Psychological Warfare

Index 16 This means that if you want to get baptised, you've got to get all the way under the water or it doesn't count. 17 See Doob's book, mentioned above, especially pages 71 through 89 and 413 through 417. 18 See the bibliographies by Harold Lasswell and others, mentioned above, for a wealth of literature giving more technical and scientific breakdowns than this. The formula STASM represents what was actually used in preparation of up-to-the-minute propaganda spot analysis for the War Department General Staff by Propaganda Branch during World War II. Some further aspects of this formula are presented in my article, "Stasm: Psychological Warfare and Literary Criticism" in The South Atlantic Quarterly , Vol. 46, No. 3, July 1947, pp. 344-348. 19 See Harold Lasswell's Propaganda Technique in the World War , New York, reissue 1938, Chapter II, "Propaganda Organization," for a description of the attempts to coordinate policy and propaganda in World War I. 20 Chicago, 1946. The discussion of what censorship authorities regarded as propaganda material possessing value for the enemy, of the wartime OC-OWI relationship, and of censorship of short-wave broadcasts are of particular interest to the student of psychological warfare. 21 In a somewhat different context, it is interesting to note that Chinese Protestant churches, made up of Chinese church members, like to hire ministers who mouth their Chinese with a strong American accent. The American missionaries established the American accent as part of the liturgical paraphernalia of Protestantism, and the Chinese preachers trained under them accepted the American mispronouncing of Chinese as a part of the religion. It is odd to see a church full of Chinese using absolutely unbelievable tones while singing hymns or making appropriate individual responses. At that, they are no funnier than the Chinese Buddhists, who memorize long Indian sutras without understanding a single syllable. 22 On World War I, see Harold Lasswell's Propaganda Technique in the World War , previously cited; George Creel's How We Advertised America , New York and London, 1920, the very title of which is an indication of its chief shortcoming; Lt. Col. W. Nicolai, Nachrichtendienst, Presse und Volksstimmung im Weltkrieg , Berlin, 1920, by the German general staff officer chiefly responsible for staff work on propaganda and public opinion, a very thoughtful though prejudiced book; Heber Blankenhorn's enjoyable little classic, Adventures in Propaganda , Boston, 1919 (Blankenhorn was the only American officer to see field service in propaganda in both wars, as a Captain in I and a Lieutenant Colonel in II); and George G. Bruntz' scholarly monograph Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of the German Empire in 1918, Stanford, 1938. Readers desiring further references should consult the bibliographies by Lasswell, Casey and Smith, cited above. 23 Colonel Nicolai, book cited in footnote 1, pages 160-161. 24 For a pro-Hitler view of the world, see Wyndham Lewis' Hitler , London, 1931, if a copy is to be found. The author would probably prefer for the book to disappear. It is an eloquent, very pro-Nazi book, putting the Hitlerite terminology into the English language and—what is more important—infusing into the clumsy German pattern of thinking-and-feeling a lightness of touch which makes Naziism more palatable. The book converted no one in its time, and is not apt to do harm at this late date; but it will make the English-reading reader understand some of the novelty, the revolutionary freshness, the bold unorthodoxy which made millions of people turn to Hitlerism as an escape from the humdrum heartbreak of Weimar Germany. Much of the book is devoted to the problem of power—street-fighting, mass demonstrations, slogans, symbolisms—which so fascinated the Nazis. 25 See Carl J. Friedrich, The New Belief in the Common Man , Brattleboro (Vermont), 1945, chapter III, "Independence of Thought and Propaganda," pp. 81-120, for a cogent discussion of this mentality. The present author, in Government in Republican China , New York, 1938, pp. 18-23, describes in epitome the method whereby the ancient Confucian leadership of China, while propaganda-conscious, used ideology as an economical, stable method of control and avoided its maleficent features. In one of the few poorly argued passages of a great work, Arnold J. Toynbee overlooks this peculiar characteristic of Confucianism and merely equates the Confucian dogma with those of other "universal churches" ( A Study of History , London, 1939, vol. V, especially pages 654-5). 26 People's Commissariat of Justice of the U.S.S.R., Report of Court Proceedings in the Case of the Anti-Soviet Trotzkyite Centre ..., Verbatim Report , Moscow, 1937, page 111. These trials were themselves propaganda; in this particular instance, propaganda of a rather poor order, since they failed to convince the foreign public and presumably persuaded only those portions of the Russian public who were so gullible that they needed no further persuading. For a brilliant illumination of them in terms of a readable novel, see Arthur Koestler, Darkness at Noon , New York, 1941; the same author also has a book of essays on the totalitarian mentality under the rather fancy title, The Yogi and the Commissar , New York, 1945. On the same subject, see Louis Fischer's Men and Politics , New York, 1942. 27 This document establishing the COI, along with the other major documents pertaining to American psychological warfare, may be found in J. P. Warburg's book cited above, Unwritten Treaty . 28 In the course of a routine day of work on overseas propaganda in 1942, the author, who was then in SSG of MIS, found it necessary to get in touch with Military Intelligence proper, Naval Intelligence, the State Department, the office of the Assistant to the President, the Office of Facts and Figures, the British Political Warfare group (which was vainly seeking its American opposite number), the Office of Civilian Defense, the Research and Analysis Branch of the office of the Coordinator of Information, the office of the Librarian of Congress, the Foreign Information Service, and the Department of Agriculture. Each of these either operated propaganda, or had policy or intelligence contributions to make. The Board of Economic Warfare naturally came into the field too. This was during a period of German and Japanese victories, so that even if propaganda had been coordinated, it probably would not have been much more effective than it was. From what could be figured out later, no real harm was done at this time. Nor was much achieved. 