Roumania Past and Present

APPENDICES. H.M. PAULINE ELIZABETH, FIRST QUEEN OF ROUMANIA. IN THE NATIONAL COSTUME. (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY FRANZ DUSCHEK.) But of course our interest in him is necessarily rather of a public than of a private character. Is he constitutional? or is Europe likely some day to be favoured with a Roumanian coup d'état ? The answer to these questions is clear and emphatic. Although a Hohenzollern, he is a Constitutional Liberal, we should say of an advanced type. We spoke before of his misunderstandings with his ministers; but even those who were originally opposed to him, and who watched his every act with suspicion, state that he has managed with great tact to steer clear of unconstitutional courses; indeed, from their own admissions and the facts of history, it is clear that he must have served a very trying apprenticeship in the art of constitutional rule. His demeanour towards his subjects and that of his queen, of whom we shall speak presently, is everything that can be desired, and both are winning their affections more completely year by year. When the court is at Bucarest a great portion of the king's time is devoted to giving audiences, not only to officials, but to all who desire to know their sovereign, and even to seek his counsel or that of his amiable consort. Two books are kept at the palace, one for callers only, and the other for persons who desire to see and speak with the king or queen, for they give audiences apart. Those who enter their names in the second book must give notice to the 'Hofmarschall,' and they are then sent for in turn, and punctuality above all things is insisted upon. The king gives audiences from 1 to 3 or 4 p.m.; the queen for a longer time, and young as she is, for she has not yet attained her fortieth year, she is regarded as the mother of her people, and many there are who come to her for advice or consolation. But we are digressing. If the king interests himself in the civil affairs of Roumania, he is a soldier before everything else. The virtual as well as the nominal head of the army, he always wears uniform, and nothing is too unimportant for his consideration in the organisation of his army. Those who have been in the field with him and much about his person extol his coolness, bravery, and endurance. He has often risked his life in battle, was always to the fore visiting outposts and bivouacs in the most inclement weather, and there can be no doubt that it is to his bravery as a general, and to his tact and patience as a statesman, that Roumania is largely indebted for her independence and her promise in the future. II. The Queen of Roumania is almost too well known in Europe, through her literary attainments, to need any description here; still a few particulars concerning her may be of interest to our readers. She is of the middle height, has an amiable face and still more affable manner. She, too, might pass for a lady of any western country, having very little to indicate her German nationality. Her voice is soft and melodious, and although she can speak well on literary and scientific subjects, there is not the slightest pedantry or affectation of learning in her discourse. She is said to speak six languages, and she certainly speaks Roumanian, French, German, and English. We do not know what the other two may be, but if she speaks the four languages here named as fluently and with as little foreign accent as she does our own, she may fairly claim to be an accomplished linguist. All educated Roumanians speak French, and most of them German, besides their own tongue; indeed French is almost the universal language of the middle classes, whilst those who have been educated here, especially the younger men, naturally speak English well, and therefore the Queen is in this respect only somewhat ahead of her more accomplished subjects. But, as we have already stated, she is a poetess, and her verses are often marked by great depth of feeling. She possesses, too, considerable scientific knowledge and great taste in art, and one of her chief desires is to promote national industry. She sets the example by wearing the national costume (in which her portrait is usually taken) whilst in the country, and requires it to be worn on State occasions, her main object being, we were told, to encourage the peasant women who make these costumes in their own homes. But whilst in these matters, as in her devotion to public duty, the Queen identifies herself with the Roumanian people and their interests, she would not be a German if she had forgotten the 'Fatherland.' 'Land of greenwood and of vine, Sparkling wavelets of the Rhine, Hushed thy song, afar thy gleam. All to me, now, but a dream. 'Oft when I these eyelids close, Purling sounds haunt my repose, Vessels in the sunlight's ray, 'Fore the wind, speed on their way. 'Lovely home on German plain Once my own, but ne'er again, Thou wilt be to mem'ry dear Till they place me on my bier.' [194] III. But her Majesty, who is a Protestant, is not the only lady now living who has made her mark in Roumanian history. There is another of whom we are sure our readers will be glad to hear something, for she is an accomplished Englishwoman, and it is very questionable whether, after all, the Roumanians do not owe their independence as much to her energy and devotion as to any other cause; we mean Madame Rosetti, the wife of the Home Secretary. [195] It was mentioned in our historical summary that the patriots of 1848 made their escape to France in that year, and that they returned after the Crimean war in 1856. That is a long story told in a, couple of sentences, and but for Madame Rosetti it is probable they would never have escaped, but would have languished and died in a Turkish prison in Bosnia, whilst Roumania might have been at this day a Turkish pashalik or a Russian province. The fact is that all the leaders of the revolution, fifteen in number, were arrested and conveyed on board a Turkish man-of-war lying in the Danube; and Madame Rosetti, whose heroic adventures have formed the theme of a work by Michelet, [196] helped them to escape from their captors. As we have already said, she is an Englishwoman, whose maiden name was Grant, and she had only been married about a year when the revolution broke out. Her first child was born a day or two before her husband and his comrades were arrested, but she at once left her bed, and, taking her infant in her arms, prepared to follow them. First she managed to obtain an interview with the patriots on board the Turkish vessel to which they had been conveyed, and there plans were formed which she skilfully and courageously executed. Disguising herself as a peasant, and carrying her child, she followed them up the Danube to Orsova, communicating with her friends from time to time by signals. At Orsova the prisoners were landed, and whilst they were on shore she succeeded in making their guards intoxicated, and, with the