The Family among the Australian Aborigines, a Sociological Study

ADDENDA There is yet another point in Australian sociology most intimately connected with the individual family. I mean the other forms of kinship organization: the exogamy class, the totemic clan, possibly also the other divisions reported by Mr. R. H. Mathews and Mrs. Parker ("blood" and "shed" divisions, etc.). And on this point the present study is obviously incomplete, as it neither clearly fixes the line of demarcation between the individual and the group kinship, nor solves any of the difficulties and contradictions indicated at the outset. A few words must be said here in order to avoid misunderstandings. If in any society there exist two institutions of very close resemblance, as in Australia, the individual family creating individual relationship and the various kinship organizations creating group relationship, the only way to understand their working is by describing minutely the social functions of each of them. This has been done for the individual family in the foregoing pages; it remains to be done for the kinship groups. [966] Social institutions should in the first place be defined by their social functions; if the functions—religious, magical, legal, economic, etc.—of the totemic class, the exogamous class, and other divisions be known and compared with the functions of the individual family, each of these institutions will appear as occupying a definite place in the social organization, and playing a determinate part in the life of the community. And such a knowledge would afford a firm basis for further speculations. In the foregoing investigations we have omitted this side of the problem partly in order to avoid increasing the bulk of the monograph, but above all, that we might develop more clearly the features of the institution described. The individual family was shown to be a unit playing an important part in the social life of the natives and well defined by a number of moral, customary and legal norms; it is further determined by the sexual division of labour, the aboriginal mode of living, and especially by the intimate relation between the parents and children. The individual relation between husband and wife (marriage) is rooted in the unity of the family. Moreover, it is expressed by a series of facts connected with the modes in which marriage is brought about and in the well-defined, although not always exclusive, sexual right the husband acquires over his wife. ADDENDA Several points omitted in the body of this book, as well as a few works and passages of special importance, which I noted whilst reading the proofs, may be mentioned shortly in this place. I read the book of Mr. Crawley ( Mystic Rose ) unfortunately after the foregoing pages were in type; my study would have been more complete had I known it before. Mr. Crawley analyzes the psychology underlying human relations (those of sex in particular) from their religious side. Primitive man is full of apprehension of the mutual danger inherent in social and especially in sexual contact. Hence the different systems of taboo ; the sexual taboo being one of the most important. To establish harmless relations between people of different sexes requires a system of breaking the taboo . The ceremonies and rites of marriage are treated in the Mystic Rose from this point of view (removal of taboo). In my opinion this book is of great sociological importance chiefly because it shows that the sexual act must be treated in its bearing upon social forms, not as a simple physiological fact, but as a phenomenon complex both in its sociological and psychological aspects. For "savages" in particular it is surrounded by a network of magico-religious ideas, apprehensions and emotions, resulting in a system of rites, customs and institutions, which never can be comprehended without reference to the underlying psychology. It follows as an important consequence that everything connected with matters of sex