29 The bibliographies are cited above, on page 38 . The journal comes out, as its title indicates, four times a year; it is published by the School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. Every major library has it. The review section provides a good survey of new writing in the field. Journals such as The American Political Science Review , The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , The Infantry Journal , and The American Historical Review often have significant articles or book reviews in this field. International Affairs (Royal Institute for International Affairs, London) has excellent reviews of books arranged by geographic subheads. Opinion and propaganda topics are usually lumped together in academic studies; material on the one is apt to lead to the other. 30 San Tzu Ching, translated and annotated by Herbert A. Giles, Shanghai, 1910, pages 2 and 3. The translation quoted is not by Giles. 31 On the transmitting side, nothing could be more ruinous than mere translation, the more literal the worse, of a single basic broadcast for all audiences irrespective of language or culture. For the text of war communiqués or of official documents, this is permissible, but for news or feature broadcasts, few things could be worse. It is not possible to translate subtle psychological appeals embedded in news or commentary; such materials by their nature must follow forms acceptable to the audience, building up confidence with familiar allusions and creating a sense of "we-ness" between the actual announcer and his listeners. Equivalents can be worked out. The same basic policies can be transposed. The same source of news and intelligence can be exploited. But the actual program cannot be translated verbatim from one language to another; it must be transposed not only from one language but from one culture to another. 32 Free advertisement. 33 Bad news about his side is not necessarily the only kind of bad news for the enemy to know. Gloomy news about our side can harm the enemy listener if his government is running a propaganda campaign to raise production, promote thrift, etc., by claiming things are worse on their side. In such a case, good news about us would be good for him. News must be fitted to the propaganda plan and to the propaganda situation. 34 Walter Lippmann's book, Public Opinion , was first published in New York in 1922 but it is still clean-cut as a basic statement of the problems of public opinion. The author's own life as a commentator is remarkable in fulfilling the mission which he implicitly set himself when writing about public opinion: the job of lifting issues into emotional and psychological contexts in which the resulting judgment will be based on socially sound factors. 35 The American newspapers between 1942 and 1945 carried intermittent accounts of these personal and political problems, frequently in the columns of commentators rather than in the regular news sections. (The book by Warburg is of course Unwritten Treaty , mentioned above.) 36 For popular histories of the OSS, see Sub Rosa: The O.S.S. and American Espionage by Stewart Alsop and Thomas Braden (New York, 1946) or Corey Ford and Alastair MacBain, Cloak and Dagger (New York 1946). An exciting thriller novel by Darwin Teilhet gives an oblique and guarded description of black propaganda and clandestine polling: The Fear Makers (New York, 1945); Teilhet was himself in OSS. For an interesting description of OSS field operations, see Nicol Smith's Into Siam (New York, 1946). OSS was picturesque from the very start, and it is likely that other participants in OSS work will from time to time bring out books on their adventures. 37 Bureau of the Budget, United states Government Manual, 1946, First Edition , Washington, 1946, says of the Military Intelligence Division, "It has charge of propaganda and psychological warfare" (page 198). The fiat may be a little more precise than circumstances warrant, but it at least shows where, for the record, psychological warfare belonged. 38 See Charles E. Merriam's study, Political Power , Chicago, 1933, and his later works for suggestive approaches to the political setting of propaganda problems. He developed the terms miranda and credenda for modern political science usage. 39 While this statement is plainly a matter of individual opinion, the author considers that his own experience supports his opinion in this instance. He wrote plans on almost every operating level in the governmental and military hierarchy during World War II, all the way from drafting plans for the Joint (American) and Combined (British-American) Chiefs of Staff down to helping field agents in the China Theater work out practical little propaganda plans for their own missions, or planning the writing, use, and classification of leaflets one by one, in collaboration with OWI operators. He found planning to be fascinating at the top, and worthwhile at the bottom of the pyramid, but he found no significant correlation between the top and the bottom, save in the sense which he makes plain. 40 In the pseudo-technical propaganda slang of the OWI people, this was called "spelling out." The same people "stockpiled" "campaigns" to "needle" the enemy. 41 So far as he knows, the author was the first—about May of 1942—to urge that a surrender pass be made to look like an official document, with banknote-type engraving and with formal style. Unfortunately, it was printed in green, instead of the old-fashioned orange-gold of the U.S. Treasury yellowbacks, and was sent to the jungle areas of the South and Southwest Pacific, where everything was green to start with. 42 These suggestions are based on the comment of Major Martin Herz, who prepared the leaflets at Anzio beachhead and subsequently was leaflet expert at SHAEF. 43 No author, publisher, place or date. Issued by the unit. The reference is to page 55. 44 The Department of the Army is understood to be preparing a Field Manual and Technical Manual for Psychological Warfare which will describe the doctrines and the equipment, respectively, to be used in combat propaganda situations. 