connivance of the authorities, prepared suitable conveyances, in which the patriots made their escape. First they passed through Servia, and reaching Vienna in safety they entered that city the day after the bombardment, and subsequently they made their way through Germany, accompanied by their deliverer, and found a hospitable asylum in Paris. Since her return Madame Rosetti has been as valuable a coadjutor to her husband in his prosperity as she was in his adversity, and she is also a useful and willing adviser to any of her countrymen who, visiting Roumania, may stand in need of her assistance. IV. Her husband, his Excellency Constantin A. Rosetti, has also reaped the reward of his devotion to his country's welfare. He is of an old boyard family of Italian origin, and in his early youth he was not only a soldier in the national army, but his pen also gained for him a considerable reputation, for he composed and published many interesting Roumanian poems. At the age of about thirty-two years he married the English lady to whom he owes so much, and of his adventures in 1848 we have already twice spoken. Before he permanently took up his residence in Paris after his escape, we believe he spent some time in Constantinople. In Paris he was the companion of Michelet, Quinet, and other leading writers, and with them and his countrymen the brothers Bratiano and Golesco lie managed by his patriotic publications to keep the lamp of liberty burning in his own country. Here, too, he is said to have enjoyed the support of our own distinguished statesman, William Ewart Gladstone, who was subsequently made a Roumanian citizen by an Act of the legislature about the year 1861, and whom the Roumanians still regard with feelings of great respect and admiration. On the return of M. Rosetti to Roumania after the Crimean war he founded the 'Romanal' a daily paper which still occupies a high position amongst the journals of the capital, and which remains his property. [197] He took a conspicuous part in the union of the Principalities under Prince Couza, and supported that prince whilst his proceedings were constitutional, but he was one of the most active agents in his deposition, and the only serious objection that has been taken to his acts and those of his colleagues on that occasion is that he employed the army to bring about the prince's overthrow. To this matter, however, we have already referred in our historical summary. In 1866 he was one of the provisional government, and was at first by no means favourably disposed towards the present king, who was, we believe, recommended to the Roumanians by the Emperor Napoleon III. In later times, however, he became one of his Majesty's most faithful advisers. M. Rosetti is about sixty-seven years of age, full of life and energy. His career of hardship has somewhat bowed his physical frame, but it has in no way interfered with his cheerful and kindly disposition. In appearance he is an Italian, has very prominent but mild eyes, and a most thoughtful, somewhat careworn countenance. He is vif , hot and excitable, and not unfrequently lets his voice be heard if anything is going wrong in public affairs, and something is very often going wrong in Roumania. He speaks Roumanian, French, and German, and can write English (of which he is fond of interjecting an expressive word now and then when he is speaking in French) fairly well. Unfortunately for scandal-mongers, of whom there are a good many in the capital and elsewhere, M. Rosetti lives with great simplicity on the premises of the 'Romanul,' and upon, the profits of his paper and his salary; so they are unable to charge him with peculation, which they would certainly do if he gave them the slightest justification. He is a Radical, and an uncompromising enemy of coups d'état , and of despotism or unconstitutional proceedings in any form, a man of unflinching honesty and the leader of political thought in his country. In fact, he is a patriot, and his countrymen know and appreciate the fact. They usually couple his name with that of M. Bratiano, who is President of the Council and Minister of Finance, and, so far as temperament is concerned, the very opposite of his colleague. M. Bratiano is a quiet, courteous gentleman, somewhat younger than M. Rosetti. His features are regular and handsome, his beard and hair iron-grey, and his voice even and melodious. He is full of pleasant humour, and has the bearing and manner of an English gentleman; but although an excellent debater, he is not a good linguist. In Roumania they say, 'Rosetti thinks and Bratiano speaks,' but Bratiano thinks as well as speaks. So completely at one are the two statesmen that many of the uninformed poorer classes who have not seen them believe them to be one person, whom they call 'Bratiano-Rosetti,' and whilst we were in Bucarest we saw a caricature (an art in which the Roumanians take great delight) where the two statesmen were depicted as the Siamese twins. M. BRATIANO. The aim and policy of M. Bratiano are well expressed in one of his despatches on the question of the Danube, which were made public by that diplomatic phenomenon M. Callimaki-Catargi. 'Our attitude,' he says, 'like the whole policy of the ministry to which I belong, has always been, and ever should be, defensive, not offensive.' [198] Amongst the other leaders of political thought in Roumania is Prince Demeter Ghika, President of the Senate, a fine burly good-natured gentleman of the old school; Prince Jon Ghika, at present the Roumanian Ambassador in London, a patriot and a savant, whose sons were educated in England; M. Statesco, the Foreign Minister, a young and promising statesman; M. Stourdza, the director of the National Credit Association; and there are doubtless many others of whom we do not like to speak without a nearer acquaintance, or better information than we possess. One of these is M. Cogalniceanu, a deputy, who has written a good history of Roumania, was a minister under Prince Couza, and we believe the author of the celebrated Act of 1864 which created the peasant proprietary of the country. [199] V. From men to measures is a natural transition in politics. Although we have endeavoured to show, and do not hesitate to repeat here, that some of the great principles laid down in the Constitution of Roumania are only beginning to be carried out in practice, it is but just to add that the vigour and energy with which the party of progress has of late years developed the resources of the country is a matter of surprise and admiration even to foreigners resident there who are acquainted with our Western methods. The present régime began, as we have already said, in 1875, and since that time the foreign policy of the party in power first liberated the nation from the last vestige of foreign despotism; then firmly established it as a European kingdom. That they occasionally make mistakes no one can deny. For example, the recent announcement in the speech from the throne, that