is an object of well-defined rules and laws (compare the passage above, p. 123 , where the same has been pointed out with reference to the Australians). Another important result of Mr. Crawley's work is the establishment of the principle that marriage rites, being the breaking of a dangerous taboo, are an essential part of marriage, and therefore their study is essential for the understanding of this institution. The rites, being exclusively intended to break the taboo between two individuals and not between two groups, lead to individual marriage and family, and not to "group marriage" and "group family." Mr. Crawley's book is full of valuable remarks, some of which must be quoted in the following paragraphs. I complete also the information on several points by the addition of statements from Mr. Roth's North Queensland Ethnography ( Bull. 9 sqq. ), which I have only recently been able to peruse. Pp. 27-29 . Methodic presentation of evidence. As in summing up the evidence the number of statements supporting one view or another has been adduced sometimes by way of illustration, it is necessary to say explicitly what is considered to be a unit of information (or an individual statement ). I consider as independent statements: (1) Observations of different ethnographers. (2) Observations of the same author made on different tribes, provided that the author has pointed out the differences and that they are substantial enough. It seems hardly necessary to emphasize that the numeric treatment of statements has no pretentions to be a "statistic method of presenting evidence." It is meant only as a convenient and clear way of summarizing evidence. P. 35 and Chap. VII . passim . Mystic. By this word I understand belonging to the category of magico-religious ideas. P. 42 . The marriage ceremonies of the Central and Northern tribes, religious and magical. Compare Crawley ( M.R. , p. 347). P. 48 . Betrothal is prevalent all over the tribes of North Queensland (Roth, Bull. 10, pp. 3-7, §§ 6-14). Among the tribes of Pennefather River (§ 6) it is effected during the infancy of the female and it is invariably adhered to. In the hinterland of Princess Charlotte Bay the bridegroom has to visit his fiancée before marriage for several weeks (§ 7). Infant betrothal is rare among the natives of Cape Bedford (§ 8). On the Bloomfield River female children are betrothed at birth (§ 10). Infant betrothal obtains also among the Cape Grafton and Tully River natives (§§ 11, 12). A betrothal ceremony (recalling that of the Euahlayi tribe, see above, p. 40 ) held when a girl is about three years old is described with reference to the Torilla and Pine Mountain Blacks (§ 13). There are an elaborate ceremonial, taboos and duties connected with betrothal in all these tribes. In the North-West tribes betrothal is generally known (§ 14). Pp. 50-52 . Marriage gifts. In the Pennefather River tribes a man is bound to supply his fiancée's parents with gifts (food, arms, etc.) ( Bull. 10, § 6). Presents form an important feature of the marriage contract among the natives of Princess Charlotte Bay ( ibid. , § 7). The same is reported about the tribes of Normanby River (§ 9), Bloomfield River (§ 10), Torilla and Pine Mountain (§ 12). P. 52 . Publicity of marriage and betrothal is mentioned by Roth among the natives of Pennefather River ( Bull. 10, § 6) and Bloomfield River (§ 10). There is a public ceremonial sign for marriage ("building of a hut and lighting of a fire" by the girl) common to all tribes (§ 5). P. 52 . Marriage ceremonies more prevalent than appears from evidence. To corroborate my supposition that marriage ceremonies are much more frequent in Australia than stated by the authorities I may quote Mr. Crawley's view. He says that "as to those (peoples) who are said to possess no marriage ceremony, it will generally be found that there is some act performed which is too slight or too practical to be marked by an observer as a 'ceremony,' but which when analyzed turns