45 In the postwar period a great many reflective publications began to appraise what had happened in the PsyWar field. One of the best of these is Daniel Lerner's Sykewar: Psychological Warfare Against Germany, D-Day to VE-Day (New York, 1949), which covers the European operation in detail. This was followed by Propaganda in War and Crisis , edited by Daniel Lerner (New York, 1951). A heavier work, covering many of the same problems is The Language of Politics , by Harold D. Lasswell, Nathan Leites and associates (New York, 1949). Leonard Doob's work on propaganda, long the leading American text in the field, was issued in a revised, postwar edition (New York, 1948); the postwar book does much to put "psychological warfare" in perspective. A simpler text than Doob's, useful for less advanced students, is Frederick C. Irion's Public Opinion and Propaganda (New York, 1950). A manual directly pertaining to psychological warfare is America's Weapons of Psychological Warfare edited by Robert E. Summers (New York, 1951); this also contains a bibliography which is helpful to the layman. Three outstanding works summarize the postwar propaganda position of the U.S. Government: Charles A. H. Thomson's Overseas Information Service of the United States Government (Washington, 1950) shows the continuity of the problem from war to peace; Wallace Carroll's Persuade or Perish (Boston, 1948) argues the necessity of maintaining an opinion offensive; and Edward Barrett's illuminating discussion, Truth is Our Weapon (New York, 1953), brings the story down to the Eisenhower Administration. 46 New insights into the nature of the Soviet antagonist were presented by three related monographs originally prepared inside RAND Corporation, the research facility which often works with the U.S. Air Force. Nathan Leites, The Operational Code of the Politburo (New York, 1951), digests Soviet fundamentals of international behavior. Margaret Mead's Soviet Attitudes Toward Authority (New York, 1951) applies anthropological and psychiatric methods of analysis; this book, to the military or general reader, should be prefaced by reading her distinguished work, Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies , which is now available in an inexpensive, paper-bound reprint (Mentor Books, New York, 1952). Philip Selznick makes the point that organization is itself a Communist power-achieving instrument in his The Organizational Weapon (New York, 1952), the third of the RAND group. Lt. Col. William R. Kintner, a Regular Army officer, prepared the challenging study of the specific military content of Communist thinking in The Front is Everywhere (Norman, Oklahoma, 1950). Among the many good recent books about the Communist challenge, R.N. Carew Hunt, The Theory and Practice of Communism (New York, 1951), is outstanding for its dispassionateness while James Burnham's The Coming Defeat of Communism (New York, 1951) is a ringing appeal to our side to meet the challenge. Stefan T. Possony, in A Century of Conflict (Chicago, 1953), presents the most coldly damning and most far-ranging critique of Communist operations which this writer has seen. Willmoore Kendall rendered Americans a service with his careful translation, editing and introduction of A. Rossi, A Communist Party in Action (New Haven, 1949), while Bob Darke, in a British counterpart, gives a less intellectual and much abbreviated description of the British Communist set-up and operations in The Communist Technique in Britain (London, 1952). Communist revelations of "capitalist" conspiracies which tell more about the haunted, anxious, nasty minds of the Communists than about our own operations are, among others, L. Natarajan, American Shadow Over India (Bombay, 1952), and Jean Cathala, They are Betraying Peace (Moscow, 1951). 47 Paul M. A. Linebarger, "Communism as a Competing Civilization in Southeast Asia," a contribution to Southeast Asia in the Coming World , Philip W. Thayer, editor (Baltimore, 1952). 48 For a contrary point of view, see the works by Harry Stack Sullivan, Brock Chisholm, and others. 49 Problematical in all such attempts of working officers to define "victory" is the serious intellectual issue of avoiding means which by themselves defeat the ends which are sought. If the means are "dangerous" or "immoral" by the standards of the society which applies them, their value becomes low indeed. For the covert side of U.S. operations, see the breezy and popular volumes on OSS: Lt. Col. Corey Ford and Major Alastair MacBain, Cloak and Dagger: The Secret Story of OSS (New York, 1946); Stewart Alsop and Thomas Braden, Sub Rosa: The OSS and American Espionage (New York, 1946); and the most vividly concrete narration of the group, Elizabeth P. MacDonald, Undercover Girl (New York, 1947). For an astonishing work which seems to violate security on every page, see Commander Roy Olin Stratton, SACO—The Rice Paddy Navy (Pleasantville, N. Y., 1950); this is the description of a Navy group in China which the author shows to be more covert than OSS itself. A dry, German view of Anglo-American espionage in Holland is given in that superb, true-life adventure story, H. J. Giskes, London Calling North Pole (London and New York, 1953). 50 See the works of Freda Utley, Herbert Feis, the Linebarger-Djang-Burks political science text (New York, 1954), and others, not to mention the contributions by Mao, Liu Shao-ch'i, and other Communist leaders. 51 The author himself pleads guilty to having criticized the French unduly without accepting a reasonable share of U.S. responsibility for the situation in Indochina (Paul M. A. Linebarger, "Indochina: The Bleeding War," Combat Forces Journal , March 1951), and was deservedly rebuked from some French readers for his denigration of French imperialism. The author cannot endorse as wise, shrewd, or kind the French political decisions in Indochina, hut he can say that the Americans who made (or failed to make) basic policy concerning that area have been as irresponsible and foolish as the French. He trusts that, by the time this note reaches print, a more effectual Franco-American understanding will have replaced the previous difficulties. 52 Psychological warfare is, of course, neither very psychological nor is it necessarily warfare. Indeed, within the context of a rigidly purist and scholastic definition, psychological warfare is not psychological, in that most of its operations are very definitely not a part of present-day scientific psychology. Neither is it warfare because it can be operated before war, during war, after war, or contemporaneously with and apart from war. As pointed out above, war involves the inescapable content of public lawful violence . It is hard to ascribe violence to a short-wave broadcast or to a leaflet. In Korea in 1951 the author heard that a Chinese soldier was found dead—mashed by a leaflet bomb which had failed to explode at the proper altitude. If this story is true, that particular soldier was one of the few genuine war victims of military or strategic propaganda both so pretentiously called "psychological warfare" by Americans of the mid-twentieth century. Anthony Leviero, who summarized American PsyWar in The New York Times in a series of articles between 9 December and 14 December 1951, is both an experienced general staff officer and a first-class newspaper man. His comment in 1953 on the new Operations Coordinating Board was encouraging or ominous. He stated in his Times dispatch of 4 September 1953 that the William Jackson committee had found that "psychological warfare did not exist as such." If this meant that the new OCB was to sweep aside the limitations of top-secret pedantic definitions and move toward a refreshingly concrete manipulation of the world scene, the news was encouraging indeed. If the new Board was, however, to be dedicated to the manufacture of new, complicated and secret definitions of its own, the news was bad. Given the time-lag on the declassification of Government materials, it may be twenty-five years, or 1978, before the precise definitions of 1953 are available to the public. The tendency of the Board to succeed or to fail will be evident by the time this material is in print; given the personalities involved, the prognosis appeared optimistic. 