Christmas in Ritual and Tradition, Christian and Pagan

INDEX Abbots Bromley, horn-dance at, 201 Abruzzi, All Souls’ Eve in, 192 ; “new water” in, 333 “Adam,” drama, 127-8 Adam and Eve, their Day, 271 Adam of St. Victor, 33-4 “Adeste, fideles,” 63-4 Advent, 90-2 ; “Advent images,” 118 ; Klöpfelnächte , 216-8 Alexandria, pagan rites at, 20 All Saints’ Day, and the cult of the dead, 173 , 189-90 All Souls’ Day, and the cult of the dead, 173 , 181 , 189-95 Alsace, Christkind in, 230 ; New Year's “May” in, 269-70 Alsso of Brĕvnov, 183 Ambrose, St., 31-2 Amburbale , 353 Amiens, Feast of Fools at, 305 Anatolius, St., hymn of, 100 Ancestor-worship, 181 , 253-4 , 290 , 341 Andrew, St., his Day, 173 , 213-6 , 277 Animals, carol of, 69 ; ox and ass at the Nativity, 155 ; cult of, 174-8 ; masks of, 175-6 , 199-202 ; on Christmas Eve, 233-4 ; specially fed at Christmas, 289 ; wassailing, 346-7 Ansbach, Martinmas in, 206 Antwerp, soul-cakes at, 194 ; St. Martin at, 206-7 ; St. Thomas's Day at, 224 Apples, customs with, 195-6 , 207 , 278 Ara Coeli, Rome, 115-6 Ardennes, St. Thomas's Day in, 224 Armenian Church, Epiphany in, 22 Artemis and St. Nicholas, 218 Aryan and pre-Aryan customs, 163-4 Aschenklas, 219 , 231 Ashes, superstition about, 258 Ass, Prose of the, 304-5 Athens, New Year in, 331 Aubrey, J., 308 Augury, 182 , 195-8 , 214-5 , 225 , 237 , 321-33 Augustine, St. (of Canterbury), 21 , 179 Aurelian, 23 Austria, Christmas poetry in, 45-46 ; Christmas drama in, 143-6 ; soul-cakes in, 194 ; St. Nicholas in, 218-20 ; St. Lucia's Eve in, 223 ; St. Thomas's Eve in, 225 ; Frau Perchta, etc., in, 241-4 , 342 ; Sylvester in, 274 . See also Bohemia, Carinthia, Styria, Tyrol Awdlay, John, 47-8 Bach, J. S., 73-4 Baden, All Souls’ Eve in, 192 Balder, 273 Baptism of Christ, celebrated at Epiphany, 20-2 , 101-4 Barbara, St., her festival, 268 Bari, festival of St. Nicholas at, 221 Barring out the master, 224 Bartel, 219 Basil, St., his festival, 331 Basilidians, 21 Basle, Council of, 305 Bavaria, St. Martin's rod in, 207 ; Christmas-trees in, 266-7 ; sacrificial feast in, 286 ; St. John's wine in, 314 Beauvais, Feast of the Ass at, 305 Bede, Venerable, 181 , 203 392 Bees on Christmas Eve, 234 Befana, 244 , 278 , 343 Belethus, Johannes, 302 Belgium, All Souls’ Eve in, 192 , 194 ; St. Hubert's Day in, 202 ; Martinmas in, 204-7 ; St. Catherine's Day in, 213 ; St. Nicholas in, 219 ; St. Thomas's Day in, 224 Bentzon, Madame Th., 96-7 Berchta. See Perchta Berlin, pyramids in, 266 ; biscuits in, 288 Bernard, St., of Clairvaux, 33 Berry, cake customs in, 287 , 339 Bethlehem, Christmas at, 94-5 , 107 Biggar, bonfires at, 327 Bilfinger, Dr. G., 172 Birds fed at Christmas, 289 Blindman's buff, 293 Boar's head, 284 , 348 Bohemia, the “star” in, 152 ; fifteenth-century Christmas customs in, 183 ; St. Andrew's Eve in, 215-6 ; St. Thomas's Eve in, 224-5 Boniface, St., 171 Boy Bishop, 212-3 , 306-8 ; connection with St. Nicholas, 220-1 , 307-8 “Breast-strip” rites, 328 Breviary, the Roman, 90 Briid, 354 Brimo, 21 Brittany, Herod play in, 141 ; Magi actors in, 151 ; All Souls’ Eve in, 191-2 ; Christmas Eve superstitions in, 233-5 , 236 ; Christmas log in, 256 ; New Year in, 323 ; aguillanneuf in, 330 ; weather superstition in, 332 Brixen, cradle-rocking at, 111 Brixlegg, Christmas play at, 143 f. Bromfield, Cumberland, barring out the master at, 224 Brough, Westmoreland, Twelfth Night tree at, 270 Brunnen, Epiphany at, 341 Budelfrau, 220 