Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock Locked padlock icon ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Search Log in Dashboard Publications Account settings Log out Search… Search NCBI Primary site navigation Search Logged in as: Dashboard Publications Account settings Log in Search PMC Full-Text Archive Search in PMC Journal List User Guide PERMALINK Copy As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Parasite Epidemiol Control . 2026 Mar 28;33:e00502. doi: 10.1016/j.parepi.2026.e00502 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Migratory and opportunistic wild and domestic birds, as Toxoplasma gondii carriers Ioannis Tsakmakidis Ioannis Tsakmakidis a Department of Agriculture, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Western Macedonia, Florina, Greece Find articles by Ioannis Tsakmakidis a , Konstantinos Moustakidis Konstantinos Moustakidis a Department of Agriculture, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Western Macedonia, Florina, Greece Find articles by Konstantinos Moustakidis a , Maria V Alvanou Maria V Alvanou a Department of Agriculture, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Western Macedonia, Florina, Greece c Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece Find articles by Maria V Alvanou a, c , Menelaos Lefkaditis Menelaos Lefkaditis b Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece Find articles by Menelaos Lefkaditis b , Zoi Athanasakopoulou Zoi Athanasakopoulou b Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece Find articles by Zoi Athanasakopoulou b , Konstantinos Zaralis Konstantinos Zaralis a Department of Agriculture, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Western Macedonia, Florina, Greece Find articles by Konstantinos Zaralis a , Ioannis A Giantsis Ioannis A Giantsis a Department of Agriculture, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Western Macedonia, Florina, Greece c Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece Find articles by Ioannis A Giantsis a, c, ∗ Author information Article notes Copyright and License information a Department of Agriculture, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Western Macedonia, Florina, Greece b Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece c Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece ∗ Corresponding author. [email protected] Received 2025 Dec 10; Revised 2026 Mar 25; Accepted 2026 Mar 27; Collection date 2026 May. © 2026 The Authors This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC13068591 PMID: 41970607 Abstract Toxoplasmosis is among the most prevalent parasitic diseases worldwide. Birds are important intermediate hosts and are regarded as good carriers or reservoirs for Toxoplasma gondii , because of their high dispersal capabilities and moreover they can act as sentinels of environmental contamination with oocysts. Birds can become infected by ingesting sporulated oocysts from contaminated feed, water, or soil, or for carnivorous birds, by ingesting tissue cysts of infected prey. On the other hand, infected birds, as frequent prey for felines, can transmit T. gondii to the definitive hosts. To the best of our knowledge, there are no data on T. gondii infection in birds in the territory of Greece. In this study we estimated the occurrence of T. gondii in various wild and farm bird species in Greece using molecular techniues, contributing to the update of knowledge about the diffusion of toxoplasmosis in birds. Results revealed that 14% (14/100) of examined magpies ( Pica pica ) 31.25%, of rock partridges ( Alectoris graeca graeca ) (5/16), 35.71% (10/28) of wild quails ( Coturnix coturnix ), 0% of Eurasian woodcocks ( Scolopax rusticola ) (0/20) and 0% (0/107) of farmed quails, were detected positive to infection, after the molecular examination of bird brains, resulting in an overall prevalence of 10.70% (29/271). This study represents the first confirmed report of T. gondii natural infection in rock partridges worldwide, while also the first proven report in magpies, rock partridges and common quails in Greece. Keywords: Toxoplasma gondii, Public health, Wild birds, Disease transmission, Europe 1. Introduction Toxoplasmosis is a highly prevalent parasitic disease worldwide that significantly impacts public and animal health, and imposes detrimental effects on animal productivity. The disease is caused by the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii ( Dubey et al., 2021 ); an obligate intracellular coccidian parasite of the phylum Apicomplexa; that infects almost all warm-blooded animals; including birds; marine mammals; wildlife; domestic animals and humans ( Długońska, 2017 ; Lamy and Kawan, 2022 ). Due to parasite's ability to contaminate the environment in various ecosystems; including water and soil; and to infect a wide variety of animal hosts; T. gondii is considered one of the most successful parasites on a global scale ( Innes, 2010 ). It is estimated that approximately one third of the human