53 This kind of issue has not been neglected in our public discussions or our schools. Two sides of one famous case are given in Owen Lattimore, Ordeal by Slander (New York, 1951) and the bitterly anti-Lattimore book by John T. Flynn, The Lattimore Story (New York, 1953). A serious intelligent attempt to answer some of the problems posed by PsyWar and the resulting loyalty issues within a democracy are the works of Nathaniel Weyl, Treason: The Story of Disloyalty and Betrayal in American History (Washington, 1950), and The Battle Against Disloyalty (New York, 1951). A formidable presentation of what the Communists are doing is offered in Ralph de Toledano, Spies, Dupes, and Diplomats (New York and Boston, 1952) and in Major General Charles A. Willoughby, Shanghai Conspiracy (New York, 1952). The kind of round-table often intellectually conceived and executed within American schools is well portrayed in the special issue of Columbia Journal of International Affairs (New York, spring, 1951), in which the entire issue is given to a synthesis of international problems in the propaganda field under the heading "Propaganda and World Politics." Stefan Possony's magistral A Century of Conflict (Chicago, 1953) provides an excellent general framework. 54 Nothing in previous U.S. experience prepared Americans for the invasion of the individual personality which has long been accomplished by the Communists but which was first publicized in adequate fashion after the outbreak of the Korean war in 1950. The pioneer book in this field, and still the best, is Edward Hunter's Brain-Washing in Red China (New York, 1951). This author has known Mr. Hunter for twenty-odd years and can vouch for him as a man with a sober respect for fact, though he does have a vivid taste in adjectives; he has seen not only Mr. Hunter but has gone over some of the raw material which Hunter used and can testify to the reality and sympathy with which Hunter portrays this rather gruesome process. On a different scale, Wilbur Schramm has given a description of what happens when The Reds Take a City (New Brunswick, 1951), in a book of that name written jointly with John W. Riley. 55 A sharp contrast between the old politics and the new is shown by the unfortunate book prepared in the Department of State and now hastily, even guiltily, allowed to go out of print by the United States Government Printing Office because it showed that some Americans were guilty or naïve enough to try to love and trust the Soviet state within the same system as our own. One does not know whether to laugh or to weep at the spectacle of men lamenting the fact that they were once innocent and hopeful. The book, prepared by the late Harley Notter and others, is Department of State Publication 3580, General Policy Series 15, Postwar Foreign Policy Preparation (Washington, 1949). That not all was innocence, even when things so seemed, is amply attested by Freda Utley's controversial but brilliant summary, The China Story (Chicago, 1951). 56 The function of decision-making has been brilliantly though solemnly explored in Richard C. Snyder, H. W. Bruck and Burton Sapin, Decision-making as an Approach to the Study of International Politics (Princeton, N.J., 1954.) 57 For a contrary point of view, see Tensions That Lead to War , edited by Hadley Cantril (Princeton, 1950). 58 The author had the opportunity of observing opsearch in the Korean war on three different occasions: September 1950, March 1951, and November and December 1952 and early January 1953. He visited Korea itself twice and also spent a great deal of time, part of it in a public capacity and part of it as a free-lance author, in the periphery of that war—areas such as Hong Kong, Indochina, Thailand, the Philippines, Malaya, Burma, Indonesia, and India. 59 Several novels have touched on PsyWar problems. The most hard-hitting of the lot is Jerome Weidman, Too Early to Tell (New York, 1946). Covert PsyWar whispering techniques are thinly disguised and much improved, technically, in Darwin Teilhet, The Fear Makers (New York, various dates). The covert side of some of these adventures is portrayed, among others, by W. Stanley Moss, A War of Shadows (New York, 1952); Ray Franklin Kauffman, The Coconut Wireless (New York, 1948); and Chin Kee Onn, Silent Army (New York, 1953). As exciting as fiction are Mark Gayn and John Caldwell, American Agent (New York, 1947), describing the work of an enthusiastic amateur, and L. C. Moyzisch, Operation Cicero (New York reprint, 1952), portraying a first-class professional. Alexander Foote, Handbook for Spies (London, 1949), and J. V. Davidson-Houston, Armed Pilgrimage (London 1949), are interesting distillations of personal experience which touch on espionage and PsyWar. 60 The author professes he would like to write a preliminary work on this subject himself some day, if no one else essays the task first. 61 V = Victory day. 62 Edward Hunter, Brain-Washing in Red China (New York, 1951). 63 If one good book can be mentioned without prejudice to the many other good books in the same field, attention can be drawn to the excellent undergraduate text which explores the present U.S. position on the press, George I. Bird and Frederic E. Merwin, The Press and Society (New York, 1951). At the opposite end of the spectrum, see Oleg Anesimov, The Ultimate Weapon (New York, 1953). The first book takes the U.S. as it is and does not envisage profound responses coming as the inevitable accompaniment of frightful change; the second book states the outside problem in shocking terms, but asks of Americans things which neither they nor their press are ever apt to approve. 64 The development of this activity was handed to the Chief of Army Field Forces, in whose G2 section Colonel Donald Hall was the PsyWar officer. The first of these courses with its supporting textbook was not ready for release by the Army General School until 1949, just one year before the Korean conflict began. In 1949 likewise appeared the first officially approved Army field manual on the subject of psychological warfare support of military operations. 