out to be a real marriage rite." And as an example the author quotes two forms of marriage ceremony among the tribes of Central Australia ( Mystic Rose , p. 318). Pp. 52 , 53 . Marriage ceremonies are reported by Roth with reference to all tribes of Northern Queensland ( Bull. 10, "Marriage Ceremonies," etc., especially §§ 1-19). In § 5 a public ceremonial sign of marriage common to all these tribes is described; in §§ 9, 13 and 15, such ceremonies in different tribes are given with details. Ceremonial sexual intercourse with other men before marriage is mentioned in § 20. Pp. 56-58 . Legal aspect of marriage. The different social conditions enumerated by Roth ( Bull. 10, §§ 1, 2 and 3) are a valuable addition to our knowledge of the legal aspect of marriage. "Essentials of marriage before it can be publicly recognized" are: membership in suitable exogamous groups, absence of intimate consanguinity and a suitable social status. If these conditions are not fulfilled the community either violently break the match, or by ridicule, plots, etc., will take an action "usually quite sufficient to cause a separation" (§1, p. 2). P. 61 . Ideas embodied in marriage ceremonies. In the survey of various marriage ceremonies Mr. Crawley first enumerates those in which the aspect of breaking the taboo , of securing immunity from danger, dominates ( M.R. , pp. 322-370); then come those in which the magical and religious elements "actually and materially uniting the man and woman" are prominent ( loc. cit. , pp. 370-390). This aspect corresponds to what I have expressed above emphasizing that marriage is a "sacrament" ( p. 61 ). Very important is the analogy between marriage rites and love charms which Mr. Crawley points out; the same has been said above ( p. 41 ), where it was pointed out that the Arunta love charm has its legal (=binding) aspect. Mr. Crawley lays emphasis on the fact that all marriage ceremonies and rites possess an individualistic character ( loc. cit. , pp. 320 sqq. ). They refer always to individuals and not to groups, and all their magical, religious (I would add legal ) consequences refer to the two individuals concerned and not to two groups. P. 63 . Polygyny. Although this fact had no special theoretical bearing in any of my arguments, still it seems advisable to state it here explicitly and with references for the sake of completeness. Polygyny seems to be restricted to the old and influential men, and to be rather an exception, although it seems to be found in all tribes. Cf. Curr, A.R. , i. pp. 106, 107, 110 sqq. ; Br. Smyth, ii. p. 291; Howitt, T.R.S.V. , p. 115; Woods, p. 191 (Meyer), and p. 222 (Schürmann); Angas, ii. p. 222; Curr, Recollections , p. 129; Wilson, p. 143; Macgillivray, i. p. 151. Idem , ii. p. 8; Hodgkinson, p. 230; Bennett, p. 173; Henderson, p. 110; Roth, Bull. 10, p. 12; Tom Petrie, p. 61; Brown, p. 450; Salvado, p. 278. Compare besides Westermarck, H.H.M. , p. 440, and the references given there. Pp. 63 , 64 . Levirate. Cf. Westermarck, H.H.M. , p. 510, for Australian references and for the exposition and criticism of different theories concerning this custom. Pp. 64-66 . Divorce is mentioned by Roth ( Bull. 10, pp. 11, 12). Usually the man repudiates or gives away his wife. Pp. 82-84 . Marital affection. Mutual attachment and love between man and wife is stated explicitly by Roth ( Bull. 10, § 17). It plays an important part in marriage arrangements (marriage by elopement). That love must be prevalent among the Australian savages is shown also by the different love charms they possess. (Compare, for instance, above, p. 41, footnote 9 ).