Burchardus of Worms, 181 Burford, Christmas holly at, 275 Burghead, “Clavie” at, 327 Burns, Robert, 197 “Bush, burning the,” 346 Buzebergt, 220 Byrom, John, 84 Caballero, Fernan, 66-7 , 117 , 151 Caesarius of Arles, 170-1 , 181 Cakes, “feasten,” 177 ; soul, 192-4 ; St. Hubert's, 202 ; Martin's horns, 204 ; Christmas, 287-8 , 289-90 ; Twelfth Night, 337-40 , 346 ; St. Basil's, 341 Calabrian minstrels, 112 Calamy, 185 Caligula, 168 Callander, Hallowe'en at, 198 Cambridge, St. Clement's Day at, 212 Canada, Christmas Eve superstition in, 234 Candlemas, 350 , 352-5 Candles, on St. Lucia's Day, 212-2 ; Yule, 258-60 Cards, Christmas, 279 Carinthia, St. Stephen's Day in, 312 Carnival, 300 , 349 Carols, meaning of the word, 47-8 ; English sacred, 47-51 , 76-8 , 84-5 ; Welsh, 69 ; Irish, 69-70 ; Highland, 70 Catholicism and Christmas, 27 , 186 Celtic New Year, 172 , 189 , 195 , 203-4 , 321 Centaurs, 247 Cereal sacraments, 177-8 . See also Cakes Chambers, Mr. E. K., 5 , 125 , 299-300 , 302-7 , 348 Charlemagne, coronation of, 96 Charms, New Year, 182 , 195-8 , 321-34 Cheshire, Old Hob in, 199 ; poultry specially fed at Christmas, 289 Chester plays, 128 , 133-4 Chesterton, Mr. G. K., 85-6 Childermas, 315 Children's festivals, 205-7 , 218-20 , 223-4 , 359-60 China, New Year in, 324 Chios, Christmas rhamna in, 270 Christkind as gift-bringer, 205 , 230 , 277-8 Christmas, pagan and Christian elements in, 18-28 , 161-86 , 357-60 ; names of, 20-5 ; establishment of, 20-2 ; 393 its connection with earlier festivals, 20-8 ; becomes humanized, 25-7 , 34-8 ; in poetry, 31-86 ; liturgical aspects of, 89-101 ; in popular devotion, 104-18 ; in drama, 121-54 ; its human appeal, 155-7 , 357-60 ; attracts customs from other festivals, 173 , 226 , 277-8 , 284 ; decorations, 178 , 272-6 ; feasting, 178-80 , 283-91 ; presents, 276-9 ; masking customs, 297-308 ; log, see Yule Log Christmas Eve, 229-38 ; superstitions about the supernatural, 233-7 ; log customs, 251-8 ; fish supper on, 286-7 Christmas-tree, 168 , 178 , 263-72 ; its origin, 267-72 Christpuppe, 231 Chrysostom, 269 Church, Dean, 34 Circumcision, Feast of, 101 , 302 . See also New Year's Day Clement, St., his Day, 211-2 Cleobury Mortimer, curfew at, 258 Clermont, shepherd play at, 141 Coffin, Charles, 64 Communion, sacrificial, 174-8 “Comte d'Alsinoys,” 56 , 58-9 Cornwall, Hallowe'en custom in, 196 ; blackbird pie in, 293 ; Childermas in, 315 Coventry plays, 128 , 130-1 , 138 Cradle-rocking, 108-11 Crashaw, 79-81 Crib, Christmas, 105-8 , 113-8 ; possible survivals in England, 118 , 274 Crimmitschau, 112 Crivoscian customs, 231 , 253-4 , 276 , 346-7 Croatia, St. Andrew's Eve in, 215 ; Christmas log customs in, 251 Cronia , 166 Dalmatia, Yule log customs in, 252 Dancing, 47-8 , 293-4 , 298-300 , 302 Daniel, Jean, 56 , 58 Dannhauer, J. K., 265 Dasius, St., 167 Dead, feasts of the, 173 , 180-1 , 189-95 , 235-6 , 240 , 253-4 , 341 Decorations, evergreen, 168 , 178 , 350 , 355 Denisot, Nicholas, 56 , 58-9 Denmark, “star-singing” in, 151 ; animal masks in, 202 ; Martinmas goose in, 203 ; St. Lucia's Eve in, 223 ; St. Thomas's Day in, 223-4 ; Christmas Eve superstitions in, 235-6 ; Yule candles in, 259-60 ; Christmas-tree in, 267 ; pig's head eaten in, 286 ; Yule-bishop in, 308 Derbyshire, “kissing-bunch” in, 274 ; Plough Monday in, 352 Devil, and beast masks, 202 ; and flax, 240 Devon, “Yeth hounds” in, 240 ; “ashton faggot” in, 258 ; wassailing fruit-trees in, 345 Dew, Christmas, 288-9 