population worldwide has been infected. Therefore; the disease represents a serious burden on public health globally; with prevalence rates that vary greatly depending on climate differences; changes in diet; hygiene status and host susceptibility ( Suijkerbuijk et al., 2018 ; de Barros et al., 2022 ). T. gondii is an example of a parasite that has a negative impact on human health, as well as the health of wild and domestic animals, affecting food security and cultural wellness ( Jenkins et al., 2015 ). Transmission to humans occurs mainly through the consumption of raw or undercooked meat infected with tissue cysts, the consumption of unpasteurized milk and dairy products containing tachyzoites, or the ingestion of contaminated food and water with sporulated oocysts ( Vielmo et al., 2019 ). Most animals are infected through the ingestion of contaminated food; soil; or water ( EFSA, 2018 ; Calero-Bernal and Gennari, 2019 ; Stelzer et al., 2019 ). Birds are significant intermediate hosts and are considered good carriers or reservoirs of the parasite, due to their high dispersal capabilities, and thus may act as sentinels of environmental contamination with parasite's oocysts ( Gondim et al., 2010 ; Lopes et al., 2021 ). For many birds, transmission of the parasite occurs by the ingestion of sporulated oocysts from contaminated feed, water or soil ( Shapiro et al., 2019 ). Moreover; carnivorous birds hunt and eat other intermediate hosts and can also become infected by tissue cysts of infected prey ( Ammar et al., 2021 ). Because birds are often preyed upon by felines; they can be considered important reservoirs of the parasite in nature presenting a potential risk of transmission of T. gondii to the definitive hosts; as infected birds harbor tissue cysts in their bodies ( Bata et al., 2021 ; Gryczyńska et al., 2024 ). Furthermore, the consumption of raw or undercooked meat from infected birds, can be a potential source of infection for humans ( Lopes et al., 2021 ; Galeh et al., 2023 ). Many domestic and wild avian species have been reported with T. gondii infection and even in felid-free areas of the world, the presence of seropositive animals has been associated with migratory birds ( Wilson et al., 2020 ; Abd El-Ghany, 2021 ). Wild and particularly migratory birds may therefore enhance transmission of parasites, over long oversea distances putting animal and public health at risk. In the present study, we focused on four bird species, with different features, i.e. one migratory cosmopolitan species that is also reared and thus serves as a farm animal, two Eurasian species that live only in mountainous areas far from urban environments and a generalist species found in a wide range of habitats. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of T. gondii infection in wild and farm bird species (magpies, rock partridges, Eurasian woodcocks, common quails) across diverse regions of Greece, where data are scarce. We assessed the transmission risk posed by migratory, endemic, and farm birds. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Sample collection Samplings were carried out on wild and farmed dead birds provided by hunters and forest rangers (wild quails, rock partridges, magpies) and by farmers (farmed quails), during a nine-month period, from March to November 2023, from urban, peri-urban, farming regions and forests across four Regions of Greece, i.e. Central Macedonia, Thessaly, Central Greece and Peloponnese. In total, 100 magpies, 28 wild quails, 16 rock partridges, 20 Eurasian woodcocks and 107 farmed quails were collected, from which the whole brain was obtained. The brain tissue was collected by carrying out an incision from the occipital region to the beak, removing the skull around the eye sockets, and exposing the brain by pushing the excised skull toward the occipital region. The brain matter was then aseptically transferred into 1.7 mL tubes and frozen until the DNA extraction process. 2.2. Molecular analyses Since no homogeneous distribution of the parasite in the brain of birds was expected, brains were initially homogenized and 20 mg of brain tissue from each animal were removed using sterile equipment. The tissues were pooled in groups of 3 individuals maximum, per species or location. In case of positives in a group, molecular testing was also performed on each individual of the pool separately. The tissues were further processed for DNA extraction using the Nucleospin tissue kit (Macherey Nagel, Duren, Germany) following the manufacturer's instructions. The quality and quantity of the extracted DNA were evaluated using a Quawell Q5000 spectrophotometer. The DNA samples were stored at −20 °C prior to next analysis steps. For PCR analysis the primer pair targeting T. gondii that was initially designed by Reischl et al. (2003) was utilized; applying the modifications previously mentioned ( Su et al., 2010 ; Moustakidis et al., 2017 ). PCR reactions were performed in a total volume of 20 μL, containing 10 μL FastGene Taq 