—Compare Westermarck, H.H.M. , p. 359, where Australian references are given, and Chap. XVI. pp. 356 sqq. , where the problem in general is discussed. Pp. 84-88 . Mourning and burial. In Roth, Bull. 9, pp. 366, 367, we read that only after the elaborate mourning and burial ceremonies have been finished and the dead man's spirit appeased and got rid of, is the widow allowed to remarry. On pp. 394, 396 and 402, we read that the widow and widower have the greatest share in these ceremonies. P. 381 recounts the severe ordeals that a widow and widower have to undergo. Unfortunately it it impossible to enter here into the many details given by Roth which strongly confirm the views expressed above, in Chap. III . From the description of mourning and burial customs among some tribes of New South Wales, given by Mr. R. H. Mathews, it appears that the widow has long and toilsome mourning duties; she is specially adorned, she may not go out hunting, and has to chant customary lamentation for several months ( Eth. Notes , pp. 71, 72). P. 93, footnote 4 and p. 107 . Incest. Roth affirms that incest is absolutely never perpetrated in the North Queensland tribes ( Bull. 10, pp. 2, 3). Pp. 108-123 . Pirrauru not a group marriage. Mr. A. Lang gives an excellent criticism of the view that Pirrauru is a survival of ancient promiscuity. Still less tenable, of course, is the view that it is actual group marriage. Lang, The Secret of the Totem , Chap. III.—A similar view has been expounded by Mr. Crawley, loc. cit. , pp. 475-483. Pp. 168 sqq. Necessity of adapting sociological concepts to the social and psychological conditions of the given society. "It is only in early modes of thought that we can find the explanation of ceremonies and systems which originated in primitive society; and, if ceremony and system are the concrete forms in which human relations are expressed, an examination, ethnological and psychological, of human relations is indispensable for inquiry into human institutions." And, speaking of some previous inquiries into human kinship, the same author adds: "They have interpreted primitive custom by ideas which are far from primitive, which, in fact, are relatively late and belong to the legal stage of human culture. The attribution of legal conceptions to primitive thought has had the usual effect of a priori theory, and has checked inquiry" (Crawley, loc. cit. , p. 1). The second phrase covers in particular the views expounded above, pp. 185 sqq. P. 170 . Social factors of kinship. "Habitual proximity and contact is the strongest and most ordinary tie, and is earlier in thought than the tie of blood" (Crawley, loc. cit. , p. 452). P. 175 . Collective mind. This expression does not postulate the existence of any metaphysical entity—any mysterious spiritual medium, independent of any human brains. Of course every psychological process takes place in an individual mind. This term is an abbreviation for denoting the ensemble of "collective ideas" and "collective feelings." And by these are expressed such mental facts as are peculiar to a certain society, and at the same time embodied in and expressed by its institutions. For sociological purposes psychological facts must be treated from a special point of view, and, to emphasize that , the adjective "collective" seems appropriate. Compare p. 192, footnote 1 . Pp. 179-182 . Absence of social consanguinity in primitive societies. "The strong conception of the tie of blood, best seen in feudal and semi-civilized societies, is by no means so strong in primitive culture" (Crawley, loc. cit. , p. 451). P. 183 . The meaning of "kinship" ought not to be restricted to any special set of ideas. "'Kinship' in primitive thought is a vaguer term than in later culture ... because the tie of blood had not attained prominence over looser ties of contact" (Crawley, loc. cit. , p. 451). Pp. 183 , 184 . Couvade. An extensive bibliography on this subject is forthcoming in Zeitschr. f. Ethnol. Band 43. Heft iii. and iv., pp. 560-63. Berlin, 1911. Pp. 260-262 . Young females monopolized by old men. Besides the statements set forth in the text, I find three more collected by Prof. Webster referring to the Queenslanders (Lumholtz), to the West Australians (Frogatt), and to the Australians in general (J. Matthew) ( loc. cit. , pp. 70, 71). Among the tribes of Northern Queensland infant