65 Teams from this detachment, armed with leaflets and loudspeakers, were sent to and participated in major maneuvers in continental United States, in the Caribbean area, and in Hawaii. These teams were attached to the "enemy" forces, and exposed the maneuver troops to military propaganda in action. The Tactical Information Detachment suddenly suspended its planning of simulated propaganda operations for Exercise Pluto in 1950. As the only PsyWar operational unit in the Army, the Detachment was hustled off to Korea. Index Abbeville, 164 Adams, Samuel, 23 Adipadi, 185 Aggression, timing, 43 Aims, long-range, 126 Air dropping, 229 Air rescue, 142 , 231 Air support, 228 Aircraft, World War I, 69 Allen, George, 271 Alsop, Joseph, 273 Alsop, Stewart, 182 American Association of Public Opinion Research, 290 American Broadcasting Station in Europe, 270 , 288 American Expeditionary Forces, 67 . See also Pershing's headquarters American operations, effects, 103 American policy in Indochina, 260 - 262 American Revolution, 21 black leaflet, 20 American-Russian meeting, 202 Andersen, Hans Christian, 156 Anger motif, 233 Annamites, 263 Announcers, radio, 58 Anti-Communist appeals, 246 Anti-Semitic propaganda, 138 Anzio, 82 , 212 , 239 Appeals, black action, 237 Armed Forces Radio Service, 272 Armed Forces Radio Stations, 34 Army Air Forces, 183 Army Forces, Far East, 305 Army General School, 304 Aryan myth, 78 Aryan racialism, 25 Asia, Communism in, 251 Athenians, 7 Atrocities, 46 , 79 Attu, 214 Audience, 123 Austria, 184 Azad Hind , 185 Azad Hind Fauj , 8 Aztecs, 17 Bakunin, Mikhail, 297 Balkan states, 163 Balloons, 21 , 69 Barrett, Edward W., 271 Bataan, 223 Beaverbrook, Lord, 64 Belgium, 13 Belly tank, 170 Benedict, Ruth, 3 Bengal, 8 Benton, William, 184 , 271 Black counterpropaganda, 148 Black, Lt. Col. Percy, 91 Black propaganda, 44 , 88 Blaine, James G., 49 Blankenhorn, Heber, 64 , 67 Boers, 24 Bolshevik , 71 Bombs leaflet bombs, 172 , 192 V-l, 130 , 237 V-2, 237 Bonus troubles, 214 "Book that won the war," 23 Bose, Subhas Chandra, 8 Boxes, packing, 171 Braden, Thomas, 182 Brain-washing, 295 ff Breakdown of propaganda items, 122 Brest-Litovsk, 71 Brewitt-Taylor, C. H., 8 Britain in 1940, 163 British, 81 British Admiralty, 87 British Broadcasting Company, 45 , 82 , 87 British Foreign Office, 64 , 87 British in Indochina, 260 British psychological warfare, 263 - 264 British War Office, 87 Brogan, Denis W., 277 Brown, Don, 208 Broz-Tito, Josip, 87 , 89 Bruntz, George G., 64 Buchan, John, 64 Bulgaria, 132 Bullock, Gen. William, 266 Burden, Capt. J. A., 37 Burma, 23 , 24 , 168 , 185 , 209 , 224 . See also North Burma Buttles, Lt. Col. Bruce, 97 Byelorussia, 13 Cambodia, 186 , 262 Canton, 96 Cantril, Hadley, 290 Capabilities, psychological, 158 Capacity, own, 164 Caribbean pirates, 17 Casablanca, 47 Casey, Ralph D., 38 Catholicism, 260 Catlin, G. E. C., 3 Censorship, Russian, 105 Central Intelligence Agency, 274 , 276 Central Intelligence Group, 115 , 184 Central Pacific, 187 Chandler, Douglas, 83 Changes of nations in wartime, 292 - 293 Cheka, 225 Chiang Kai-shek, 52 , 75 , 223 China, 5 , 15 , 185 , 227 , 255 - 257 Central China, 1944, 163 Communist China, 47 , 52 , 106 , 204 Japanese garrisons in, 58 organization, 170 reorganized National Government, 185 OWI in, 57 Protestant churches in, 59 revolution of 1927, 75 Chungking Government, 106 China-Burma-India Theater, 10 , 98 Forward Echelon headquarters, 57 China Theater, 187 , 213 Chinese Communists, 262 - 263 , 265 , 289 , 294 "Chinese Federal Reserve Bank," 141 Chinese prisoners, 288 Chinese railway campaigns, 209 Christmas cards, 213 Churchill, Winston, 24 , 87 , 157 Cinema, 210 Civil defense, 251 Civil Information and Education Section, 189 Civilians, friendly, 209 Clandestine stations, 45 Classification, 54 Clausewitz, Carl von, 28 , 30 Clay, Gen. Lucius D., 189 Cleavage, 143 Cleveland, Grover, 49 Cold War, 244 , 286 , 298 description, 247 in Asia, 264 nature, 248 origins, 248 - 249 outcome, 254 termination, 253 warfare within, 249 Combined Chiefs of Staff, 174 , 194 Command function, 98 Commanders, American theaters, 168 Commando , 24 Commands, contingency, 234 Commands, to enemy forces, 233 Commissioner General for South-East Asia, 264 Committee for a Free Asia, 273 ff Committee for a Free Europe, 273 ff Common causes, 282 Communist appeals, 246 Communist goal, 262 - 263 Communist-dominated governments, 294 Communist Manifesto, 74 Communism, 71 , 78 Communist Party, 126 Communists, 155 , 186 Confederate States, 24 , 29 Confucianism, 78 "Conquest of probability," 251 , 253 Consolidation company, 302 Consolidation plans, 201 Consolidation propaganda, 46 Continental Congress, 158 Contingency plans, 202 Conversion, process of, 13 Conversionary propaganda, 46 Coordination, 201 Coordination of U.S. facilities, 272 Coordinator of Information, 90 Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, 182 Cortéz, Hernán, 17 , 252 Counterespionage, 85 , 225 Counterfeiting, 209 Countermeasures to black, 60 Counterpropaganda, 46 defensive, 146 instructions, 144 initiative, 60 Countersubversion, 225 Covert operations, 255 in peacetime, 297 Covert propaganda, 44 Credenda , 186 Creel Committee, 67 Creel, George, 64 Crisol, José, 259 Cromwell, Oliver, 16 Crow, Carl, 103 Czechoslovakia, 41 , 64 , 81 Dalai Lama, 168 Davidson, Philip, 21 Davis, Elmer, 93 , 178 Davis, Jefferson, 30 D-day, 202 Decision-making, factors of, 284 Defeat, psychological, 194 "Democratic," 74 Desertion, 211 , 237 Developmental research, 287 ff in PsyWar, 288 Dien Bien Phu, 261 Diplomacy, 36 dramatic intimidation, 41 Directives, 97 Distribution, artillery, 192 District Information Services Control Commands, 202 Doenitz, Adm. Karl, 30 , 88 Doihara, Gen. Kenji, 187 Domei Agency, 105 Domestic Operations Branch, 179 Donovan, Gen. William J., 90 Doob, Leonard W., 38 , 39 , 97 Doolittle flyers, 99 Door gods, 188 Doriot, Jacques, 157 Dunkirk, 164 Dutch in Indonesia, 257 - 259 East India Company, 17 Economic Cooperation Administration, 273 Ed and Joe, 205 Education, 32 Edwards, A. L., 39 Ei Sörrender , 235 Eighth Army in Korea, 266 - 267 , 303 , 305 Eisenhower, Gen. Dwight D., 168 , 189 Ellis, Havelock, 291 Enemy definition, 50 lifeline, 215 propaganda situation, 127 England, 68 Environmental stimuli, 110 Espionage, 15 Estimate of the situation, 150 Estimates, written, 161 European Defense Community, 253 European Theater, 191 Ezekiel, Mordecai, 139 Fact, slanting, 117 Falsification, radio, 84 Farago, Ladislas, 41 Fascismo , 32 Fascist Italian Social Republic, 163 Fascists, 78 Federal Communications Commission, 115 Feis, Herbert, 257 