Roumania was prepared in the present and future for every sacrifice which it might be necessary to make to ensure in all respects absolute facility of navigation of the Danube, appears to an outsider to have been an error in judgment, if the government were not prepared to hear with equanimity of the threatened departure of the ambassador of a neighbouring State which had put the cap upon its head, and against whose unwarrantable pretensions the remark was directed. But it is easy to be wise after the event, and we admit that it is presumptuous for anyone to criticise hastily any matter that is being tossed about on the troubled sea of Oriental politics. Living as we do on a seagirt isle which is practically unapproachable to an external foe, and having for centuries enjoyed the blessings of freedom, we can have no conception of the difficult cards which Roumanian statesmen have to play in the political game in which they are often compelled, much against their desire, to participate. From time to time they hear great international theories propounded for the benefit of their powerful neighbours, to which they are compelled to close their ears, however nearly those principles may apply to their own condition. Suppose, for example, some European Power claims new territory on the ground of geographical position. Why, ask the Roumanians, should we be hemmed in as we are on every side? Why should not the plains on both sides of the Danube guarded by the Balkans and the Carpathians constitute a strong realm, one and indivisible, with the great river flowing as an artery through its centre? The answer is, Russia! If an v of the Great Powers had insisted upon such a readjustment in the East, she would have opposed it, for is not Bulgaria her last stepping-stone to Constantinople? 'Skobeleff the First, King of Bulgaria' would suit her aims far better. This reminds one of 'Panslavism.' Who will deny the right of adjacent branches of the same race to live under one government? Admitted; but then why not also Panroumanism? In that case considerable portions of Austro-Hungary, Bessarabia, Bulgaria, Servia, would have to be added to the present dominions of King Charles of Roumania; for there are almost as many Roumanians in those countries as there are within the present boundaries of the kingdom. [200] But if Roumanian statesmen are permitted to enjoy their reflections on these interesting political topics, they know that it would be unsafe to publish them, for, as we have seen, if they venture even, to cry too loudly 'Roumania for the Roumanians,' some hectoring neighbour instantly takes the alarm and threatens to withdraw its ambassador; and in case of a fracas between any two such neighbouring States, even the rights which she at present enjoys would hardly be respected. Her policy is therefore tolerably well defined, and it was ably set forth in the royal speech which contained that dangerous reference to Austrian pretensions. Peace is requisite for her, in order that her Parliament may occupy itself in developing the riches of the soil and the economic interests of the country; but the organisation of a strong defensive army is equally necessary to protect those interests from grasping and despotic States in her vicinity, and because, 'by the development of all the forces of the nation, Roumania will become an element of order, peace, and progress in Eastern Europe.' In fact, she must make herself, by peaceful measures, what Michael the Brave succeeded for a very short time, and from motives of personal ambition, in making her by the sword in his day, the arbiter of surrounding nations, the Belgium of the East, which no aggressive despot would dare to assail; and she must become sufficiently strong to resist not only inimical but friendly foreign occupations, which have such a demoralising effect upon her people. On this undertaking her Government has already for some years past been embarked. It has secured railway property for the State which was in the hands of aliens, has begun to improve watercourses, created national credit institutions, re duced the interest upon the national debt, increased the value of Roumanian securities, and has generally followed, as it still pursues, the ways of 'peace, retrenchment, and reform.' [201] We have no wish to patronise Roumania even in words, for her best friend is he who tells her to depend entirely on her own resources and develop those herself; to carve her fortunes, and to shape her ends. But when we look upon her sufferings, reflecting how for ages she has lain beneath the claws of savage enemies, quailed under despots who sucked the lifeblood of the nation, and then compare her constitutional democracy with ours—nay, if alone from a material point of view we weigh the interest we have in her prosperity, we cannot fail to see that in the East is rising up a Power, in part of our creation, young and weak as yet, but full of hope and promise; and therefore, in concluding this imperfect record of her 'past and present,' we heartily commend her future to the earnest watchfulness of every English friend of liberty. APPENDICES. APPENDIX I. Table of Movements and Settlements of various Nationalities and Tribes in the Provinces bordering on the Lower Danube between the Getic period and about the end of the Thirteenth Century, a.d ., compiled by the Author, and corrected from the Ancient Historians (Tacitus, Dion Cassius, Eutropius) and the works of Gibbon, Smith, Lesage, Engel, Lauriani, Neigebaur, Henke, Wilkinson, Merivale, Freeman, Dierauer, Roesler, Pic, and others. NATIONALITY or TRIBE, with supposed Subdivisions APPROXIMATE DATES OF Remarks First appearance in Danubian Provinces Term of Domination By whom and when Conquered Final Disappearance Getæ —Getæ and Dacians 335 b.c. ? ? ? Believed to be of Thracian origin; not clearly traceable. Dacians (Successors of or contemporary with Getæ) ? b.c. to a.d. 106 Romans (Trajan), a.d. 106 See Remarks The Dacians rose against the Romans under Ant. Pius and at other times, but were probably fused with the Romans and the barbarians who followed them. Romans 1st century b.c. 106 b.c. to 274 a.d. Withdrew before the Goths about 274 a.d. ? A considerable proportion of the Roman and Daco-Roman descendants fused with succeeding tribes, and their descendants survive in Roumania to-day. Goths —Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Gepidæ 250 a.d. 274 to 375 a.d. Huns, 375 a.d. 378 a.d. About 376 a.d. they crossed the Danube, driven before the Huns, and were allowed to settle with other tribes in Mœsia. Sometimes the Goths and Huns were allied. Sarmatians, Quadi, Marcomanni invaded Dacia at various times; Sarmatians settled. > 282 to 375 a.d. Romans, 375 a.d. The Sarmatians fought against the Romans at various periods, but were conquered by Valentinian, 375 a.d. Huns (and Alani) 370 to 375 a.d. 375 a.d. to about 453 Gepidæ, 453 a.d. 460 a.d. The Huns were driven eastward, but returned a few years afterwards, overran