Dickens, Charles, 359 Dinan, Herod play at, 141 Dionysus, as child-god, 21 ; winter festivals of, 169 , 331 Dorstone, Hallowe'en at, 197 Drama, Christmas, in Latin, 121-7 ; in English, 128-38 ; in French, 128 , 138-43 ; in Spanish, 128 , 148-50 ; in German, 143-6 ; in Italian, 147-8 , 150 ; survivals of, 150-4 ; St. Nicholas plays, 220 , 232 ; pagan folk-drama, 298-302 Drinking customs, 36 , 204 , 285-6 , 314-5 , 327 Druids and mistletoe, 273 Duchesne, Monsignor, 20 , 24 Durham, Candlemas at, 353-4 Düsseldorf, Martinmas at, 206 Dyzemas, 315 Eckhart, 42-3 , 157 Edinburgh, New Year in, 325-6 Eiresione , 270 Encina, Juan del, 149 England, Christmas poetry in, 47-51 , 76-86 ; Midnight Mass in, 99 ; possible survivals of the Christmas crib in, 118 , 274 ; the Nativity in the miracle cycles, 128-38 ; “souling” in, 192-4 ; Hallowe'en in, 195-8 ; Guy Fawkes Day in, 198-9 ; animal masks in, 199-201 ; 394 Martinmas in, 203 ; St. Clement's Day in, 211-2 ; St. Catherine's Day in, 212-3 ; St. Andrew's Day in, 213-4 ; St. Thomas's Day in, 225-6 ; Christmas Eve superstitions in, 234 ; Yule log in, 257-8 ; Yule candle in, 259 ; pyramids and Christmas-trees in, 266-7 , 270 ; the Holy Thorn in, 268-9 ; evergreen decorations in, 272-6 ; Christmas boxes in, 279 ; Christmas fare in, 283-6 ; sacrificial survivals and Christmas games in, 292-3 ; mummers and sword-dancers in, 297-301 ; Feast of Fools in, 305 ; Boy Bishop in, 220 , 306-8 ; St. Stephen's Day in, 292 , 311-4 ; Holy Innocents’ Day in, 315 ; New Year's Day in, 321-9 , 332 ; Epiphany customs in, 337-8 , 345-8 ; Candlemas in, 350 , 353-5 ; Rock Day in, 351 ; Plough Monday in, 352 Ephraem Syrus, 31 , 239 Epiphanius, 21 Epiphany, early history of the festival, 20-2 ; in the Roman Church, 101-2 ; in the Greek Church, 102-4 ; Blessing of the Waters at, 102-4 , 244 , 246 , 344 ; Italian religious ceremonies at, 116-7 ; in drama, 125-8 ; old German name for, 243 ; folk customs on, 293 ; Twelfth Night cakes and kings, 337-41 ; expulsion of evils, 341-2 ; the Befana and the Magi, 343-4 ; wassailing, 345-7 ; “Haxey Hood,” 347-8 ; farewells to Christmas, 349-50 Erzgebirge, Christmas plays in, 144 , 232 ; St. John's tree in, 269 ; pfeffern in, 316 Eschenloh, berchten at, 342 Esthonians, All Souls’ Day among, 191 Ethelred, laws of, 21 Etzendorf, St. Martin's rod at, 207-8 Evans, Sir Arthur, 253-4 Eves, importance of for festival customs, 196 Expulsion rites, 104 , 181-2 , 217 , 327-8 , 341-2 , 344 Fabriano, Gentile da, 148 Fare, Christmas, 283-91 Feasting, connected with sacrifice, 178-9 , 284 ; at Martinmas, 202-4 ; at Christmas, 283-91 ; at New Year, 321-3 ; at Epiphany, 337-41 Feien , 231 Feilberg, Dr. H. F., 6 , 236 , 313-4 Festivals, origin and purpose of, 17-8 ; relation of pagan and Christian, 19-27 , 169-74 Fire, not given out at Christmas or New Year, 170-1 , 257-8 ; bonfires, 182 , 198-9 , 204-5 , 327 , 346-50 ; new fire lit, 198 ; Christmas log and ancestor-worship, 251-4 ; the Yule log and candle in western Europe, 254-60 ; Candlemas fires and lights, 352-4 “First-foots,” 208 , 252 , 323-6 Fish eaten on Christmas Eve, 287 Flagellants, 146 Flamma, Galvano, 147-8 Fletcher, Giles, 82-3 Florence, Nativity plays at, 147 ; Befana at, 343 Fools, Feast of, 180 , 302-6 Football, 349 Fowler, Dr. W. Warde, 167 France, Christmas poetry in, 55-65 ; Midnight Mass in, 96-8 ; Christmas drama in, 124-7 , 138-43 ; All Souls’ Eve in, 191-2 ; Christmas Eve superstitions in, 234-5 ; Christmas