Feldpostkarte , 70 Field maneuvers using PsyWar, 301 Field Manual, 241 Field operations, 151 Fifth Army, 228 Files, propaganda, 115 Films, 210 First Loudspeaker and Leaflet Company, 303 , 305 - 306 First Radio Broadcasting and Leaflet Group assisting stations, 306 work in Far East Command, 304 Fischer, Louis, 79 Fisher, F. M., 182 , 189 Flensburg, 88 Flexibility in PsyWar, 285 - 286 Food appeals, 232 Food propaganda, 152 Force short of war, 1 Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service, 115 Foreign Information Service, 91 Foreign Operations Administration, 273 , 276 "Four-Minute Men," 68 Fourteen Points, 62 Fourteenth Air Force, 168 , 186 , 231 Fox, Ralph, 15 France, 68 as a future ally, 282 Frederick the Great, 28 Free India, 185 Free India Army, 8 , 212 French Foreign Office, 297 French in Indochina, 260 - 262 French Revolution, 23 French revolutionaries, 20 Freud, Sigmund, 26 Friedrich, Carl J., 78 Friendship in PsyWar, 281 ff Fromm, Erich, 290 Führer , 78 Future of PsyWar, 298 ff Fuzes, 170 Gaimusho , 204 Galahad Operation, 226 Gallup, Dr. George, 290 Gallup poll, 141 General Staff, 183 Geneva, 261 Geneva Convention, 203 Genghis Khan, 14 George III, 158 German failure in Ukraine, 293 - 294 German Psychological Warfare , 41 Germany, 184 black operations, 212 Imperial Government, 67 naval radio, 88 pastoralization of, 103 U.S. zone, 202 World War II accomplishments, 81 Gideon, 3 Gifts, 207 Giles, Herbert A., 110 Goals of PsyWar, 299 definition, 151 enemy goals, 127 specific propaganda goals, 151 Göbbels, Paul Josef, 90 Gorer, Geoffrey, 3 , 154 Gray, Gordon, 274 Great Patriotic War, 104 Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, 186 Greene, Carleton, 264 Greene, Col. J. Woodall, 266 , 301 Grenades, rifle, 228 Grew, Joseph C., 42 Guam, 187 Guerrilla warfare, 262 Guidance, 194 examples, 196 Gurney, Sir Henry, 264 Gustav Siegfried Eins , 205 Guthrie, Edwin, 39 , 91 Hague Convention, 203 Hall, Col. Donald, 267 Han, 7 Han Military Emperor, 5 Han River, 265 Harvard College, 297 Haushofer, Gen. Karl, 31 Haw Haw, Lord, 59 , 83 Hawaii, 203 Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 302 Hegelian philosophy, 25 Henry, George W., 27 Herodotus, 7 Herz, Major Martin, 212 Hindustani, 11 Hiroshima, 202 Historical materialism, 32 Hitler, Adolf, 77 , 202 , 225 Hitlerjugend , 57 Hitlermädel , 57 Ho Chi-minh, 263 Holland, 13 , 52 , 68 Holy Roman Empire, 15 Homeland facilities, 204 Honesty as basis of U.S. policy, 282 Howitzers, 228 Huks (Hukbong Mapagpalaya Bayan), 259 - 260 Huns, 63 Hunter, Edward, 295 Hymn of Hate, 63 Identification of propaganda, 116 Identity cards, 209 Ideology, 8 , 31 , 79 and plans, 201 India, 264 Indian-Pakistani fighting, 255 Indochina, 185 , 245 Indochinese war, 255 Indonesia, 47 , 52 , 185 Indonesia, fighting in, 255 , 257 - 259 Indonesia, Republic of, 185 Information activities of State Department, 269 Information agencies, chart, 95 Information Control Commands, 270 Information Control Service, 189 Information, Department of, 64 Information and Education Section, 270 Inner Mongolia, 168 , 185 Inquisition, 20 Insanity as a Communist technique, 295 - 296 Intelligence Director of, 64 propanal in, 129 propaganda intelligence, 132 , 197 Inter-Allied cooperation, 163 Interest, enemy, 48 Interim Intelligence Information Service, 184 International Information Service, 269 International propaganda, 46 International "realities," 245 Internationale , 104 Interpretation vs. truth, 117 Interrogation, 145 of prisoners, 147 Iron Curtain, 244 Irregular warfare, 287 Islam, 10 Isolationism, 140 Israel, 255 Italy, 68 , 214 landings in, 239 surrender, 202 Jackson, C. D., 276 Jackson Report, 268 , 275 , 289 Jackson, William, 275 Jacobite broadcast, 18 Japan, 184 Board of Information, 184 - 185 black book, 208 black propaganda, 105 cultural propaganda, 206 Emperor, 49 , 214 Foreign Office, 204 nostalgic white, 135 peso note, 23 PsyWar in World War II, 105 Sad Sack, 213 , 216 surrender, 104 Japan's East Asia, 255 Jenks, Edward, 3 Jisei , 168 Johnson, Louis, 269 Johnston, Col. Dana W., 97 Joho Kyoku , 34 , 184 , 204 Joint Chiefs of Staff, 93 , 194 , 277 Joint Psychological Warfare Committee, 93 Josey, Alex, 264 Joyce, James, 119 Joyce, William. See Haw Haw, Lord Kachins, 224 Kafka, Franz, 119 Kaiserist propaganda, 66 Kaltenbach, Fred, 83 Kempeitai , 187 Kinsey reports, 291 Kiska, 214 Kjellen, Rudolf, 31 Koestler, Arthur, 79 Koop, Theodore, 53 Korea, 184 Korean conflict, 255 , 263 , 265 - 266 , 269 , 280 , 286 , 294 , 301 , 303 leaflet deliveries, 306 - 307 loudspeaker sections, 306 opsearch, 288 propaganda policies, 305 PsyWar in, 301 PsyWar officers, 305 radio operations, 306 radio propaganda, 289 Krum, 132 Kublai Khan, 14 , 106 Kultur , 63 Kuomintang, 75 , 186 , 204 Kyes, Roger M., 276 Labor recruitment, 224 Lamb, Harold, 15 Laos, 262 Larson, Cedric, 103 Lasswell, Harold, 38 , 97 Latin-America, 68 Lattimore, Owen, 15 , 183 Laurel, José P., 157 Laval, Pierre, 157 Leadership, defamation of, 155 Leaflets action leaflets, 231 anti-exhibit leaflet, 96 anti-radio leaflet, 86 artillery, delivery by, 307 B-29 raids, 168 on Berlin, 57 bombs, 307 bundles, 228 Bunker Hill leaflet, 21 civilian-action leaflets, 222 civilian-morale leaflet, 215 for civilians, 207 direct-reply leaflet, 120 dispensers, 265 distribution, 170 , 171 dropping procedures, 192 field procedure, 228 French Communist leaflet, 121 ground-distributed leaflets, 86 informational leaflet, 142 loading, 172 map leaflets, 235 morale leaflets, 213 news leaflets, 216 packaged leaflets, 170 Philippine leaflet, 2 production, 190 radio-program leaflet, 82 rolling, 169 spot-news leaflets, 221 start-of-war leaflet, 198 surrender leaflets, 230 , 236 surrender leaflet, AEF, 70 surrender leaflet, improved, 239 surrender form, radio, 83 surrender, tactical, leaflets, 235 troop-morale leaflet, 212 troop-morale leaflet, gray, 214 troop-morale leaflet, Nazi, 4 World War I leaflets, 68 Legion of St. George, 84 Leighton, Lt. Com. Alexander, 97 Leites, Nathan, 290 Lenin, Nikolai (Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov), 71 , 263 Lenin Old Guard, 205 Leninism, 71 Letters, prisoner, 232 Lewis, Wyndham, 77 Leyte campaign, 123 , 169 Lhasa, 168 Liaison field liaison, 226 mechanics of, 227 Liaison officers, PsyWar, 192 , 226 Library of Congress, 137 Lienta University, 35 Limitations on American PsyWar, 278 ff Lippmann, Walter, 38 , 103 , 149 Listening, prevention of, 159 Literary personalities in propaganda, 290 Lo Kuan-chung, 8 "Localism," 295 Long, Huey, 38 Lorient, 227 Loudspeaker units, 237 , 302 - 303 Loudspeakers airborne, 307 emplacement, 307 vehicle-mounted, 239 , 307 Luftpost , 220 Luxembourg, 168 MacArthur, Gen. Douglas, 157 , 189 , 257 , 266 , 301 MacDonald, Malcolm, 264 