Italy, and are mentioned as being in Dacia about 564 a.d. Gepidæ See above (Goths) 453 to 550-564 a.d. Lombards and Avari, 550 a.d. 568 a.d. Lombards 550 a.d. 561 to ? Joined the Byzantines The Lombards, allied to the Avari, overran a great part of Dacia and Pannonia, and, entering the army of Justinian, left their possessions to the Avari. Avari 550 a.d. 564 to 616-640 (intermittently) Dispersed. Part annihilated by Heraclius (610-640) End seventh century The Avari were alternately masters and vassals of other tribes. Bulgari 493 to 499 a.d. 634 (with Slaves) 679 (alone) to 1014-1019 Byzantines (Basilius) 1014-1019 See Remarks The Bulgari were of Scythian origin, and many tribes have been included in them by different authors. Amongst them, the Wallachs, Croats, Moravians (Lesage). Slaves 493 to 527 See Remarks See Remarks The Slaves settled in detachments in various parts, from the Euxine to the Adriatic Sea, and, allied with one or more tribes, fought the Byzantines. Many merged into the general population. Byzantine Empire 1014 to ? For some time Dacia was nominally incorporated with the Empire. Ungri —Hungarians or Magyars 824 to 839 a.d. Powerful in Dacia Trajana tenth century Stephen (about 997) founded Hungarian Kingdom Transylvania was annexed to Hungary either 1002 or 1070 a.d. Patzinakitai (probably mixed race) End of ninth century Powerful tenth century Came under Kumani &c. Disappeared in Hungary about 1275 The Patzinakitai, settled chiefly in the Carpathians, are associated with Wallachs and Kumani as vassals. Kumani (and Chazars) 1047 a.d. (with Chazars) Powerful 1083 to 1220 Settled and baptised 1220 a.d. The Kumani dominated over and absorbed other tribes on the Carpathians. Wallacho-Bulgarian Empire —(Wallachs, called also Romani, Blachi, &c.) Wallachs, 976-1037 1199 to 1246-1285 Tartars, about 1246-1285 The Wallachs were a race of shepherds; considered by some an independent tribe (see above remarks on Bulgari), by others descendants of the Daco-Roman colonists. Teutonic Knights and Knights of St. John Teut. Knts. 1200 to 1223; Knts. St. John 1249 to ? The King of Hungary, as suzerain of Transylvania and part of Wallachia, gave the government of certain districts to the Teutonic Knights in 1200, but withdrew it in 1223 a.d. Tartars (or Mongols) About 1240 Made inroads into 'Moldavia' and Wallachia 13th century. Ruled in Moldavia 13th and first half of 14th century. Retired northward to Russia. Founded the Tartar Dynasty. At the same time there were smaller voivodeships, banates, and khanates north of the Danube. APPENDIX II. The 'Capitulations.' The original 'Capitulation' of Mircea I. of Wallachia to the Sultan Bajazid I. at Nicopolis, 1393 a.d. , is contained in a 'Hatthoumaioun' of the latter, said to have been preserved in Constantinople, and there seen by a Roumanian called Kitzorano, who was attached to the Wallachian Embassy, and who took a copy of it (along with others), which he sent to the Great Ban Takanitza Vacaresco. The Greek historian, Dionysius Photino, also saw it at the Porte, and published a copy of it in his 'History of Dacia,' vol. ii. cap. v. p. 369, a work which the reader will find in the British Museum. This runs as follows:— 'We order, in our great condescension, that the country of Wallachia, which has lately submitted to our invincible arms, shall be governed by its own laws, and that the Voivode shall have the power of making war and peace with his neighbours and of life and death over his subjects. All Christians belonging to the countries subject to our rule who would emigrate to Wallachia shall be allowed the free exercise of their religion. All Wallachians visiting our empire on business shall be allowed to do so without interference in the same or in their garments. The Christian voivodes to be elected by the metropolitan and the boyards. In return for our great condescension in having accepted this rayah (the Voivode of Wallachia) amongst the other subjects of our empire, he will be bound to pay into our treasury, every year, the sum of 6,000 red piastres of the country.' Translations of this capitulation are to be found in the French histories of Roumania, but they are not always trustworthy; for example, Beaure and Mathorel (Appendix, p. 203) profess to give a verbatim copy, in which the last article declares that the Sultan promises never to deliver a firman to a Wallachian subject, nor to summon him to Constantinople . A moment's reflection would have shown the inaccuracy of this statement, for Constantinople was at that time still the capital of the Eastern Empire, and only fell into the Ottoman power in 1453. The stipulation in question is the last in the treaty with Vlad (V.?), 1460. The 'Capitulation' of Bogdan of Moldavia to Selim I., 1513, was in some respects more favourable to the vassal State. Amongst other stipulations, it provided for the residence in Constantinople of a Moldavian envoy, and permitted a Christian church to be erected there. The annual tribute was, however, raised and consisted of 11,000 piastres, forty falcons, and forty mares in foal, 'all by way of present.' In both countries, after each war or insurrection fresh stipulations, including a constantly increasing tribute, were added. APPENDIX III. The Roumanian Constitution. The Constitution of Roumania contains one hundred and thirty-three articles, and is framed with great regard to justice and to the national liberties. The following are some of its leading provisions. The country is divided into districts, the districts into arrondissements, the arrondissements into communes. [202] It grants (Article 5) freedom of conscience, of instruction, of the press, and of public meeting. Abolishes (10 and 12) [203] distinctions and privileges of class and foreign titles, such as Prince, Count, Baron, &c., as being contrary to ancient institutions. [204] Capital punishment is abolished except under martial law in time of war (18). The property of the peasantry and the indemnity to landowners are inviolable (20). The Greek Catholic religion is made the State Church, but all other sects are allowed freedom of worship (21). Primary instruction is gratuitous and compulsory (23), and primary schools are to be established in every commune. Freedom of speech, except as to breaches of the Criminal Code, is unrestricted; press offences must be tried by jury, and no journal can be 'warned,' suspended, or suppressed; neither is there any kind of 'censure' of the press (24). Freedom of assemblage (26) and the right to petition (28) are confirmed; and the extradition of political exiles is forbidden. All crimes are to be tried by jury (105). The legislative power is vested in the Prince and the national repre sentatives, namely, the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies (32). But money bills and matters relating to the army contingents must originate with the latter (33). The executive power is vested in the prince (35) (now the king), who is hereditary in the