267 , 284 -5 Wholesalers, 200 Wine, 21 Wood-cut, 251 , 256 ( see Colour print) Wool, 21 , 33 , 286 ( see Felt) World Wars, 295 , 310 , 311 , 312 , 317 Women rights, 280 , 332 Writing, invention, 18 , 22 ( see Script) Wu, empress, 179 ff.; state, 38 , 111 -12, 115 , 121 Wu-ch'ang, city, 301 ( see Hankow) Wu Ching-tzŭ, writer, 280 Wu-huan, tribal federation, 98 , 102 , 114 Wu P'ei-fu, war lord, 312 Wu San-Kui, general, 269 , 271 , 272 , 277 Wu Shih-fan, ruler, 271 Wu-sun, tribal group, 89 Wu Tai (Five Dynasties period), 199 ff. Wu Tao-tzŭ, painter, 183 Wu(Ti), Han ruler, 86 , 89 , 91 ; Chin ruler, 115 ; Liang ruler, 161 , 164 Wu Tsung, Manchu ruler, 261 , 264 Wu Wang, Chou ruler, 30 wu-wei, philosophical term, 47 Yakub beg, ruler, 293 Yamato, part of Japan, 112 Yang, clan, 119 , 120 Yang Chien, ruler, 151 , 163 , 166 ff. ( see Wen Ti) Yang (Kui-fei), concubine, 184 Yang-shao, archaeological site, 12 ff., 29 Yang Ti, Sui ruler, 168 , 178 Yao, mythical ruler, 17 ; tribes in South China, 12 , 16 , 19 , 21 , 111 , 152 Yarkand, city in Turkestan, 97 , 98 , 282 Yeh (K'ai-feng), city, 125 , 148 Yeh-ta ( see Ephtalites) Yehe-Nara, tribe, 294 Yellow Turbans, secret society, 101 , 158 Yeh-lü Ch'u-ts'ai, politician, 241 Yen, state, 114 ; dynasty, 112 ; Earlier Yen dynasty, 126 , 127 ; Later Yen dynasty 127, 128 ff.; Western Yen dynasty, 129 Yen-an, city, 321 -2 Yen Fu, translator, 280 Yen Hsi-shan, war lord, 315 Yen-ta (Altan), ruler, 264 -5 Yen-t'ieh-lun (Discourses on Salt and Iron), book, 91 Yin Chung-k'an, general, 158 Yin-ch'ü, city, 21 Yin and Yang, philosophical terms, 60 Ying Tsung, Manchu ruler, 259 , 260 Yo Fei, general, 226 Yü Liang, general, 156 , 157 Yü-wen, tribal group, 119 , 148 , 169 , 172 Yüan Chen, 182 Yüan Chi, philosopher, 50 Yüan Mei, writer, 280 Yüan Shao, general, 100 Yüan Shih-k'ai, general and president, 298 , 299 , 300 , 301 , 302 , 309 , 310 , 311 , 312 Yüan Ti, Han ruler, 92 ; Chin ruler, 152 , 156 Yüeh, tribal group and area, 12 , 16 , 38 , 77 , 152 Yüeh-chih, Indo-European-speaking ethnic group, 75 , 88 , 118 , 150 Yün-kang, caves, 146 -7, 344 Yünnan, (Yün-nan), province, 10 , 89 , 97 , 110 , 248 , 258 , 275 , 292 Yung-cheng, reign period, 278 , 282 Yung-lo, reign period, 257 , 264 Zen Buddhism ( see Ch'an), 164 Zoroaster, founder of religion, 342

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