Mackall, Lt. Col. Samuel T., 7 MacLeish, Archibald, 279 Maginot Line, 213 Magsaysay, Ramón, 259 Mails, 206 civilian personal, 219 Malai, 185 Malaya, 185 , 209 , 262 Chinese in, 262 ff government of, 263 High Commissioner of, 264 war in, 255 Malayan Races Liberation Army, 262 , 295 Malingerer's black, 125 Manchukuo, 185 Manchus in China, 20 Mannheim, Karl, 3 Mao Tse-tung, 252 , 263 Marx, Karl, 263 , 297 Marxism, 70 - 71 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 297 Materials, 194 basic materials, 195 enemy information materials, 122 - 123 McClure, Gen. Robert B., 266 McEvoy, Dennis, 208 Media, 56 limitations, 48 , 55 prescription of, 27 Medical conditions, 36 Mediterranean Theater, 191 Mein Kampf , 65 , 101 Merat, Edward K., 183 Merriam, Charles E., 186 Merrill's Marauders, 226 Mexican War, 23 Mexico, 68 Midianites, 3 Mikhailovich, Draja, 87 , 89 Military goals, 199 Military Intelligence Division, 91 Military Intelligence Reserve, 301 Military Intelligence Service, 182 Military Propaganda School, 304 Military PsyWar since World War II, 299 ff Military Secretary, 189 Milton, George Fort, 21 Milton, John, 16 Ministry of Information, 64 , 87 Miranda , 186 Mission, 125 sense of, 26 Mobile Radio Broadcasting Company, 302 Mock, James R., 103 Mockery, 118 Money, 23 , 209 Mongol secret weapons, 14 Monitor, submarine, 97 Monitoring, 111 Morale analysis chart, 70 enemy situation, 127 general morale, 215 German morale, 220 index, 147 operations, 211 services, 34 wartime morale, 156 Morgan, Dr. George, 289 Mortars, 69 , 228 Moscow, 71 Moscow-Peking Axis, 294 Moscow trials, 79 Motion pictures, 210 American, 90 propaganda movies, 68 , 81 Motive, 155 attribution of, 155 Movie van, 175 Mutiny, 211 Mutual Security Administration, 273 Nagasaki, 106 National-level plans, 200 National Security Council, 269 , 276 National Socialist German Workers' Party. See Naziism National War Aims Commission, 64 Nationalism and Communism, 295 Nationalists, Chinese, 75 , 106 Naziism, 77 and Communism, 77 fifth column, 81 Nazi-Soviet struggle, 293 - 294 Netherlands and Indonesia, 257 - 259 "New British Broadcasting Company," 83 "New Democracy," 32 New York, radio facilities, 179 News as intelligence, 135 bad news, 136 classified news, 136 commercial facilities, 136 good news, 136 palatability, 136 planted news, 84 pre-action news, 232 private facilities, 136 procurement of, 137 sources, 136 Newspapers, 220 air-format newspapers, 207 airborne newspapers, 13 in American Revolution, 21 Nicolai, Col. Walther, 64 Nimitz, Adm. Chester W., 187 XIX Corps, 239 Normalcy, effects, 73 Normandy, 239 North Africa, 47 , 202 North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 254 North Burma, 213 , 226 North Korea, 263 Communist army of, 295 Northrop, F. S. C., 290 Norway, 13 Nostalgic black, 133 Nostalgic white, 134 Novelty materials, 207 Oberkommando der Wehrmacht , 82 Obscene black, 141 Oestrous black, 137 Oestrous gray, 138 Offensive propaganda, 46 Office of Censorship, 53 Office of Chief of PsyWar, 266 , 304 Office of Facts and Figures, 91 Office of Intelligence, Information, and Cultural Affairs, 184 Office of Inter-American Affairs, 184 Office of Strategic Services, 93 , 273 , 297 in SWPA, 98 Office of War Information, 93 , 269 , 271 , 297 organization, 178 outposts, 179 quarrels with OSS, 94 Okinawa, 239 , 263 Operations, clandestine, 192 Operations Coordination Board, 275 ff functions and members, 276 Operations Division, GS, 94 Operations Research, 287 ff Operators needs, 194 qualifications of, 99 Opinion analysis, 110 , 141 enemy opinion, 26 enemy opinion profile, 145 generalized opinion, 143 opinion groups, 143 sampling, 141 Order of battle, 192 Outer Mongolia, 168 Outpost Service Bureau, 182 Overclassification, 268 Overseas offices, 97 Overseas Operations Branch, 179 Overt act, 211 Overt propaganda, 44 Paine, Thomas, 23 Palestine, 38 Palmerston, Lord (Henry John Temple, 3d Viscount), 297 Pamphlets, 208 Panmunjom, 261 Parachute News. See Rakkasan Pareto, Vilfredo, 13 Parsons, Talcott, 3 Passierschein, 6 Pavlovian psychology, 26 , 296 Pearl Harbor, 42 Peasant revolts, 20 Peck, Graham, 189 Percentage analyses, 145 Pershing's headquarters, 67 - 68 Persians, 8 Personnel limitations, 48 Persuasion, 25 Phase planning, 202 Philippines, 137 , 185 Communist war in, 255 Philosophy in propaganda development, 289 Photo exhibit, 176 Pictures, prisoners, 238 PK units, 223 Plain-clothes troops, 164 Planning, 194 enemy plans and situations, 126 failure of West, 264 general plans, 199 in research and development, 287 ff pre-belligerent planning, 197 Point Four administration, 273 Poland, 13 Policy meetings, 97 Political Adviser, 187 Political background, 43 Political goals, 199 Political limitations, 48 Political officers, 159 Political warfare, 47 in Indochina, 260 Political Warfare Executive, 87 Politics, home-front, 49 Polly planes, 239 Polo, Marco, 14 Postal propaganda, 206 Poster propaganda, 111 , 176 Pre-belligerent stages, 80 President's Committee on International Information Activities, 276 Press analysis, 112 Presses, military, 169 Price, Byron, 53 Printing, 111 , 230 Prisoners of war, 36 propaganda value, 105 Private use of PsyWar techniques, 296 - 297 Problems, future tactical, 229 Projection in propaganda, 292 Promises, 52 Propaganda analysis, 110 , 128 analysis procedure, 126 choice in, 162 commitment, 50 conditions for effectiveness, 280 defensive propaganda, 46 , 101 divisive propaganda, 46 history of, 3 organizations, national, 174 propaganda addict, 78 propaganda against propaganda, 100 purposefulness in, 40 re-use of, 102 in seven small wars, 265 Propaganda Branch, 182 Propaganda Man, 153 , 200 , 205 - 206 Propaganda Platoon, 303 Propaganda Section, AEF, 67 Propagandakompanie , 223 Propagandists as spokesmen, 281 Propanal. See Propaganda analysis Proust, Marcel, 119 Prussia, 15 Psychological research in PsyWar, 292 Psychological Strategy Board, 271 , 274 , 276 , 289 Psychological warfare American agencies, 175 definitions, 37 , 276 - 277 defensive, 216 in Intelligence (G2), 304 limitations, 48 , 266 in Military Government, 302 Nazi PsyWar, 41 new establishment in Army, 266 organization for, 168 personnel, 99 in Plans and Operations (G3), 304 policy, dissension over, 270 tactical planning, 164 training, 304 ff Psychological Warfare Board, 304 Psychological Warfare Branch, 93 , 187 Psychological Warfare Center, 304 Psychological Warfare Division, SHAEF, 187 Psychological Warfare Facility, 177 Psychological Warfare School, 304 Psychological Warfare Section, 301 , 304 - 305 Psychological Warfare Staff in FEC, 304 Psychologist, role of, 26 Psychology, 25 new developments, 285 relation to propaganda, 291 Psychology Section, AEF, 67 Public Affairs, Assistant Secretary of State for, 269 - 270 Public Affairs