male line only (82), and who must belong to the Orthodox Greek Church. He is inviolate, his ministers only being responsible, and one of them must countersign all his decrees (92). He sanctions, and may refuse his assent to, all laws; has the right of amnesty (93); is the head of the army, makes war, concludes peace, and performs the other acts of a constitutional sovereign. Should a vacancy occur in the throne, various provisions exist for the eventuality, and in case of failure of issue the two Assemblies conjointly 'elect a prince of one of the sovereign dynasties of Western Europe' (84). (Rather vague, but very significant.) The Chamber of Deputies consists of members elected by direct and by indirect voting. The constituency is divided into four 'colleges' or groups (58). The first college in each district comprises persons having incomes from property ( foncier ) of not less than 300 ducats, equal to about 141 l. (59). The second college includes those with an income ranging from 100 to 300 ducats (47 l. to 141 l. )(60). The third (61) comprises persons in trade paying the State 80 francs (about 3 l. 4 s. ) or upwards per annum. Members of the liberal professions, half-pay officers, and some others, are exempted from the money qualification. These colleges elect each one Deputy, and the towns elect an additional number according to their importance, from such places as Pitesti two to Bucarest five. The fourth college elects indirectly. It consists of all persons who pay any taxes or contributions, however small. In this college each set of fifty electors names a delegate, and the delegates elect a Deputy. The Deputies (of whom there are to-day one hundred and forty-five) must be Roumanians, born or naturalised, must have attained the age of twenty-five, and must live in Roumania (66). The duration of the Chamber of Deputies is four years. The Senate is elected by two colleges, being the two highest for the election of Deputies. It consists to-day of seventy-six members, and includes a number of high officials who are not elective, such as the archbishop and bishops. The qualification for a Senator is an income of 800 ducats (equal to about 376 l. ) per annum, and he must have attained the age of forty years. The Senators are elected for eight years, one half retiring every four years, except in case of a dissolution of the Senate, when all must be re-elected, or, more properly speaking, a new Senate must be chosen (68 to 81). The Act of the Constitution deals with the judicial system, the Code Napoléon being in force in Roumania, with finances, army organisation, and other important matters of national interest. The Act is signed by the Prince and his Ministers: The Minister of the Interior and President of the Council, L. Catargi; the Minister of Finance, J. Bratiano; the Minister of Justice, J. Cantacuzene; the Minister of Foreign Affairs, P. Mavrogeni; the Minister of Public Worship and Instruction, C.A. Rosetti; the Minister of War, J. Ghika; the Minister of Public Works, Agriculture, and Commerce, D. Stourdza. APPENDIX IV. The Peasant Proprietary of Roumania . The precise terms and circumstances under which the peasant proprietary was formed in Roumania, as communicated to us by Prince Jon Ghika, are as follows:— Before the 'Convention of Balta Liman' between Russia and Turkey, there were three classes of peasantry: 1. Those who possessed four beasts of burden and one cow. 2.   "    "      "     two    "       "      "       " 3.   "    "      "     one cow only. By the Convention above named each class was to receive the following land, to be paid for in certain cases by twenty-two days' labour, 1/10th of the harvest and 1/5th of the hay. Class 1.—(11 pogones, or 5-1/2 hectares), or about 14 acres, namely: 3 pogones = about 3-8/10 acres arable. 3    "    =   "   3-8/10   "   hay. 5    "    =   "   6-4/10   "   pasturage. Class 2.—7-8/10 pogones, or about 10 acres, viz.: 3-8/10 acres arable. 3-8/10   "   pasturage. 2-8/10   "   hay; and Class 3.—4-1/2 pogones, or about 5-1/2 acres, viz.: 3-8/10 acres arable. 1-2/10   "   hay. 6/10     "   pasturage. In 1864 these holdings, varying, therefore, from 5 to 14 acres, were converted into freeholds at about 2 l. per acre, repayable (as stated in the text) in fifteen years, with 10 per cent. interest. Mr. White, our Minister at Bucarest, has favoured us with the following information on the same subject:— The peasant heads of families who were endowed with land (in 1864) received freeholds: In Wallachia     279,684, averaging 9.1 English acres. " Moldavia      127,214     "     12.08   "      " 406,898 holdings, average 10.6   " APPENDIX V. List of Works . The following works, all of which have been consulted in the preparation of this treatise, deal either with the past history or present condition of Roumania. The words italicised are those used in the notes appended to the text, where also references will be found to other books and official reports, of which the titles are given in full. Almanach de Gotha . Justus Perthes, Gotha. 1882. 'Royaume de Roumanie,' pp. 898-907. Annual Report of the Board of Trade , 1880. Aurelian , Odobesco, and others (Commission princière). ' Notice sur la Roumanie.' Paris: A. Frank. 1867. Aurelian , ' Terra Nostra .' Bucuresci, Tipografia Academiei Române. 1880. Beaure et Mathorel . 'La Roumanie.' Calmann-Lévy, Paris. 1878. Cantacuzene . 'Cenni sulla Romania.' (Roumanian Geographical Society.) 1875. Carmen Sylva (the Queen of Roumania). 'Rumänische Dichtungen.' Leipzig: Friedrich. 1881. Carra . 'Histoire de la Moldavie et de la Valachie.' Jassy. 1777. Consular Reports on Roumania (referred to specially in the text)— Consul-General Green. May 1873. Consul-General Vivian. October 1876. Consul-General Sanderson. 1877. Vice-Consul Bonham. 1878. Sold by King, King Street, Westminster. Dierauer , Johannes. 'Beiträge zur Geschichte Trajan's.' Leipzig: Teubner. 1868. Dion Cassius. 'Histoire Romaine' de, par E. Gros. Paris: Firmin Didot. 1867. Engel . 'Geschichte der Moldau und Walachei' (in 'Allgemeine Weltgeschichte,' Band 49). Halle: Gebauer. 1801. Felix , Doctor L. 'Miscarea Populatiunii Romaniei.' Bucuresci: Tipografia Academiei. 1880. Fife-Cookson . 'With the Armies of the Balkans.' Cassell. 1880. Filek von Wittinghausen. 'Das Königreich Rumänien.' Wien: Carl Gerold's Sohn. 1881. Freeman , Edward A. 'Historical Essays.' Macmillan. 1879. 'General Sketch of European History.' Macmillan. 1877. Gerando . A. de. 'Siebenbürgen und seine Bewohner.' Lorck, Leipzig. 1845. Gibbon's 'Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.' Tegg's edition. Hallam's 'Middle Ages.' Murray. 1860. Hammer -Purgstall. 'Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches.' 4 vols. Hartleben, Pesth. 1834-1836. Hauer , Franz Ritter von. 'Geologie Siebenbürgen's.' Henke , Rudolf. 'Rumänien, Land und Volk.' Leipzig: Otto Wigand. 1877. Kogalnitchan , M. de. 'Histoire de la Dacie, des Valaques Transdanubiens et de la Valacie.' Berlin: Behr. 1854. Kunisch . 