betrothal widely prevails; "the old men usually getting the pick" (Roth, Bull. 10, pp. 3-7). Pp. 262 sqq. The bachelors' camp is mentioned by Roth ( Bull. 10, p. 4). Pp. 272 , 273 . Relations between brothers and sisters. Mr. Crawley has shown that avoidance between brother and sister, rooted in apprehensions of mutual danger is the rule among savages. This is corroborated by the scanty Australian evidence we possess. (See M.R. , passim ; for references see Index under "Brother and Sister"). Pp. 283-286 . Communism in food. An interesting statement of an old explorer concerning the aboriginal communism in food may be adduced here. It refers to the North-Western blacks. "Be it little or much that they get, every one has his part, as well the young and tender as the old and feeble, who are not able to go abroad, as the strong and lusty" (Dampier, loc. cit. , p. 103). BIBLIOGRAPHY I. List of Books used as Ethnographical Sources, referring to the Australian Aborigines. Angas, G. F. : Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand . 2 vols. London, 1847. Barrington, G. : The History of New South Wales, including Botany Bay, Port Jackson, Parramatta, Sidney and all its Dependencies . London, 1802. Basedow, Herbert : "Anthropological Notes on the Western Coastal Tribes of the Northern Territory of South Australia"; in Transactions of the R. Soc. of S. Australia , vol. xxxi. Adelaide, 1907. Bates, Mrs. D. M. : Article in Victorian Geographical Journal , vols. xxiii-xxiv. 1905-1906. Bennett, G. : Wanderings in New South Wales , etc. 2 vols. London, 1834. Beveridge, P. : The Aborigines of Victoria and Riverina . 1 vol. Melbourne, 1889. Bonney, F. : "On some Customs of the Aborigines of the River Darling"; in Journ. Anthr. Inst. , vol. xiii. London, 1884. Browne, J. : "Die Eingeborenen Australiens"; in Petermann's Mittheilungen . Gotha, 1856. Cameron, A. L. P. : "Notes on Some Tribes of New South Wales"; in Journ. Anthr. Inst. , vol. xiv. London, 1885. Campbell, Major : "Geographical Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essington, Northern Australia"; in Journ. of the R. Geog. Soc. , vol. iv. London, 1834. Chauncy : Article in R. B. Smyth's The Aborigines of Victoria , vol. ii. London, 1878. Collins, D. : An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales , 2 vols. London, 1798-1802. Crawley, Ernest : The Mystic Rose . London, 1902. Curr, E. M. : Recollections of Squatting in Victoria . 1 vol. Melbourne, 1883. —— The Australian Race . 4 vols. Melbourne and London, 1886. Dampier, W. : in "Early voyages to ... Australia," by R. H. Major, Hakluyt Society . London, 1859. Dawson, J. : Australian Aborigines . 1 vol. Melbourne, 1881. Dawson, Rob. : The Present State of Australia . London, 1831. Earl, G. W. : "On the Aboriginal Tribes of the North Coast of Australia"; in the Journ. of the R. Geog. Soc. , vol. xvi. London, 1846. Eyre, E. J. : Journals of Expeditions of Discovery into Central Australia and Overland from Adelaide to King George's Sound, in the Years 1840-41. 2 vols. London, 1845. Field Barron : Geographical Memoirs on New South Wales , etc. London, 1825. Fison, L. , and Howitt, A. W. : "From Mother-right to Father-right"; in Journ. Anthr. Inst. , vol. xii. London, 1883. —— Kamilaroi and Kurnai . 1 vol. Melbourne, 1880. Forrest, J. : "On the Natives of Central and Western Australia"; in Journ. Anthr. Inst. , vol. v., pp. 316 sqq. London, 1876. Fraser, J. : The Aborigines of New South Wales. 1 vol. Sydney, 1892. Frazer, J. G. : "Notes on the Aborigines of Australia; Questions of Prof. Frazer, and Answers of Several Correspondents"; in Journ. Anthr. Inst. , vol. xxiv. London, 1894-95. Gason, S. : "The Manners and Customs of the Dieyerie Tribe"; in Woods, The Native Tribes of South Australia . Adelaide, 1879. Gerstaecker, F. : Narrative of a Journey round the World . 