log in, 254-6 ; Christmas-tree in, 267 ; Harvest May in, 271 ; presents brought by le petit Jésus , 278 ; Christmas cakes in, 287-8 ; Feast of Fools in, 302-6 ; Boy Bishop in, 308 ; Innocents’ Day in, 316 ; New Year in, 322-3 ; aguillanneuf in, 329-30 ; Epiphany in, 339-42 , 344 , 349-50 ; Candlemas candles in, 353 Francis, St. (of Assisi), and Christmas, 36-8 , 105-6 , 157 , 289 Frazer, Dr. J. G., 6 , 167 , 180 , 182 , 199 , 276 , 288 , 324 Frick, Frau, 241 Frigg, 241 Friuli, All Souls’ Day in, 194 Frumenty, 285 Games, Christmas, 293-4 395 Gaude, Frau, 241-2 Gautier, Théophile, 64 Gay, 196 Geese-dancers, 299 Genealogy, chanting of the, 93 George, St., in mummers’ plays, 299-301 Gerhardt, Paul, 73-4 Germanicus, 202 Germany, Christmas established in, 21 ; Christmas poetry in Catholic, 42-7 ; Protestant hymns in, 70-6 ; Christmas services in, 98-9 ; the crib and Kindelwiegen in, 107-12 ; Christmas drama in, 143-6 ; “star-singing” in, 152 ; Roman customs in, 171 ; pre-Christian New Year in, 171-4 ; soul-cakes in, 194 ; the Schimmel and other animal masks in, 199-201 ; Martinmas customs in, 202-8 ; St. Andrew's Eve in, 214-6 ; St. Nicholas in, 218-9 , 229-32 ; St. Thomas's Eve in, 225 ; Christmas Eve in, 229 , 237 ; Twelve Days superstitions in, 240-3 ; Frau Berchta, etc., in, 241-3 ; werewolves in, 246 ; Christmas log in, 256 ; Christmas-tree in, 263-7 , 359 ; Harvest May in, 271 ; Christmas presents in, 277-9 ; Christmas fare in, 286-9 ; sacrificial relics in, 292 ; St. Stephen's Day in, 312 , 315-6 ; St. John's Day in, 314-6 ; Holy Innocents’ Day in, 316 ; New Year in, 322 , 332 Gilmorton, “Christmas Vase” at, 118 Glastonbury thorns, 268-9 “Gloria in excelsis,” 91 , 94 Goethe, 266 Goliards , 49 , 128 Gomme, Sir Laurence, 257-8 , 354 Goose, Martinmas, 203 ; Christmas, 284 Gozzoli, Benozzo, 148 Grampus, 219 Greece, Epiphany ceremonies in, 102-3 , 244-5 , 344 ; winter festivals of Dionysus in, 169 , 245 ; Kallikantzaroi in, 244-7 , 257 ; Christmas log in, 257 , 344 ; rhamna in Chios, 270 ; “Christ's Loaves” in, 290 ; folk-plays in, 300-1 ; New Year in, 331 , 333 Greek Church, Epiphany in, 22 , 102-4 ; Christmas in, 22 , 99-101 ; Advent in, 90 Gregorie, 315 Gregory III., 107 Gregory the Great, letter to Mellitus, 179 , 203 Guernsey, Christmas superstitions in, 234 , 240 ; oguinane in, 330 Guisers, 297-8 Guy Fawkes Day, 182 , 198-9 Habergaiss , 201 Habersack , 201 Hakon the Good, 21 , 172 Hallowe'en, 182 , 195-8 Hampstead, Guy Fawkes Day at, 199 Hans Trapp, 230 Hardy, Mr. Thomas, 48 , 234 Harke, Frau, 241 Harrison, Miss Jane, 21 , 176-7 , 325 “Haxey Hood,” 347-8 Herbert, George, 81 Herefordshire, Hallowe'en in, 197 ; pyramids in, 266 ; Holy Thorn in, 269 ; New Year water in, 332 ; Epiphany and New Year ceremonies in, 346 Herod plays, 126-7 , 129 , 141 , 153 Herrick, 81-2 , 257 , 338 , 345 , 354-5 Hertfordshire, pyramids in, 266 Hindu New Year, 322 Höfler, Dr., 288 Hogmanay, 328-30 Holda, Frau, 241-2 Holland, the “star” in, 152 ; Martinmas in, 204-5 ; Rommelpot in, 217 ; St. Nicholas in, 219 ; St. Thomas's Day in, 225 Holly, 272 , 275-6 Holy Innocents’ Day, 127 , 302 , 306-8 , 315-7 Horn-cakes, 202 , 204 Hornchurch, boar's head at, 348 Horn-dance, 201 Horse, as a sacrificial animal, 200 ; hobby-horse, hodening, and the Schimmel , 199-201 ; customs on St. Stephen's Day, 311-4 396 Howison, 234 Hubert, St., his Day, 202 Hunt, Leigh, 337-8 Huysmans, J. K., 93 Hymns, Latin, 31-4 , 42 Iceland, “Yule host” in, 