'Eine Fahrt nach dem Orient.' Berlin: Effert & Lindtner. 1869. Lauriani , A. Treb. 'Schneller Ueberblick der Geschichte der Romänen.' Bukuresti: Buchdruckerei des National-Collegiums. 1846. Lesage , A. 'Atlas Historique.' Paris: P. Didot aîné. 1823. Merivale . 'The Romans under the Empire.' London: Longmans. 1852-1862. Michelet . 'Légendes démocratiques du Nord.' Madame Rosetti, 1848. Paris: Garnier. 1854. Neigebaur , J.F. 'Moldau und Walachei.' J.U. Kern, Breslau. 1854. Obédénare , M.C. 'La Roumanie Economique.' Paris: Leroux. 1876. Ozanne . 'Three Years in Roumania.' Chapman & Hall. 1878. Paget . 'Hungary and Transylvania.' London: Murray. 1850. Peters , Prof. K.F. 'Die Donau und ihr Gebiet.' Leipzig: Brockhaus. 1876. Petermann's 'Mittheilungen.' Ergänzungsheft 4. Justus Perthes, Gotha. Photino , Dionysius. Ἱστορία τἧς πάλαι Δακίασ. Vienna: Svek. 1818. Píč , Jos. Lad. 'Ueber die Abstammung der Rumänen.' Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot. 1880. Piranese . Engravings of Trajan's Column. Quinet , Edgar, Œuvres Complètes de. Tome vi., 'Les Roumains.' Pagnerre, Paris. 1857. Raicewich . 'Bemerkungen über die Moldau und Wallachey.' Wien: Edeln von Kurzbeck. 1789. Regnault . 'Histoire des Principantés Danubiennes. Paulin & Chevalier, Paris. 1855. Reissenberger , Ludwig. 'Die bischöfliche Klosterkirche bei Kurtea d'Argyisch.' Wien: K.K. Hof-und Staatsdruckerei. 1860. Roesler , Robt. 'Romianische Studien.' Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot. 1871. Russo-Turkish War , Cassell's History of the. Cassell. Russo-Turkish 'War Correspondence ' of the 'Daily News.' Macmillan. 1878. Smith , William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography . Murray. Dictionary of Ancient Geography . Murray. 1872-1873. Stanley . 'Rouman Anthology.' Hertford: Austin. 1856. ' Statistica din Romania .' Bucuresci: Tipografia Statululiu. 1880. Tacitus , Bohn's. Teutschländer , W. St. 'Michael der Tapfere.' Wien: Gräser. Bucarest: Sotschek. 1879. Tocilesco . 'Dacia inainte de Romani.' Bucuresci: Tipografia Academiei Române. 1880. Vaillant , J.A. 'La Românie.' Paris: A. Bertrand. 1845. Wilkinson , W. 'An Account of the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia,' London: Longmans. 1820. Zallony , Marc. Philippe. 'Fassai sur les Phanariotes.' Marseille; Ant. Ricard. 1824. INDEX. A. Agriculture: cattle and sheep, 78 , 79 . cereals, nature, growth, and trade in, 6 , 11 , 31 , 70 , 76 , 77 . yield, and estimates of cost of growing, 76 , 78 . cheese and dairy products, 79 . college (agricultural) of Ferestreu, 80-82 . education, agricultural, 80 . fanning, slovenly, 6 , and note . flowers and fruits, 11 , 12 . implements of husbandry, 13 , 75 , 76 . labourers, wages of, 13 . landlordism in Roumania, 84 , 85 . land reforms, comparison between Roumanian and Irish, 85 , 86 . peasantry, character and condition of, 85 , 86 . peasant proprietary, history of the, 82-84 , and Appendix IV . rotation of crops, 75 . soil, nature and capabilities of, 6 , 17 , 75 , 79 . statistics of occupations, 87 . Archæology: collections in the Academy at Bucarest, 42 . Constantine's bridge, 27 . Curtea d'Ardges, cathedral of, 27 , 58-65 . its traditions and true history, 62-65 . Gothic remains in Roumania, 27 . Roman remains in Roumania, 26 , 27 . roads in Roumania, Transylvania, and Bulgaria, 26 . Trajan's bridge, 23 , 24 . road on the Danube, 23 . Tablet, 21 , 23-25 . B. Bibliography (see Appendix V. 'List of Works' ). Biography: Baasarab, Matthew, 201 . Neagu, 63 , 64 , 174 . Brancovano (Wallachia), 203 , 206 . Bratiano, M., 223 , 265 , 266 . Cantemir (Moldavia), 204 . Charles I., prince and king, 16 , 17 , 233-52 , 258-60 (see 'History'). Couza, Prince, 229-32 (see 'History'). Decebalus, 119 et seq. Elisabeth, princess and queen, 55 , 92 . marriage, 257 . personal description of, 260 , 261 . verses by, 261 note . Heliade, 221 , 222 , 223 . Hunniad, Johann Corvin von, 167-69 . Mavrocordato, Nicholas and Constantine, 208 , 209 . Mavrogeni, Nicholas, 214 , 215 , 218 . Michael the Brave, 175 , 176-98 . Mircea the Old, 164-67 . Rosetti, C.A., 223 , 263-65 . Madame, 262 , 263 . Serban II. (Cantacuzene), 64 , 202 , 203 . Stephen, called the Good, 170 , 178 . Trajan, 122 et seq. Vladimiresco, 219 . Ypsilanti, 219 , 220 . Botany: Ferestreu, plants cultivated at, 80 . garden flowers and fruits of Roumania, 11 , 12 . plants and trees of the plains, 6 . of the hills, 11 . of the mountains, 14 . C Commerce and Manufactures: building company, for public works, 56 . cereals, imports from Roumania into Great Britain, 81 . Danube, navigation of, 30 . tonnage of vessels entering, 30 . Danubian Commission, history of, 32-35 . flannel factories, 70 . flour mills, 70 . Galatz, trade at, 68-70 . Ibrail, trade at, 72 . maize, imports into England from Roumania, 31 . markets and exchanges, absence of, 55 . match factories, 70 . petroleum wells and distilleries, 14 , 31 . railways, extension of, 71 . securities, Roumanian, &c., 270 note . salt mines of Roumania, 14 , 106 . saw mills, 70 . statistics of trade between Roumania and Great Britain, 70 . sugar factories, 70 . E. Education and Culture: Academy, the, 41 , 42 . its collections and appliances, 42-45 . agricultural college at Ferestreu, 80-82 . Asyle Hélène, girls' school, 92-94 . education in Roumania, 88-95 . compared with England, 89 note . of youths abroad, 89-91 , 95 . collegiate, 89 . other schools, 94 , 95 . music, 52 , 55 , 97 . popular instruction and culture, want of, 55 . Savants—M, Aurelian, 80 . M. Bacologlu, 43 . M. Bernath, 19 , 43 . M. Cogalniceanu, 55 , 267 . Dr. Davila, 43 , 92 , 94 , 238 . M. Hasdeu, 55 , 99 . M. Jon Ghika, 165 note , 267 , and Appendix IV . M. Stourdza, 42 . M. Tocilesco, 27 note , 42 . societies, learned, 55 . Ethnography: dances, in their relation to the descent of the Roumanians, 97 , 98 . language, in its relation to the descent of the Roumanians, 95-99 . authorities on, 99 . music and its relations to the people, 97 . peasantry, types of, 7 . Trajan's colonists and modern Roumanians, 132 , 162 . Wallachs, the, and the Roumanians, 151-64 , 164 . G. Geography (see also 'Topography' and 'Geology'): boundaries of Roumania, 3 . configuration of the surface, 5 . dimensions, 4 . hills, zone of, 11 . Kazan Pass, the, 22 . lakes, 25 . mountains, zone of, 5 , 14 . plains, zone of, 6 . rivers—the Danube, 20-25 . other rivers, 25 . Iron Gates, the, 22 . population, 4 . of cities, 39 , 50 , 51 , 71 . summary of geographical characters, 28 . Geology and Mineralogy: Balta Alba, mineral waters of, 25 . basin of the Danube, 17 , 18 . Carpathians, slopes of, 18 . summits of, 18 . coal and lignite, 18 . copper and other minerals, 19 . iron, 18 . ozokerit (hydrocarbon), 18 . petroleum wells, 14 . plains, geology of, 17 . salt mines, 14 , 106-9 . H. History (see also 'Biography'): Adrianople, treaty of, 221 . Æneas Sylvius on the Wallachs, 153 . Alexander, Philip, and Lysimachus, their wars with the Getæ, 115-17 . Anna