2× Ready Mix (NIPPON Genetics, Tokyo, Japan), 1 μL of each forward and reverse primer (10 mM), and distilled water up to the final volume. The conditions of the PCR reaction were 95 °C for 3 min, 95 °C for 30 s, 60 °C for 40 s, 72 °C for 45 s, and a final extension step at 72 °C for 5 min. The amplified products were examined by electrophoresis in 2% agarose gel stained with Midori Green and analyzed under a UV light system. The samples that considered positive, were processed for purification. After purification of the PCR products using the commercial NucleoSpin Gel and PCR Clean up kit (Macherey-Nagel, Düren, Germany), the purified products were bidirectionally sequenced by applying the Sanger methodology in a Prism 3730XL automatic capillary sequencer from the company CeMIA (Larissa, Greece), using both forward and reverse primers. 3. Results Among the 271 examined birds, 29 were positive by PCR for T. gondii (prevalence 10.7%). More specifically, T. gondii was detected in 14 out of 100 magpies (14%), in 10 out of 28 wild quails (35.7%), and in 5 out of 16 rock partridges (31.2%). No statistical correlation was observed in comparison with the bird species. Regarding age, all wild and farmed birds were adults. Among the magpies, 22 (2/22 positives – 18.2%) were from Central Greece, 10 (2/10 positives - 20%) from Peloponnese (South Greece) and 58 (8/58 postives - 13.8%) from Thessaly. All Rock partridges, Eurasian woodcocks, wild and farmed quails, were collected from Central Macedonia. However, T. gondii was not detected in any of the examined farmed quails or Eurasian woodcocks. The results observed in agarose gel ( Fig. 1 ) were confirmed by Sanger sequencing ( Fig. 2 ), with 100% similarity with various T. gondii GenBank haplotypes. Fig. 1. Open in a new tab Agarose gel electrophoresis depicting a number of positive T. gondii samples. Fig. 2. Open in a new tab Sequencing result that confirms the presence of T. gondii in avian species collected. 4. Discussion Birds are typically resistant to T. gondii , but severe cases have been reported in canaries ( Serinus canaria ), Hawaiian geese ( Branta sandvicensis ) and Hawaiian crows ( Corvus hawaiiensis ) ( Dubey et al., 2021 ). Investigation of T. gondii prevalence in wild and domestic birds is an essential step toward understanding of transmission dynamics and potential risks related to animal and public health ( Gazzonis et al., 2021 ). Moreover; the importance of wild and domestic birds is related to the fact that they can be prey for felines; they can be consumed by humans and can disseminate the parasite via migration to distant places ( Moustakidis et al., 2017 ; Nardoni et al., 2019 ). The present study is the first to report natural T. gondii infection in magpies, rock partridges, and common quails in Greece, and to the best of our knowledge, the first global documentation in rock partridges, thereby advancing the understanding of zoonotic transmission pathways. Magpies ( Pica pica ) are omnivorous scavenger birds adapted to urban habitats that live in close contact with human residential areas ( Juozaityte-Ngugu et al., 2021 ). In Spain; reported prevalence after the use of a molecular method was 15.1%; highlighting the importance of magpies in the epidemiology of T. gondii ( Darwich et al., 2012 ). Similar levels of infestation (19.5%) were revealed in Romania by seroprevalence in crows; indicating the active role of these birds too; in circulation of this pathogen ( Gherman et al., 2025 ). In Taiwan; serology revealed prevalence of 45.5%; which was associated with a potential indicator of environmental contamination with T. gondii oocysts ( Chen et al., 2015 ). In Italy; reported prevalence varied; according to the applied diagnostic procedure; between 2.3% (PCR) and 6.3% (serology); were low infection rates were associated with the density of human and feline populations in the examined areas ( Mancianti et al., 2020 ). Finally; in a study conducted in Slovakia in various animal species; a 33.3% (1/3) prevalence of infection was reported ( Turčeková et al., 2014 ). Results of the present study (14%) agree with the results of the study in Spain and differ from the results reported in Italy; Slovakia; and Taiwan. These differences in infection rates could reflect climatic differences among studied areas ( Darwich et al., 2012 ). Also; differences in prevalence rates may additionally related to the use of different diagnostic methods and the examination of different types of samples. Furthermore; the number of examined birds (3 in Slovakia; 22 in Taiwan and 678 in Italy) could potentially influence results. Moreover; prevalence rates in these birds are associated among others with the density of human and feline populations of the studied areas ( Mancianti et al., 2020 ). The present results appear to be an additional indication of the contribution and importance of magpies in the epidemiology of toxoplasmosis; due to their cosmopolitan distribution; their close association with humans; and their