240 Image, Prof. Selwyn, 85 “In dulci jubilo,” 44-5 Incense used for purification, 183 , 225 , 244-5 , 327-8 Ireland, Christmas carols in, 69-70 ; All Souls’ Eve in, 192 ; Hallowe'en customs in, 197-8 ; Martinmas slaughter in, 203-4 ; “hunting of the wren” in, 292 ; Holy Innocents’ Day in, 315 ; Epiphany in, 350 Italy, Christmas poetry in, 36-42 , 67 ; presepio in, 105-7 , 112-6 , 359 ; Christmas drama in, 146-8 , 152 ; All Souls’ in, 192 , 194 ; Martinmas in, 204 ; Christmas log in, 256 ; Santa Lucia in, 278 ; Christmas fare in, 287 , 289-91 ; Epiphany in, 343 Ivy, 272 , 275-6 Jacopone da Todi, 36 , 39-42 , 146 James, St., Gospel of, 124 Jerome, St., 181 Jerusalem, Christmas at, 22 , 94-5 John, St., Evangelist, his Day, 302 , 314-5 Johnson, Lionel, 85 Johnson, Richard, 301 Jonson, Ben, 298 Julebuk , 202 Julian the Apostate, 23 Julklapp , 278-9 Kalends of January, the Roman festival, 24 , 165 , 167-71 , 200 , 269 ; made a fast, 101 , 170-1 . See also New Year's Day Kallikantzaroi , 244-7 Kindelwiegen , 108-11 King of the Bean, 180 , 338-41 “Kissing-bunch,” 274 Kissling, K. G., 266 Klapperbock , 201 Klaubauf, 219 Klöpfelnächte , 216-7 Knecht Ruprecht, 220 , 231-2 Kore, 21 Krampus, 219 Labruguière, Epiphany in, 342 Lake, Prof. K., 20 , 24 La Monnoye, 62-3 Lancashire, Hallowe'en in, 198 Latin Christmas poetry, 31-4 , 42 , 63-4 , 68-9 Lawson, Mr. J. C., 247 , 301 Lead-pouring, 215 , 237 , 332 Leather, Mrs., 269 , 346 Le Moigne, Lucas, 56-8 Libanius, 168-9 , 269 Liberius, Pope, 107 , 352-3 Lima, Christmas Eve at, 98 Lithuania, feast of the dead in, 195 ; New Year's Eve in, 332 Log customs. See Yule log Lombardy, Christmas log in, 256 London, Greek Epiphany ceremonies in, 103 ; Italian Christmas in, 116-7 , 291 ; Christmas in, under Puritans, 185 ; German Christmas in, 265 ; Boy Bishop in, 306-7 ; New Year in, 322 , 327 Lord Mayor's day, 202 Lord of Misrule, 298 Lorraine, cake customs in, 287 , 339-40 Lucia, St., her festival, 221-3 , 268 Lucian, 166-7 Ludlow, Guy Fawkes Day at, 199 Lullabies, 51 , 67-9 , 83-4 , 109-10 Luther, Martin, 70-3 , 265 Lyme Regis, Candlemas at, 354 Macedonia, Christmas Eve in, 217 ; New Year's Eve in, 226 , 330 , 332 ; Kallikantzaroi in, 245 ; folk-play in, 300 ; Epiphany in, 344 Macée, Claude, 141 Madrid, 97-8 , 153 , 343 Magi in drama, 125-6 , 128-9 , 151-3 ; as present-bringers, 343 Magic, 163 Man, Isle of, carol-singing in, 99 ; Hollantide in, 189 , 198 , 321 ; 397 Fynnodderee in, 246 ; “hunting of the wren” in, 292-3 Mana , 176-7 Mannhardt, W., 252-3 , 313-4 Marguerite of Navarre, 141 Marseilles, “pastorals” at, 141 Martin of Braga, 272 Martin I., Pope, 203 Martinengo-Cesaresco, Countess, 106 , 112 , 142 Martinmas, an old winter festival, 173 , 182 , 200 , 202-3 ; its feasting customs, 202-4 ; its bonfires, 204-5 ; St. Martin as gift-bringer, and his relation to St. Nicholas, 205-8 , 218-9 , 277-8 Masking customs, 169-71 , 175-6 , 199-202 , 206 , 219 , 230-2 , 245 , 297-302 , 304-305 , 352 Mass, Midnight, 94-9 ; the three Christmas Masses, 94-6 Mechlin, Martinmas at, 206 Mellitus, Abbot, 179 Mexico, Christmas drama in, 154 Michaelmas, 173 Milan, Epiphany play at, 147-8 Milton, 82 Mince-pies, 284 Minnesingers, 36 “Misterio de los Reyes Magos,” 128 Mistletoe, 272-4 , 276 Mistral, Frédéric, 255 Mithra, 23 Modranicht , 181 Monasticism and Christmas, 34-5 Mont-St.