Comnena on the Wallachs, 152 . Anonymous Notary of King Bela, the, 150 , 151 . Attila, his career and death, 141 , 142 . Aurelian evacuates Dacia, 135-37 . Aurelius (Marcus) defeats the Goths, 134 . Avari, the, 143 . Bajazet I. overruns Wallachia, 165 . Balta-Liman, convention of, 224 , Appendix IV . bans, voivodes, and khans (early), 163 , 164 . barbarians, 138-60 , and Appendix I . (see also 'Goths,' 'Huns,' &c.). Basilius Lupus, 201 . Bassarab, the clan, 163 . Basta (General), 192 , 195 , 198 . Bathori, Sigismund, 182 , 185 , 196 . Andreas, 189 , 190 , 191 . Belgrade, treaty of, 216 . Bessarabia (Lower) annexed to Moldavia, 228 . retaken by Russia in exchange for the Dobrudscha, 253 . Bogdan, Dragosch, 162 , 170 . son of Stephen, 172 . Bonfinius on the Wallachs, 152 . Brancovano treats with Peter the Great, 203 . deposed and executed, 204 , 205 . his great treasures, 205 , 206 . Bratiano, M., 223 , 266 . Bucarest, treaty of, 218 . Bulgari, their customs, 144-46 . Bulgari, their rule, 147 , 148 . Bulgarians (modern), their revolt (1877), 236 . their alliance with the Russians, 242 . Cantemir treats with Peter the Great, 203 . flees into Russia, 204 . Capitulation of Mircea to the Turks, 165 and Appendix II . of Bogdan to the Turks, 172 and Appendix II . Charles, Prince, 16 , 17 . accession, 233 . difficulties of rule, 234 . services to army, 237 . participation in war of 1877-8, 239 , 241 . commander-in-chief before Plevna, 243 . meets Osman Pasha, 253 . crowned king, 255 . personal description, 258-60 . Christianity, history of, 65-66 note . Consuls, Russian, established in Roumania, 217 . English and French, established in Roumania, 218 . Corvinus (see 'Hunniad'). Couza, Prince, accession and reign, 229 . surprised in his palace and deposed, 230 . abdication and departure, 231 , 232 . Criminal codes of Matthew Bassarab and Basilius Lupus, 201 , 202 . Dacia, contests with Home, 117 et seq. Decebalus, King of, 119-29 . Trajan's first invasion of, 122-27 . second invasion of, 127-30 . a Roman province, 131-34 . evacuated by Aurelian, 195-97 . Gibbon on the evacuation, 135-37 . Dacians, the, their origin and character, 117-19 . early wars with Rome, 119 et seq. Decebalus, King of the Dacians, 119-29 . defeats Appius Sabinus, and Cornelius Fuscus, 120 . is beaten by Tertius Julianus, 121 . makes a treaty with Domitian, 121 , 122 . is defeated by Trajan, 124 . breaks his treaty with Trajan, 127 . attempts Trajan's life by assassination, 128 . again defeated by Trajan and commits suicide, 129 . Dion Cassius, the historian, 117 , 118 note . Domitian, defeated by Decebalus, 120 . Elisabeth, princess and queen, 55 , 92 , 257 , 260-61 , 261 note (see also 'Biography'). Gellius (and other chiefs), tradition of, 150 , 151 note . Gepidæ (a branch of the Goths), powerful in Northern Dacia, 142 . defeated and exterminated by the Lombards, 143 . Getæ, their supposed origin, 115 , 116 . at war with Alexander and other Greek generals, 116 , 117 . Gibbon on Aurelian's evacuation of Dacia, 135 . his estimate of the Dacians, 136 . Goths, their first appearance, 134 . defeated by Marcus Aurelius, 135 . negotiate with Aurelian, 136 . rule in Dacia, 139 , 140 . end of their rule, and remains left by them, 140 . Greek families, reference to histories of, 201 note . rulers of Wallachia and Roumania (see 'Phanariotes'). rising under Vladimiresco and Ypsilanti, 219 , 220 . suppressed, 220 . Grivitza Redoubt besieged by the Roumanians, 245 , 246 . its strength, 247 . its capture by the Roumanians, 248 , 249 . Helena (Couza), Princess, 92 , 229 . Heliad, the regenerator of national literature in Roumania, 221-23 . his political action, 223 . Hospodars, Greek (see 'Phanariotes'). origin of title, 208 , 209 note . restoration of native, 220 . Hungarians (see 'Ungri'). Hunniad, Johann Corvin von, his birth and early life, 167 , 168 . viceroy of Siebenbürgen and regent of Hungary, 168 . his wars with the Turks and death, 168 . anecdotes concerning him, and his character, 160 . Huns, appear in northern Dacia, 140 , 141 . their aspect and ferocity, 141 . their king Attila, 141 . defeated and driven out of Europe, 142 . Innocent III., his correspondence with Joannitz, King of Wallacho-Bulgaria, 156-60 . Jassy, Treaty of, 218 . Jasyges, the, 118 . Kainardji, treaty of, 217 . Knights of St. John and Teutonic knights, 156 . Kumani, the, 155 , 156 . Lauriani on the correspondence between Joannitz and Innocent III., 156-60 . on the fall of Wallacho-Bulgaria, 160 . Lombards, the, 143 . Magyars, the (see 'Ungri'). Matthew Bassarab, his criminal code, 201 , 202 . Mavrocordato, Alexander, 207 . Nicholas, first Phanariote voivode, 208 . Constantine, suppresses retainers of boyards, 208 . appoints new officers of State, 208 , 209 . Mavrogeni, Nicholas, his nobles rebel, 214 , 215 . his defeat by the Austrians and Russians, 218 . Michael the Brave, condition of Wallachia in his day, 176-81 . classes of society, 176 , 177 , 178 . taxes, 178 . officials, 179 . army, 180 . political relations with other states, 181 . career of Michael: early history and accession, 182 ; alliances, 182 ; massacre of the Turks, 183 ; conspiracy against him, 183 ; Achmed Pasha's invasion and defeat, 184 ; Sigismund of Transylvania, Michael's submission to him, 185 ; invasion of Sinan Pasha, 186 ; Kalugereni, Michael's great victory, 186 , 187 ; retreat and rally of Michael, 187 ; expulsion of the Turks, 188 ; intrigues of Michael, 189 ; abdication of Sigismund and accession of Andreas Bathori, 189 ; Michael's invasion and conquest of Transylvania, 189-92 ; triumph at Weissenburg, 192 ; Michael overruns Moldavia, 192 , 194 ; in the zenith of his power, 194 ; General Basta, 192 , 195 ; revolt of Transylvanian nobles, 195 ; defeat of Michael at Miriszlo and Hight, 195 , 196 ; appeals to the German Emperor, 196 ; recall of Sigismund Bathori, 196 ; Michael pardoned and reinstated, 196 , 197 ; junction with Basta and defeat of the Transylvanians, 197 ; feud with Basta, 197 ; Michael assassinated by order of Basta, 198 ; his character, 198 . Mircea the Old, allied with Hungary and Poland, defeats the Turks, 165 . first 'capitulation' at Nicopolis, 165 and Appendix II . his army, 166 . his character, and verses in his memory by Bolentineanu, 167 . Moldavia, tradition of Bogdan Dragosch, 162 . earliest historical records of, 170 . early voivodes, 170 , 171 . Stephen 'the Good,' voivode of, 171-73 . capitulation of Bogdan to the Turks, 172 . conquered by Michael the Brave, 193 , 194 . Basilius Lupus, voivode of, 202 . Cantemir, voivode of, treats with Peter the Great, 203 . invasion by Peter the Great, 203 . Greek rising in (1821), 223 . Michael Stourdza seizes the boyards, who escape, 223 . Moldavia, junction of, with Wallachia under Couza, 228 . coronation of King Charles, 255 . Muktar Pasha relieves Kars, 241 . Neagu Bassarab, records in the Cathedral of Ardges, 63 , 64 . his good deeds, 174 . Niamtz, verses on Stephen's flight to, 172 . Nicholas, Czar of Russia, and the