ability to adapt and expand in both urban and rural environments ( Darwich et al., 2012 ). Rock partridges ( Alectoris graeca ) are bird species with a limited geographical distribution in central and southern Europe. Concerning rock partridges, to the best of our knowledge, so far there is no report of natural infection in any part of the world. However, there is a previous report of experimental infection in chukar partridges ( Dubey et al., 1995 ). Previous studies in partridges ( Perdix perdix ) and red-legged partridges ( Alectoris rufa ); indicate that these bird species were susceptible to toxoplasmosis; after experimental infection with T. gondii oocysts ( Sedlak and Franti, 2000 ; Martínez-Carrasco et al., 2004 ). Also, studies in other species of the Phasianidae family revealed different rates of infection. Thus, in Senegal, 25% (1/4) of double-spurred spurfowls ( Pternistis bicalcaratus ) were reported positive to infection ( Galal et al., 2019 ). In the USA; 25% (5/20) of wild turkeys ( Meleagris gallopavo ); were recorded positive ( Cerqueira-Cézar et al., 2019 ). In Iran; 89.8% (serology) and 61.6% (PCR) of farmed turkeys were detected positive. In this research; it was suggested that these relatively high infection rates could be considered a potential risk for human infection ( Sarkari et al., 2014 ). In Portugal; 16.6% (1/6) of silver pheasants ( Laphura nycthemera ); were found positive by serology; indicating a potential susceptibility to parasite infection of these species ( Tidy et al., 2017 ). The differences in the rates of infection among the present (31.25%-5/16 of rock partridges) and the aforementioned studies could be related to several factors; such as to the differences in bird species and number of birds examined. Moreover; they could be related to differences in living conditions and to the different geographical areas involved ( Darwich et al., 2012 ; Cong et al., 2017b ). In Greece rock partridges ( Alectoris graeca graeca ) live in mountainous areas, at altitudes higher than 400 m ( Bontzorlos et al., 2012 ). On the other hand, in Senegal samples were collected from areas located in coastal regions of the country, in Iran from farmed free-range turkeys and in Portugal from birds kept in two zoological parks. Eurasian woodcocks ( Scolopax rusticola ) are migratory birds that nest widely in central, northern and eastern European countries and migrate for the winter to the southern countries of the continent, such as Greece ( Aradis et al., 2008 ; Paoletti et al., 2016 ). They are highly prized game birds that are consumed in large numbers across all European countries ( Moustakidis et al., 2017 ; Cammilleri et al., 2024 ). The only previous study conducted in woodcocks, was in Greece, where it revealed a 4.7% (4/86) rate of infection ( Moustakidis et al., 2017 ). As for other bird species of the Scolopacidae family; in Pakistan; common snipes ( Gallinago gallinago ); showed 25% (1/4) seroprevalence ( Naveed et al., 2019 ). The differences in the rates of infection among the present and the previous study conducted in Greece; could be attributed to the different number of examined birds (20 vs 86). Still; in this previous study in Greece; the number of positive birds was not high (4/86). As for studies conducted in other bird species; differences could also be related to number of birds examined (e.g. 4 common snipes in Pakistan) and the species involved ( Naveed et al., 2019 ). Common or European quails ( Coturnix coturnix ) are medium sized partially migratory birds of the order Galliformes, found across Eurasia and Africa, with an annual migratory cycle between breeding and wintering zones. in Europe, breeding occurs around the Mediterranean Sea. Regarding quails, in China, 9.52% (59/620) of wild quails intended for human consumption examined by serology, were seropositive for T. gondii infection ( Cong et al., 2017a ). In another study in China; 6.41% (25/390) common quails examined using a molecular method; were positive to T. gondii infection ( Cong et al., 2017b ). These results; according to the researchers; indicate the significance of quails in the transmission of T. gondii and a potential public health concern as humans may become infected by consuming undercooked or raw meat from infected birds. In Mexico; in a study conducted in various wild bird species; 14.3% (1/7) of examined quails by serology; was found positive; where it was suggested that wild birds; especially those that are hunted and consumed by humans; could serve as a possible risk for human infection ( Alvarado-Esquivel et al., 2011 ). In a study in Turkey; 144 farmed quails examined by serology; showed no evidence of infection; a result that was attributed to the advanced breeding conditions of reared birds ( Kiliç et al., 2017 ). In; a study in Iraq; a total infection rate of 19.33% (29/150) was reported after serological examination of farmed quails; highlighting the role of these birds in the parasite transmission to humans and cats ( Lamy and