3 vols. London, 1853. Gill, T. : "Notes on South Australian Aborigines"; in Proc. R. Geogr. Soc. Australasia. (S. Austr. Branch) , vol. x. Adelaide, 1907-1908, pp. 220 sqq. Gillen, F. : Article in Proc. R.G.S.A. (S. Austr. Branch) , vol. iv. Adelaide, 1889. Green, J. : Article in R. B. Smyth's The Aborigines of Victoria , vol. i. London, 1878. Grey, Sir G. : Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-West and Western Australia during the Years 1837, 1838, 1839 . 2 vols. London, 1841. Gribble, J. B. : Black but Comely . London, 1874. Henderson, John : Excursions and Adventures in N. S. Wales . 2 vols. London, 1851. Hodgkinson, Cl. : Australia from Port Macquarie to Moreton Bay . London, 1845. Hodgson, C. P. : Reminiscences of Australia . London, 1846. Howitt, A. W. : "Australian Group Relations"; in Smithsonian Report , 1883. Washington, 1885. —— On the "Organization of Australian Tribes"; in Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria , vol. i., part ii. Melbourne, 1889. —— "The Dieri and other kindred Tribes of Central Australia"; in Journ. Anthr. Inst. , vol. xx. London, 1891. —— The Native Tribes of South-East Australia . 1 vol. London, 1904. —— "The Native Tribes of South-East Australia"; in Folk-Lore , vol. xvii. London, 1906. —— See also Fison, L. , and Howitt, A. W. Krichauff, F. E. : "The Customs, etc., of the Abdolinga Tribe, Central Australia." Read before the R. Geog. Soc. of Australasia (South Australian Branch), 1886. Proceedings , vol. ii. pp. 33 sqq. and 77 sqq. Kühn : Article in Fison and Howitt's Kamilaroi and Kurnai . Melbourne, 1880. Lang, G. S. : The Aborigines of Australia . Melbourne, 1865. Lang, J. D. : Queensland . London, 1861. Leonhardi, M. von . See Strehlow . Le Souëf : Article in R. B. Smyth's The Aborigines of Victoria , 2 vols. London, 1878. Lumholtz, C. : Among Cannibals . 1 vol. London, 1889. McDougall, A. C. : Article in Science of Man . 1900. Macgillivray, John : Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. "Rattlesnake," etc. 2 vols. London, 1852. Mathew, J. : Two Representative Tribes of Queensland (the Kabi and Wakka Tribes) . London, Leipsic, 1910. Mathews, D. : Article in Proc. R.G.S.A. (S. Austr. Branch) , vol. iv. Mathews, R. H. : Numerous short articles in various papers; chiefly Journ. and Proc. R. Soc. N. S. Wales , Amer. Anthropologist , Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. In the present book the articles in the first-named paper have chiefly been used, and an explicit reference in each case is given. Numerous references and bibliographies of his own articles are to be found in Mr. Mathew's publications. Cf. "Ethnological Notes on the Aboriginal Tribes of N. S. Wales and Victoria" (Sydney, 1905); which is a reprint from the Journ. and Proc. R.S.N.S.W. , vol. xxxviii. Sydney, 1904. Meyer, H. E. A. : "Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Encounter Bay Tribe"; in Woods, Native Tribes of South Australia . Adelaide, 1879. Mitchell , Major T. L.: Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia . 2 vols. London, 1838. Moore, G. F. : A descriptive Vocabulary of the Language of Aborigines of Western Australia. London, 1884. Moore-Davies, J. : Article in R. B. Smyth's The Aborigines of Victoria , vol. ii. London, 1878. Morgan, John : Life and Adventures of William Buckley . Hobart, 1852. Newland, S. : "The Parkengees" (Darling Riv.); in Proc. R.G.S.A. (S. Austr. Branch) . vol. ii. 3rd session. Nind, Scott : Description of the Natives of King George's Sound . London, 1831. North Queensland Ethnography (chiefly by W. E. Roth), Bulletins 1-8. Brisbane, 1901-1906. Bulletins 9-18; in Records of the Australian Museum , vols. vi.-viii. Sydney, 1890-1910. Bull. No. 9 in vol. vi. No. 5.—Bull. No. 10 in vol. vii. No. 1.—Bull. No. 11 in vol. vii. No. 2.—Bull. No. 12 in vol. vii. No. 3.—Bull. No. 13 in vol. vii. No. 4.