-Michel, Epiphany king at, 340 Montenegro, Christmas log customs in, 252 Morgan, Lady, 114-5 Morris, William, 85 Morris-dancers, 299-301 Mouthe, “De fructu” at, 288 Mummers’ plays, 297-302 Munich, Bavarian National Museum at, 107-8 ; Christmas-tree at, 267 ; St. Stephen's Day at, 312 Murillo, 65 Mythology, in relation to ritual, 164-5 , 176 Naogeorgus, 111 , 217 , 353 Naples, zampognari at, 112 ; presepio at, 113-4 ; Christmas plays at, 150 ; Epiphany at, 343 Natalis Invicti , 23-4 , 165 New Year's Day, in Roman Empire, 24 , 167-71 , 276-7 ; opposed in character to Christmas, 25-6 ; Teutonic and Celtic, 25 , 171-3 , 189 , 202-4 ; Slav, 173 ; January 1 made a fast, 101 , 170-1 ; customs attracted to January 1, 173 , 189 , 200 , 321 ; fire not given out, 170-1 , 257-8 ; charms, omens, and other customs, 182 , 321-34 ; presents, 168-71 , 276-7 ; mistletoe connected with, 276 Nicea, Council of, 22 Nicholas, St., his Day related to Martinmas, 173 , 207-8 , 277-8 ; as patron of boys, 218 , 220 , of sailors, 218 , 221 ; his festival, 218-21 ; on Christmas Eve, 229-32 Noël , origin of the name, 22 ; the French carol, 55-65 Normandy, “star-singing” in, 151 ; Innocents’ Day in, 316 ; Epiphany in, 349-50 Northamptonshire, St. Catherine's and St. Andrew's Days in, 213-4 ; Dyzemas in, 315 Northumberland, holly in, 275 Norway, Christmas established in, 21 ; “star-singing” in, 151 ; pre-Christian Yule festival in, 172 ; animal masks in, 202 ; Christmas Eve superstitions in, 235-6 ; Yule candles in, 259-60 Notker, 32 Nottinghamshire, Hallowe'en customs in, 196 ; Christmas cake and wassail-bowl in, 285 Nuremberg, Epiphany at, 342 Nuts, customs with, 195-6 , 207 “O's,” Great, 92 Oak as a sacred tree, 254 Oberufer, Christmas play at, 143 , 272 Ocaña, F. de, 65-6 Oesel, “Yule Boar” in, 288 Old Hob, 199-200 398 Otfrid of Weissenburg, 42 Oxford, boars head at, 284 Palmer, Mr. F. H. E., 104 Parcae , 181 Paris, Christmas in, 98 ; All Souls’ Eve in, 191 ; St. Catherine's Day in, 213 ; Christmas-tree in, 267 ; New Year in, 277 ; Feast of Fools in, 302-3 Paschal, Françoise, 61-2 Pasquier, Étienne, 339 Pearson, Dr. Karl, 161-2 Pellegrin, Abbé, 63 Pelzmärte, 206-8 , 217 Perchta, 181 , 241-4 , 342 Perun, 254 Peterborough, St. Catherine's Day at, 213 Philocalian Calendar, 20 Pifferari , 112 Pillersee, Advent mummeries at, 218 Pliny, 273 Plough Monday, 300 Plum-pudding, 284-5 Plygain , 99 Poland, the “star” in, 152 ; puppet-shows in, 153 ; werewolves in, 246 ; Christmas straw in, 276 ; Christmas wafers in, 291 Polaznik , 231 , 252 , 323-4 Presents, at the Roman Kalends, 168-71 , 276-7 ; on All Souls’ Eve, 192 ; at Martinmas, 205-8 ; on St. Nicholas's Day, 218-20 ; at Christmas, 183 , 230 , 277-9 ; at New Year and other seasons, 277-8 ; at Epiphany, 343 Presepio. See Crib “Prophetae,” 127 Protestantism, effects of, on Christmas, 27 , 70-8 , 111 , 138 , 141 , 185-6 , 229-30 Provence, remains of Christmas drama in, 141 , 154 ; Christmas log in, 255 ; Magi in, 344 Prudentius, 32 Puppet-plays, 153 f. Purification, feast of the. See Candlemas Puritans, their attitude towards Christmas, 77 , 180 , 184-5 , 298 Pyramids, 266 Quainton, blossoming thorn at, 268 “Raging host,” 240 , 242 Ragusa, Christmas log customs at, 252 Ramsgate, hodening at, 200-1 Rauchnächte , 225 , 327-8 Rhys, Sir John, 189 , 321 , 325-6 Ripon, St. Clement's Day at, 212 ; Yule candles at, 259 ; Candlemas at, 354 Risano, Christmas log customs at, 252 Rolle, Richard, 48 Rome, Christmas established in, 20-1 ; pagan winter festivals in, 23-4 , 165-71 ; Christmas services and customs in, 95-6 , 112-6 , 289-90 ; mediaeval New Year quête in, 331 Rossetti, Christina, 85 Rouen, religious plays at, 124-5 , 138-40 Roumania, the “star” in, 152 ; Christmas drama in, 153 ; St. Andrew's Eve in, 215-6 ; Christmas songs in, 238 ; Christmas fare in, 287 , 291 ; New Year in, 330-1 ; Epiphany in, 342 Russia, Epiphany ceremonies in, 104 , 246 ; the “star” in, 152 ; Christmas Eve in, 232-3 , 237 ; fire superstitions in, 253 ; Christmas fare in, 287 , 291 ; Christmas games in, 294 ; mummers in, 302 ; New Year in, 333 Saboly, 62 Sacrifice, theories of, 174-8 ; connected with festivals, 178-9 ; survivals of, 199 , 283-7 , 292-4 , 328 , 347-9 Salers, Christmas king at, 340 Samhain , 172 , 204 Sant’ Andrea della Valle, Rome, 102 Santa Klaus, 220 Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, 95-6 , 107 , 114-5 Saturnalia , 24 , 113 , 165-7 , 180 , 359 Schiller, 266 Schimmel and Schimmelreiter , 199-200 , 206 , 231 Schoolboys’ festival, 223-4 . See also Boy Bishop Scotland, Christmas carols in, 70 ; Hallowe'en customs in, 197-8 ; sowens eaten in, 285 ; “first-foot” in, 325-6 ; other New Year customs in, 326-9 , 332-3 ; Candlemas in, 354 399 Sedulius, Coelius, 32 Sequences, 32-3 Serao, Matilde, 113 Serbs, Christmas customs of, 251-4 , 341 Shakespeare, 239 , 298 Shepherds in Christmas drama, 123-4 , 132-7 , 139-43 Shropshire, soul-cakes in, 192-3 ; Guy Fawkes Day at Ludlow, 199 ; Twelve Days superstitions in, 240-1 , 258 ; Christmas Brand in, 258 ; Christmas decorations in, 275-6 , 355 ; “wigs” in, 285 ; cattle specially fed at Christmas, 289 ; morris-dancers in, 299 ; New Year in, 324 ; Candlemas in, 355 Sicily, Midnight Mass in, 98 ; Christmas novena in, 112-3 ; Christmas procession at Messina, 113 ; Christmas plays in, 150 ; All Souls’ Eve in, 192 ; Martinmas in, 204 ; St. Lucia's Eve in, 222 ; presents in, 278 ; Candlemas candles in, 353 Sidgwick, Mr. F., 6 , 77-8 Sidgwick, Mrs. Alfred, 264 Silesia, Schimmel in, 200 ; Martinmas in, 206 ; Christmas Eve in, 232 ; animals specially fed at Christmas, 289 Slav New Year, 172-3 ; Christmas songs and customs, 237-8 , 251-4 , 290 , 341 . See also Bohemia, Crivoscia, Poland, Russia Smith, W. Robertson, 164-5 , 175-6 , 178-9 Somersetshire wassailing, 345 Soul cakes, 192-4 South America, Christmas in, 98 Southwell, 79-80 Sowens eaten, 285 , 325 Spain, Christmas poetry in, 65-7 ; Midnight Mass in, 97-8 , 117 ; the crib in, 117 ; Christmas drama in, 128 , 148-51 , 153 ; turron in, 291 ; Epiphany in, 343-4 Spervogel, 42 Spinning, during Twelve Days, 240-3 Staffordshire, St. Clement's Day in, 211-2 “Star-singing,” 151-2 “Stella,” 125-7 , 129 Stephen, St., his festival, 292 , 302 , 311-6 Stephens, Dean, 35 Stow's “Survay,” 272 Strasburg, early Christmas-trees at, 265-6 Strenae , 168 , 277-8 Stubbes, Philip, 184 , 298 Styles, Old and New, 268-9 Styria, Habergaiss in, 201 ; Perchta in, 243 ; St. John's wine in, 315 Sun, the, December 25 as festival of, 23 ; Yule not connected with, 171-2 ; sun-charms, 182 , 198 , 252 , 254 Suso, 44 Sussex, squirrel-hunting in, 214 ; tipteerers in, 298 ; wassailing fruit-trees in, 345 Swabia, Pelzmärte in, 206-7 , 217 Sweden, Christmas service in, 99 ; “star-singing” in, 151 ; animal masks in, 202 ; St. Lucia's Day in, 221-4 ; Christmas Eve superstitions in, 235-6 ; Yule log in, 257 ; Yule candles in, 259-60 ; Christmas-trees in, 267 , 270 ; Yule straw in, 276 ; Christmas presents in, 278-9 ; pig's head eaten in, 286 ; dances in, 293-4 ; St. Stephen's