Officer, 272 Public Opinion Quarterly , 110 Public relations, 33 Publications Platoon, 303 Pushtu, 37 Quakers, 17 Quality as opposed to quantity in PsyWar, 307 Quantification, 291 Quasi-private operations, 273 ff Quisling, Vidkun, 32 , 157 Quislings, 88 , 157 Quotations, falsified, 84 Radek, Karl, 79 Radio American operations, 91 jamming, 159 materials, 113 short-wave, 203 standard wave relay, 203 support, 227 suppression, 114 tactical radio, 192 wired radio, 113 Radio Broadcasting and Leaflet Group, 301 - 302 Radio Free Asia, 273 ff Radio Free Europe, 273 ff Radio in the American Sector, 270 Radio Luxembourg, 56 Radio Malaya, 264 Radio Saipan, 45 , 203 Radio Tokyo, 113 Radio war, 81 Raids, B-29, 237 Rakkasan News , 168 , 220 RAND Corporation, 297 Ration cards, 209 Reader's Digest , 90 Readiness, national, 251 Rearrangements in U.S. Government, 269 Recognition and delay, 244 ff Recruiting of Anti-Communist forces, 265 Red Army, 113 Red scare, 72 Reformation, Wars of the, 10 Religious black, 124 Reproduction Company, 302 Requirements, guidance, 195 Research and Analysis Branch, 90 Reserve groups, use in PsyWar, 304 Responsibility of propagandists, 135 Reston, James, 273 Results of PsyWar, 307 Revision of U.S. laws, 298 Revolution and Development of International Relations Project, 297 Revolution as opposed to living, 277 Revolutionary propaganda, 46 "Rockefeller Office," 91 Rockets, 21 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 4 , 168 , 175 , 225 Roper, Elmo, 290 Rowe, David, 111 Royall, Kenneth C., 269 "Rum, Romanism and Rebellion," 49 Rumors, Mongol, 15 Russian Army of Liberation, 88 Russian combat propaganda, 105 , 165 Russian Revolution, 71 Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, 273 Ryukyus. See Okinawa Sabine, G. H., 3 Saipan, 98 Salesmanship, 32 Samuel, Czar, 132 San Francisco, 203 OWI in, 55 radio facilities, 179 San Kuo , 8 Sargeant, Howland, 271 Saumaise, Claude de, 16 Scandinavia, 68 Schenke, Wolf, 81 Secret weapons, 129 Security excessive security, 54 security liaison, 55 limitations, 48 , 53 security officers, 53 procedures, 54 supervision, 55 unit security, 54 Selling, Lowell S., 27 Sex propaganda, 137 SHAEF, 176 , 187 , 212 Shans, 224 Shantung guerrillas, 204 Shells artillery, 228 chemical warfare, 228 leaflet shells, 228 smoke shells, 228 Sherwood, Robert, 93 , 178 Shonan, 8 Siam, 47 , 186 Sicherheitsdienst , 85 Singapore, 8 Small wars, seven, 255 Smearing, 157 Smith, Bruce Lannes, 38 Smith, Nicol, 182 Smith, Walter Bedell, 274 , 276 Social groups, 143 Social sciences in PsyWar, 290 Socialists, Russian, 70 Solbert, Gen. Oscar N., 94 Source, 44 , 122 South-East Asia, 186 Southwest Pacific, 187 , 213 Soviet-German front, 214 Soviet propaganda, 1941-45, 51 development of techniques, 294 Soviet PsyWar, 104 Soviet Union, 80 policies, 282 Spain, 31 , 68 , 280 Spanish Empire, 20 Special Study Group, 91 Specificity in propaganda, 147 "Stab in the back," 65 Staff functions, 191 Stalin, Joseph, 51 Stanford University, 297 Stanley, Lt. Col. John B., 97 STASM, formula, 43 - 44 , 120 Stassen, Harold E., 276 State Department, 184 State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee, 175 Statistical propanal, 131 Stein, Gertrude, 119 Sterber, Der , 214 Stewart, James, 189 Stilwell, Gen. Joseph W., 189 Stoddard, Lothrop, 186 Strafe , 63 Strategic operations in international information, 268 Strategic plans, 201 Strategic propaganda, 45 Strategic propaganda unit, 301 Streibert, Theodore C., 276 Strengths of U.S. propaganda, 279 ff Subject, 124 Submarine operations, 186 Subversive material, black, 121 Subversive operations, 88 , 209 Subversive operations units, 173 Sultan, Gen. Daniel I., 189 Sung Dynasty, 15 Sun-Tzu, 28 Sunyatsenism, 75 Supreme Commander for Allied Powers, 189 , 270 Surprise attacks, 129 Surrender, 211 goal of PsyWar, 288 - 289 procedure, 230 surrender passes, 7 psychology of, 212 Switzerland, 68 Symeon, 132 Tactical Information Detachment, 301 , 303 Tactical propaganda, 45 Tactical propaganda unit, 301 "Target" leaflet, 256 Tartars, 15 Tatars, 14 Taylor, Edmond, 17 , 41 Taylor, George, 182 Technical Cooperation Administration, 273 Technical Manual, 241 Teilhet, Darwin, 182 Temps, Le , 38 Tension causes, 285 in decision-making, 284 in war, 284 ff research on, 284 ff Terrain of propaganda, 150 Terror, strategy of, 41 Teutoburger Wald, 239 Theater Psychological Warfare, 187 Theater Psychological Warfare Officer, 187 Thompson, Dorothy, 273 Thomson, Col. Charles A. H., 39 Tibet, 168 Time, 123 Time-Life-Fortune , 90 Timeliness, 140 Timing, 1 Tito. See Broz-Tito Toilet training, 154 Tokugawa shoguns, 17 Total war and constitutional law, 42 Totalitarian parties, 78 Toynbee, Arnold J., 78 Traitors, 59 Troop indoctrination, 224 Trotzky, Leon, 71 Truth, 116 Turkish PsyWar, 17 Ukraine, 13 , 88 , 293 ff "Unconditional surrender" doctrine, 47 , 103 , 305 Unconscious mind, 26 Undercover organizations, 173 Underground Railway, 297 Understanding of the enemy, 292 - 294 Union of Socialist Soviet Republics, 292 - 293 United Nations Command in Korea, 305 United Service Organizations, 224 United States Information Agency, 269 Director of, 269 , 271 United States Information Service, 269 , 276 Use of all government activities in PsyWar, 275 Uses of PsyWar, 299 Utley, Freda, 257 Vegetius, 28 Venezia-Giulia, 184 Victory and defeat, alternatives to, 252 Victory, psychological, 194 Viereck, George S., 66 Viet Minh, 295 Viet Minh vs. Viet Nam, 260 ff Viet Nam, 185 , 262 Vladimirtsov, B., 15 Vlassov, Gen. Andrei A., 88 , 157 Voice of America, 271 Voice of the United Nations Command, 306 Voices, ghost, 84 Voices, amplified, 237 Volk , 32 Vorwärts , 38 Vozhd , 11 Vyshinsky, Andrei, 79 Wallace, Henry A., 87 Wang An-shih, 7 Wang Ching-wei, 157 Wang Mang, 5 War as chronic state, 283 concepts of, 1 definition, 28 between dissimilar states, 283 - 284 force short of war, 1 between similar states, 283 War College, 77 War Department participation, 182 War Propaganda Bureau, 64 Warburg, James P., 52 "Warfare psychologically waged," 40 - 41 , 79 Wartime skills, use of in peace, 297 Washburn, Abbott, 275 Washington, George, 157 Washington-theater liaison, 182 Watts, Richard, Jr., 189 Weapons leaflet-discharging, 228 Mongol secret weapons, 14 Weber, Max, 3 Wedemeyer, Gen. Albert C., 257 West Germany, 282 White House assistant in charge of informational policies, 271 White propaganda, 44 Wieger, Leon, 7 William Jackson Report, 268 , 275 , 289 William of Orange, 18 Witchit Witchit Watakan, 186 Women, 207 Working-class revolution, 71 World revolution, 23 World War I, 62 Yamato-damashii , 32 Yenan, 106 , 215 Yüan Shih-k'ai, 63 Zacharias, Adm. Ellis, 177 , 204 Zilboorg, Gregory, 27 Zionist Organization, 38

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