Kawan, 2022 ). In a study conducted in both wild and farmed quails in Pakistan; wild and farmed quails were found positive at 7.62% (18/236) and 3.6% (7/197) respectively; with an overall infection rate of 5.8% (25/433); after the use of serology. The presence of the parasite in both wild and farmed birds intended for human consumption; indicated the potential zoonotic transmission to humans and therefore a public-health concern ( Ahmad et al., 2024 ). In a study in Egypt; 10% of farmed quails (3/30); after the examination of organ (brain; liver; lung) tissues with the use of a histopathological method; were detected infected. As the raising of quails in the studied area occurred mainly in houses; where cats could have access to bird food and water; high hygiene standards were proposed for quail breeding in order to minimize infection in birds and reduce parasite transmission to humans through continuous surveillance by the appropriate authorities ( Hussein et al., 2018 ). Results of the present study (35.71% in wild; 0% in farmed and 6.45% total); differ from most previously reported studies; except for the total prevalence in Pakistan and the findings in farmed quails in Turkey. The differences in infection rates of the present study and the previous studies could be related to a number of factors. In farmed quails; they could be associated with hygiene conditions and overall management practices of the farms; environmental conditions; and cat densities ( Lamy and Kawan, 2022 ). The fact that in the present study no farmed birds tested positive; could be attributed to hygiene and rearing conditions in the farm; where quails were kept in cages; protected from cats and rodents and moreover the feedstuff and water sources were kept secure to prevent contamination with cat feces ( Ahmad et al., 2024 ). On the other hand; the higher rates of infection in farmed quails reported in previous studies could be related to the feeding pattern of these birds. In those cases; they were fed directly from the ground and thus increasing exposure to T. gondii oocysts through the feces of infected cats; or through ingestion of transport hosts (e.g.; earthworms) capable of mechanically carrying oocysts ( Lamy and Kawan, 2022 ; Symeonidou et al., 2023 ). In wild quails, differences could be attributed to the different numbers of examined birds (602 and 390 in China, 7 in Mexico, 236 in Pakistan), the diagnostic methods applied (serology in China, Mexico, and Pakistan), the type of samples analyzed (muscle tissues for the molecular method in China), and the distinct geographical characteristics of the study areas ( Lamy and Kawan, 2022 ). These contrasting results emphasize the complexity of factors related to T . gondii infection in both wild and farmed quail birds ( Ahmad et al., 2024 ). 5. Conclusions The present study provides the first epidemiological data from Greece on T. gondii infection in both wild and farmed bird species, contributing to the update of knowledge on the parasite's distribution in birds. The findings demonstrate that numerous bird species can serve as intermediate hosts for the parasite. Understanding the prevalence and broad occurrence of T. gondii in birds helps improve estimates of environmental contamination with oocysts. Moreover, this information is essential for assessing the risks associated with handling, managing, and consuming these species—an important aspect of disease control in both humans and animals. CRediT authorship contribution statement Ioannis Tsakmakidis: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision. Konstantinos Moustakidis: Resources, Methodology, Data curation. Maria V. Alvanou: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation. Menelaos Lefkaditis: Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Zoi Athanasakopoulou: Validation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Konstantinos Zaralis: Writing – review & editing, Formal analysis. Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. References Abd El-Ghany W.A. A highlight on avian toxoplasmosis: one health disease with a special reference to the current egyptian situation. World’s Vet. J. 2021;11(3):510–520. doi: 10.54203/scil.2021.wvj66. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ] Ahmad G., Masud A., Naeem M., Ghafar A., Muqaddas H., Qamar M.F., et al. Molecular prevalence, phylogeny and hematological impact of toxoplasma gondii and plasmodium spp. in common quails from Punjab, Pakistan. PLoS One. 2024;19(5) doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0304179. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Alvarado-Esquivel C., Rajendran C., Ferreira L.R., Kwok O.C.H., Choudhary S., Alvarado-Esquivel D., et al. Prevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection in wild birds in Durango, Mexico. J. Parasitol. 2011;97:809–812. doi: 10.1645/GE-2844.1. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Ammar S., Wood L., Su C., Spriggs M., Brown J., Van Why K., Gerhold R. Toxoplasma gondii prevalence in carnivorous wild birds in the eastern United States. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl. 2021;2021(15):153–157. doi: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2021.04.010. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Aradis A., Miller M.W., Landucci G., Ruda P., Taddei S., Spina F. Winter survival of eurasian woodcock scolopax rusticola in Central Italy. Wildl. Biol. 2008;14:36–43. doi: 10.2981/0909-6396(2008)14[36:WSOEWS]2.0.CO;2. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ] de Barros R.A.M., Torrecilhas A.C., Marciano M.A.M., Mazuz M.L., Pereira-Chioccola V.L., Fux B. Toxoplasmosis in human and animals around the world. Diagnosis and perspectives in the one health approach. Acta Trop. 2022;231 doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106432. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Bata S.I., Maikai B.V., Kwaga J.K.P., Okubanjo O.O., Pam L., Wungak Y.S. Serological evidence of exposure to toxoplasma gondii infection in wild birds and local chickens (gallus gallus domesticus) in plateau state, north Central Nigeria. Vet. Parasitol. Reg. Stud. Report. 2021;25 doi: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2021.100601. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Bontzorlos V.A., Vlachos C.G., Bakaloudis D.E., Chatzinikos E.N., Dedousopoulou E.A., Kiousis D.K., et al. Rock partridge (alectoris graeca graeca) population density and trends in Central Greece. Anim. Biodivers. Conserv. 2012;35:371–380. doi: 10.32800/abc.2012.35.0371. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ] Calero-Bernal R., Gennari S.M. Clinical toxoplasmosis in dogs and cats: an update. Front Vet Sci. 2019;6:54. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00054. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Cammilleri G., Galluzzo F.G., Randazzo V., La Russa F., Di Pasquale M.L., Gambino, et al. Distribution of trace metals and metalloids in tissues of eurasian woodcock (scolopax rusticola) from southern Italy. Sci. Total Environ. 2024;947 doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174712. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Cerqueira-Cézar C.K., da Silva A.F., Murata F.H.A., Sadler M., Abbas I.E., Kwok O.C.H., et al. Isolation and genetic characterization of toxoplasma gondii from tissues of wild turkeys (meleagris gallopavo) in Pennsylvania. J. Parasitol. 2019;105:391–394. doi: 10.1645/18-197. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Chen J.C., Tsai Y.J., Wu Y.L. Seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii antibodies in wild birds in Taiwan. Res. Vet. Sci. 2015;102:184–188. doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2015.08.010. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Cong W., Chi W.B., Sun W.W., Shan X.F., Kang Y.H., Meng Q.F., et al. First report of toxoplasma gondii infection in common quails (coturnix coturnix) intended for human consumption in three provinces of northeastern China. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2017;17(5):351–353. doi: 10.1089/vbz.2016.2078. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Cong W., Ju H.L., Zhang X.X., Meng Q.F., Ma J.G., Qian A.D., et al. First genetic characterization of toxoplasma gondii infection in common quails (coturnix coturnix) intended for human consumption in China. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2017;49:14–16. doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2016.12.027. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Darwich L., Cabezon O., Echeverria I., Pabon M., Marco I., Molina-Lopez R., et al. Presence of toxoplasma gondii and neospora caninum DNA in the brain of wild birds. Vet. Parasitol. 2012;183:377–381. doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.07.024. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Długońska H. Are poikilothermic animals real hosts for toxoplasma gondii? Ann. Parasitol. 2017;63:3–5. doi: 10.17420/ap6301.77. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Dubey J.P., Goodwin M.A., Ruff M.D., Shen S.K., Kwok O.C.H., Wizlkins G.L., et al. Experimental toxoplasmosis in chukar partridges (alectoris graeca) Avian Pathol. 1995;24(1):95–107. doi: 10.1080/03079459508419051. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Dubey J.P., Murata F.H.A., Cerqueira-Cézar C.K., Kwok O.C.H., Su C. Epidemiologic significance of toxoplasma gondii infections in turkeys, ducks, ratites and other wild birds: 2009-2020. Parasitology 2021. 2021;148(1):1–30. doi: 10.1017/S0031182020001961. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] EFSA Panel on Biological Hazards (BIOHAZ), Koutsoumanis K., Allende A., Alvarez-Ordóñez A., Bolton D., Bover-Cid S., Chemaly M., et al. Public health risks associated with food-borne parasites. EFSA J. 2018;16(12) doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5495. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Galal L., Sarr A., Cuny T., Brouat C., Coulibaly F., Sembène M., et al. The introduction of new hosts with human trade shapes the extant distribution of toxoplasma gondii lineages. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2019;13 doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007435. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Galeh T.M., Sarvi S., Khalilian A., Hosseini S.A., Daryani A. Genetic diversity of toxoplasma gondii isolates from birds in the world: a systematic review. Exp. Parasitol. 2023;248 doi: 10.1016/j.exppara.2023.108480. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Gazzonis A.L., Villa L., Lubian E., Ressegotti S., Grilli G., Raimondi S., et al. Molecular survey on toxoplasma gondii and neospora caninum infection in wild birds of prey admitted to recovery centers in northern Italy. Microorganisms. 2021;9 doi: 10.3390/microorganisms9040736. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Gherman C.M., Balea A., Györke A., Kalmár Z., Ionică A.M., Villena I., Spano F., de Craeye S., Cozma V. Prevalence and toxoplasma gondii genotypes circulating in five wild corvid species from Romania. Pathogens. 2025;14 doi: 10.3390/pathogens14060572. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Gondim L.S., Abe-Sandes K., Uzêda R.S., Silva M.S., Santos S.L., Mota R.A., et al. Toxoplasma gondii and neospora caninum in sparrows (passer domesticus) in the northeast of Brazil. Vet. Parasitol. 2010;168(1–2):121–124. doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.09.055. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Gryczyńska A., Polaczyk J., Welc-Falęciak R. Toxoplasma gondii infection in ticks infesting migratory birds: the blackbird (turdus merula) and the song thrush (turdus philomelos) Exp. Appl. Acarol. 2024;92:233–240. doi: 10.1007/s10493-023-00878-0. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Hussein A., Taher D., Ghaly S., Hassanien A., Abd-Elgaffar S. Epidemiological study on the role of quails in transmitting of t. gondii to man. Assiut vet. Medizinhist. J. 2018;64(156):1–7. doi: 10.21608/avmj.2018.166595. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ] Innes E.A. A brief history and overview of toxoplasma gondii. Zoonoses Public Health. 2010;57(1):1–7. doi: 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2009. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Jenkins E.J., Simon A., Bachand N., Stephen C. Wildlife parasites in a one health world. Trends Parasitol. 2015;31(5):174–180. doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2015.01.002. doi:10.1016/j. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Juozaityte-Ngugu E., Švažas S., Šneideris D., Rudaityte-Lukošiene E., Butkauskas D., Prakas P. The role of birds of the family corvidae in transmitting sarcocystis protozoan parasites. Animals. 2021;11:3258. doi: 10.3390/ani11113258. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Kiliç S., Karatepe M., Babür C., Karatepe B. Seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii in quails (coturnix coturnix japonica) in Niğde province, Turkey. Kocatepe Vet. J. 2017;10:129–133. https://izlik.org/JA48UK44DZ [ Google Scholar ] Lamy S.A.Q., Kawan M.H. Seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in quail birds (coturnix coturnix) in Baghdad city, Iraq. Int. J. Health Sci. 2022;6(S1) doi: 10.53730/ijhs.v6nS1.7490. 10377210387. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ] Lopes C., Brandão R., Lopes A.F., Sargo R., Casero M., Nunes C., et al. Prevalence of antibodies to toxoplasma gondii in different wild bird species admitted to rehabilitation centres in Portugal. Pathogens. 2021;10 doi: 10.3390/pathogens10091144. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Mancianti F., Terracciano G., Sorichetti C., Vecchio G., Scarselli D., Perrucci S. Epidemiologic survey on toxoplasma gondii and trichinella pseudospiralis infection in corvids from Central Italy. Pathogens. 2020;9(5):336. doi: 10.3390/pathogens9050336. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Martínez-Carrasco C., Ortiz J.M., Bernabé A., Ruiz De Ybáñez M.R., Garijo M., Alonso F.D. Serologic response of red-legged partridges (alectoris rufa) after oral inoculation with toxoplasma gondii oocysts. Vet. Parasitol. 2004;121(1–2):143–149. doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2004.02.010. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Moustakidis K., Economou V., Dovas C., Symeonidou I., Papadopoulos E., Papazahariadou M. 2017. First report of toxoplasma gondii in the woodcock (Scolopax rusticola): Preliminary results. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies in Agriculture, Food and Environment (HAICTA 2017), Chania, Greece, 20–27. [ Google Scholar ] Nardoni S., Rocchigiani G., Varvaro I., Altomonte I., Ceccherelli R., Mancianti F. Serological and molecular investigation on toxoplasma gondii infection in wild birds. Pathogens. 2019;8:58. doi: 10.3390/pathogens8020058. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Naveed A., Ali S., Ahmed H., Simsek S., Rizwan M., Kaleem I., et al. Seroprevalence and risk factors of toxoplasma gondii in wild birds of Punjab province, Pakistan. J. Wildl. Dis. 2019;55(1):129–135. doi: 10.7589/2017-09-228. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Paoletti B., Di Cesare A., Iorio R., Tavaglione D., Bartolini R., Gatti A. Survey on intestinal helminth fauna of woodcocks (scolopax rusticola) in Italy. Vet. Ital. 2016;52(2):117–121. doi: 10.12834/VetIt.15.38.2. doi:VetIt.15.38.2. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Reischl U., Bretagne S., Krüger D., Ernault P., Costa J.-M. Comparison of two DNA targets for the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis by real-time PCR using fluorescence resonance energy transfer hybridization probes. BMC Infect. Dis. 2003;3:7. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-3-7. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Sarkari B., Asgari Q., Bagherian N., Ashkani Esfahani S., Kalantari M., Mohammadpour I., et al. Molecular and serological evaluation of Toxoplasma gondii infection in reared turkeys in Fars province, Iran. Jundishapur J. Microbiol. 2014;7(7) doi: 10.5812/jjm.11598. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Sedlak K., Franti I.L. High susceptibility of partridges (perdix perdix) to toxoplasmosis compared with other gallinaceous birds. Avian Pathol. 2000;29(6):563–569. doi: 10.1080/03079450020016805. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Shapiro K., Bahia-Oliveira L., Dixon B., Dumetre A., de Wit L.A., VanWormer E., et al. Environmental transmission of toxoplasma gondii: oocysts in water, soil and food. Food Waterborne Parasitol. 2019;15 doi: 10.1016/j.fawpar.2019.e00049. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Stelzer S., Basso W., Benavides Silván J., Ortega-Mora L.M., Maksimov P., Gethmann J., et al. Toxoplasma gondii infection and toxoplasmosis in farm animals: risk factors and economic impact. Food Waterborne Parasitol. 2019;15 doi: 10.1016/j.fawpar.2019.e00037. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Su C., Shwab E.K., Zhou P., Zhu X.Q., Dubey J.P. Moving towards an integrated approach to molecular detection and identification of toxoplasma gondii. Parasitology. 2010;137(1):1–11. doi: 10.1017/S0031182009991065. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Suijkerbuijk A.W.M., van Gils P.F., Bonačić Marinović A.A., Feenstra T.L., Kortbeek L.M., Mangen M.J., et al. The design of a social cost-benefit analysis of preventive interventions for toxoplasmosis: an example of the one health approach. Zoonoses Public Health. 2018;65(1):185–194. doi: 10.1111/zph.12417. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Symeonidou I., Sioutas G., Lazou T., Gelasakis A.I., Papadopoulos E. A review of toxoplasma gondii in animals in Greece: a FoodBorne pathogen of public health importance. Animals. 2023;13(15):2530. doi: 10.3390/ani13152530. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Tidy A., Fangueiro S., Dubey J.P., Cardoso L., Lopes A.P. Seroepidemiology and risk assessment of toxoplasma gondii infection in captive wild birds and mammals in two zoos in the north of Portugal. Vet. Parasitol. 2017;235:47–52. doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2017.01.004. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Turčeková L., Hurníková Z., Spišák F., Miterpáková M., Chovancová B. Toxoplasma gondii in protected wildlife in the Tatra National Park (TANAP), Slovakia. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 2014;21(2):235–238. doi: 10.5604/1232-1966. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Vielmo A., Pena H.F.J., Panziera W., Bianchi R.M., De Lorenzo C., Oliveira S., et al. Outbreak of toxoplasmosis in a flock of domestic chickens (gallus gallus domesticus) and guinea fowl (numida meleagris) Parasitol. Res. 2019;118(3):991–997. doi: 10.1007/s00436-019-06233-w. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Wilson A.G., Lapen D.R., Mitchell G.W., Provencher J.F., Wilson S. Interaction of diet and habitat predicts toxoplasma gondii infection rates in wild birds at a global scale. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 2020;29:1189–1198. doi: 10.1111/geb.13096. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ] Articles from Parasite Epidemiology and Control are provided here courtesy of Elsevier ACTIONS View on publisher site PDF (1.3 MB) Cite Collections Permalink PERMALINK Copy RESOURCES Similar articles Cited by other articles Links to NCBI Databases Cite Copy Download .nbib .nbib Format: AMA APA MLA NLM Add to Collections Create a new collection Add to an existing collection Name your collection * Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again Add Cancel Follow NCBI NCBI on X (formerly known as Twitter) NCBI on Facebook NCBI on LinkedIn NCBI on GitHub NCBI RSS feed Connect with NLM NLM on X (formerly known as Twitter) NLM on Facebook NLM on YouTube National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20894 Web Policies FOIA HHS Vulnerability Disclosure Help Accessibility Careers NLM NIH HHS USA.gov Back to Top