Day in, 312-3 , 315 ; “St. Knut's Day” in, 351 Swinburne, 84-5 Swine as sacrificial animal, 284 , 286 Switzerland, St. Nicholas in, 218-9 ; Christmas-tree in, 267 ; birds fed at Christmas, 289 Sword-dance, 294 , 299-301 Sylvesterabend , 274 , 322 Tacitus, 200 , 299 Tate, Nahum, 84 Tauler, 43 Teme valley, “first-footing” in, 324 Tenby, Plygain at, 99 ; St. Clement's Day at, 212 Tersteegen, Gerhard, 75-6 Tertullian, 269 Teutonic New Year, 171-3 , 189 , 202-4 Thomas of Celano, 38 Thomas, Mr. N. W., 293 Thomas, St., his festival, 223-6 “Thomassin’,” 226 Thurston, Mr. Edgar, 322 Tieck, 266 400 Tille, Dr. A., 5 , 110 , 169 , 172-3 , 231-2 , 268 Tipteerers, 298 Tolstoy's “War and Peace,” 302 Tomte Gubbe, 236 Tonquin, feast of the dead in, 195 Totemism, 175-8 Tours, Council of, 21 , 101 , 239 Towneley plays, 128 , 134-7 Trees, sacred, 177-8 , 254 , 269-71 ; flowering at Christmas, 268-9 ; Christian symbols, 271-2 Trest, Epiphany at, 344 Trolls on Christmas Eve, 235-6 Troppau, Christmas Eve at, 232 Troubadours, 36 Tübingen, cradle-rocking at, 111 Tuscany, Christmas log in, 256 Tutilo of St. Gall, 123 Twelfth Night. See Epiphany Twelve Days, declared a festal tide, 21 , 239 ; variously reckoned, 239 ; supernatural visitors on, 239-47 Tylor, Dr. E. B., 191 Tynan, Katharine, 85 Tyrol, Midnight Mass in, 97 ; the crib in, 107-8 ; cradle-rocking in, 111 ; Christmas drama in, 143 ; “star-singing” in, 152 ; All Souls in, 191-2 , 194 ; Klöpfelnächte in, 218 ; St. Nicholas in, 220 ; St. Lucia in, 223 ; Christmas Eve in, 236 , 346 ; Berchta in, 243-4 ; customs with fruit-trees in, 268 ; Christmas pie in, 290 , 345-6 ; St. Stephen's Day in, 311-2 ; St. John's Day in, 314 ; Epiphany in, 337 ; Carnival in, 349 ; Purification candles in, 353 Ubeda, J. L. de, 65 Uist, South, “breast-strip” in, 328 United States, Santa Klaus in, 220 ; New Year in, 323 Usedom, 201 Usener, H., 20 , 107 Valdivielso, J. de, 65 Vampires, 215-6 , 245-6 Vaughan, Henry, 81 Vega, Lope de, 149-50 Vegetation-cults, 177-8 Venetia, Martinmas in, 204 , 207 Vessel-cup, 118 Villazopeque, 148-9 Vosges mountains, All Souls’ Eve in, 191 Wales, Christmas carols in, 69 ; Plygain in, 99 ; soul-cakes in, 193-4 ; Hallowe'en in, 189 , 196-8 ; the “Mari Llwyd” in, 201 ; “new water” carol in, 333-4 ; Christmas football in, 349 Warnsdorf, St. Nicholas play at, 220 Wassail-bowl, 193 , 285-6 Water, New Year, 332-4 Watts, Isaac, 83-4 Weather, ideas about, 203 , 332 Weihnacht , origin of the name, 20 Werewolves, 246 Wesley, Charles, 84 Westermarck, Dr. E., 176 Westphalia, St. Thomas's Day in, 225 Whipping customs, 207-8 , 315-7 , 330 “Wild hunt,” 239-40 Wine, Martinmas, 204 ; St. John's and St. Stephen's, 314-5 “Wish hounds,” 240 Wither, George, 83 Woden, 200 , 206 , 208 , 231 , 240 Women, their clothes worn by men at folk-festivals, 178 , 301 , 304 ; unlucky at New Year, 324-5 Woolwich, St. Clement's and St. Catherine's Days at, 212 Worcestershire. St. Clement's Day in, 212 ; New Year in, 324 Wormesley, Holy Thorn at, 269 Wren, hunting of, 292-3 Wylie, Miss I. A. R., 263 “Yeth hounds,” 240 York Minster, mistletoe at, 273 ; Boy Bishop at, 307 York plays, 128 , 131-3 Yorkshire, possible survival of the crib in, 118 ; frumenty, ale posset, and Yule cakes in, 285 ; “lucky bird” in, 325 Ypres, St. Martin at, 206 Yule, origin of the name, 25 , 171-2 “Yule Boar,” 288 Yule log, 180 , 245 , 251-8 , 344 , 354 Zacharias, Pope, 171

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