Crimean war, 225 , 227 . Grand Duke, watches the crossing of the Danube by the Russians, 240 . meets Osman Pasha, 253 . Officers of State in the Principalities, 179 . Omar Pasha suppresses the Greek rising, 224 . Osman Pasha repels the Russians at Plevna, 240 . is repulsed at Plevna, 243 . is defeated, and surrenders to the Russian and Roumanian generals, 253 . Paris, treaty of, 227 . Patzinakitai, the, 151 . Peter, Asan, and John, founders of Wallacho-Bulgarian empire, 154 , 155 . Peter the Great, his invasion of Moldavia, 203 . Phanariotes, the, their rise and early history, 206 , 207 . the first rulers, 207 , 208 . installation of hospodars, 209 . extortion and tyranny of, 210 -12. extravagance of the princesses, 211 . their usual fate, 212 . favourable aspects of their rule, 214 . end of their domination, 220 . Wilkinson on their character, 220 . Pic, on the origin of the, Roumanians, 164 note . Plevna, siege and investment of, 240-52 . Russian repulses before, 240 , 245 , 246 . defences of, 244 . fall of, 253 . Radu Affumați, 175 . Radu Negru, tradition of, 162 . Revolution of, 1848, 223 . suppressed, 224 . Roesler on the origin of the Roumanians, 164 note . Romans invade Dacia under Domitian. 120 . invade Dacia under Trajan, 122-27 . second invasion under Trajan, 127-30 . rule in Dacia, 131-34 . at war with the Goths, 134 , 135 . evacuate Dacia, 135-37 . Rosetti, C.A., his participation in the rising of 1848, 223 ; his career, 263-265 (see also 'Biography'). Madame, liberates the Roumanian patriots from the Turks, 262 , 263 (see also 'Biography'). Roumania constituted a principality under Couza, 229 . its provisional government after the fall of Couza, 231 , 232 . under Prince Charles, 233-57 . erected into a kingdom, 255 . review of its history, 255 . the future of, 269 , 270 . Roumanian alliance with Russia against Turkey, 237 . army, 237 , 238 and note , 245 . neutrality in 1877, 236 . policy, 267-70 . soldiers, Russian contempt of, at the commencement of the war, 242 . praised for their coolness, 242 . bravery at Grivitza, 248 . sufferings of, after the capture of Grivitza, 248 . securities, rise in the value of, 270 note . Russian invasion of Moldavia under Peter the Great (1709), 203 , 204 . of the Principalities under Anne (1755), 216 . under Catherine IV. (1768), 216 . rule in Wallachia (1774), 217 . Russian consuls sent to Bucarest, 217 . rule in the Principalities (1789-92, 1806-12), 220 . intervention and Russo-Turkish war of 1829, 221 . invasion in 1848, 224 . intervention, review of benefits to Roumania therefrom, 224-25 . designs in 1853, 225 . war with England, France, and Turkey (1853), 226 , 227 , 228 . action in 1877, 235 , 236 . indebtedness to Roumania in 1877, 237 , 238 . invasion of Bulgaria (1877) 240 . disasters in Bulgaria and Asia, 240 , 241 , 246 . contempt for the Roumanian soldiers, 242 . recognition of their bravery, 243 . ingratitude after the conclusion of the war, 242 , 243 . San Stephano, treaty of, 253 . Sarmatians, rule in Dacia, 142 . defeated by Valentinian, 142 . Serban (Cantacuzene), 202 . betrays the Turks at Vienna, 202 . Shipka Pass, fighting in, between Turks and Russians, 240 , 241 . Skobeleff, his success at Loftcha, 245 . disaster at Plevna, 246 , 247 . Slavonians, 144 . Stephen, called the Good, Voivode of Moldavia, 171 . overruns Wallachia, 171 . story of his flight to Niamtz (verses by Bolentineanu), 172 . his cruelty and fanaticism, 173 . his wars with the Turks and Tartars, 171-73 . Tacitus, his comments on the Roman defeats in Dacia, 119 , 120 . Tartar conquest of the Principalities, 160 . ravages, and defeats by Michael the Brave, 182 , 184 . Teutonic knights and knights of St John, 156 . Traditions of Radu Negru and Bogdan, 162 . Trajan, his first expedition into Dacia, 122-27 . his second expedition into Dacia, 127-30 . his triumph after the reduction of Dacia, 129 . his method of colonising Dacia, 131-33 and note . Treaties of Nicopolis (1393), 165 and Appendix II .; between Bogdan and Selim (1513), Appendix II .; of Belgrade (1789), 216 ; of Kainardji (1774), 217 ; of Jassy (1792), 218 ; of Bucarest (1812), 218 ; of Adrianople (1829), 221 ; of Balta-Liman (1849), 224 ; of Paris (1856), 227 , 228 ; of San Stephano (1878), 253 . Turkish invasion of the Principalities (first), 165 . suzerainty enforced upon Mircea, 165 . wars with Johann Corvin von Hunniad, 168 . wars with Moldavia, 171 . supremacy established in Moldavia, 172 . inhabitants of Wallachia massacred by Michael, 183 . defeat at Kalugereni, 186 , 187 . expulsion from Wallachia, 188 . exactions after Michael's death, 200 . army betrayed at Vienna, 202 . war with Peter the Great, 203 , 204 . appointment of Greek voivodes, 208 . war with Anne and Charles VI., 216 . defeat the allies at Belgrade, 216 . war with Catherine, 216 . with Russia (1806), 218 ; (1829), 221 ; (1853), 225-28 . obstacles to the union of the Principalities, 228 . to the accession of Charles I., 234 . war with Russia and Roumania (1877), 235-53 . victories in Bulgaria and Asia, 240 , 241 . defeats at Plevna, 243 . victory over Skobeleff before Plevna, 246 , 247 . defeat at Grivitza, 248 , 249 . Ungri (Hungarians, or Magyars), their origin, 148 . Ungri, Hallam's description of them, 149 . German account of their savagery, 149 , 150 . their career in the Principalities and settlement in Hungary, 150 . Vlad, the Impaler, fights the Turks in alliance with John Corvinus, 168 . his wars with the Turks, 170 . his horrible cruelties, 170 . submission to the Turks, 170 . Vladimiresco, his career and death, 219 . Vladislaus, King of Poland and Hungary, fights the Turks in alliance with John Corvinus, 168 . killed at Varna, 168 . Voivodes, early, in Wallachia, 163 et seq. , 200 et seq. in Moldavia, 170 et seq. their short rule and usual fate, 200 , 213 . Phanariote, 208 et seq. native, restored, 220 . Wallachia, early traditions of, 162 . historical records of its foundation, 163 . bans, voivodes, and khans in, 163 , 164 . first capitulation to the Turks, 165 and Appendix II . state of society under Michael the Brave, 176-81 . under the Phanariotes, 208-14 . under Russian protection, 217 , 221 , 224 . Greek rising in, 218 , 220 . national regeneration by Heliade, 221 , 222 . revolution of 1848 in, 223 , 224 . junction with Moldavia, 228 . Wallachs, their origin, 151 , 153 . opinions of mediæval historians regarding their Daco-Roman descent (Bonfinius, Anna Comnena, Æneas Sylvius), 152 , 153 . their first rule, 154 . Wallacho-Bulgarian Empire, founded by Peter, Asan, and John, 155 . allied with the Kumani, 155 . duration of the Empire, 155 . correspondence between Innocent III. and John, Emperor of, 156-60 . fall of, 160 . Wilkinson on the Phanariotes, 180 note , 210 . Ypsilanti, his leadership of the Greek rising, 219 . treachery against Vladimiresco, 219 . lights the Turks at Dragosani, 219 . defeat, flight, and ultimate fate, 220 . Zallony on the Phanariotes, 210 .

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