—Bulls. Nos. 14-18 in vol. viii. No. 1. Oldfield, A. : "On the Aborigines of Australia"; in the Transactions of the Ethnological Society , vol. iii. London, 1865. Palmer, E. : "Notes on Some Australian Tribes"; in Journ. Anthr. Inst. , vol. xiii. London, 1884. Parker, Mrs. K. L. : The Euahlayi Tribe . London, 1905. Parkhouse : Article in Reports Austr. Assoc. Adv. Science , vol. vi. Sydney, 1895. Petrie, Tom : Reminiscences . Brisbane, 1905. Phillip, A. : An Authentic and Interesting Narrative , etc. London, 1789. Purcell, B. H. : "The Aborigines of Australia"; in Transactions of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Victorian Branch), vol. xi. Melbourne, 1894. Roth, W. E. : Ethnological Studies among the North-West Central Queensland Aborigines . 1 vol. Brisbane and London, 1897. —— Article in the Proc. of the Royal Society of Queensland , vol. xvii, part II. Brisbane, 1903. —— See under North Queensland Ethnography. Rusden, G. W. : An article in Fison and Howitt's Kamilaroi and Kurnai . Salvado, Rudesindo : Mémoires Historiques sur l'Australie . 1 vol. Paris, 1854. Science of Man and Australasian Anthropological Journal (New Series). Sydney, 1898, etc. Some articles from this series have been used and quoted with detailed references. Schultze, L. : "The Aborigines of the Upper and Middle Fink River"; Transactions of the R. Soc. South Australia , vol. xiv. Part II. Adelaide, 1891. Schürmann, C. W. : "The Aboriginal Tribes of Port Lincoln"; in Woods, Native Tribes of South Australia . Adelaide, 1879. Smyth, R. Brough : The Aborigines of Victoria , 2 vols. Melbourne and London, 1878. Spencer, B. : Notice in Athenæum , Nov. 4, 1911. Spencer, Baldwin , and Gillen, F. J. : The Northern Tribes of Central Australia , 1 vol. London, 1904. —— The Native Tribes of Central Australia . 1 vol. London, 1899. Stähle, Rev. J. H. : Article in Fison and Howitt's Kamilaroi and Kurnai . Stanbridge, W. E. : "General Characteristics ... of the Tribes of the Central Part of Victoria"; in Transactions of the Ethnological Society , vol. i. London, 1861. Strehlow, C. : "Die Aranda und Loritja-Stämme in Zentral-Australien," Bearbeitet von Moritz Freiherrn von Leonhardi; in Veröffentlichungen aus dem städtischen Museum zu Frankfurt . 4 parts. Frankfort on the Main, 1907, etc. Sutton, T. M. : "The Adjahdurah Tribe" (Yorke's Peninsula), Proc. R.G.S.A. (S. Austr. Branch) , vol. ii. 3rd session. Taplin, G. : "The Narrinyeri"; in Wood's Native Tribes . Adelaide, 1879. Tench, W. : A complete Account of the Settlement at Port Jackson in N. S. Wales . London, 1793. Turnbull, John : A Voyage round the World in the Years 1800-1804 . London, 1813. Waitz, T. , and Gerland, G. : Anthropologie der Naturvölker , vol. vi. Leipsic, 1872. Wilhelmi, Charles : "Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives" (Port Lincoln); in the Transactions of the R. S. of Victoria , vol. v. Wilkes, Ch. : Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition . 2 vols. London, 1852. Wilkes, Ch. : Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition , 5 vols. Philadelphia, 1844. Wilson, T. B. : Narrative of a Voyage round the World . London, 1835. Willshire, W. H. : The Aborigines of Central Australia . Adelaide, 1891. Withnell, J. G. : The Customs and Traditions of the Aboriginal Natives of N. W. Australia . Roeburne, 1901. Woods, J. D. : The Native Tribes of South Australia , 1 vol. Adelaide, 1879. Wyatt, W. : "Some Account of the Manners and Superstitions of the Adelaide and Encounter Bay Aboriginal Tribes"; in Wood's Native Tribes of South Australia . Adelaide, 1879. II. List of other Works quoted in the Text. Avebury, Lord : The Origin of Civilization . London, 1902. Bücher, Karl : Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft . Tübingen, 1904. Cunow, H. : Die Verwandtschafts-Organisationen der Australneger . Stuttgart, 1894. Dargun, L. : Mutterrecht und Vaterrecht . Leipsic, 1892. Darwin, Charles : The Descent of Man . London, 1890. Durkheim, Émile : De la division du travail social . Paris, 1893. —— Reviews of books on family; in Année sociologique , vol. i. 1896-97. Paris, 1898. Frazer, J. G. : Totemism and Exogamy . 4 vols. London, 1910. Gennep, Arnold van : Mythes et Légendes d'Australie. Paris, 1906. Giddings, F. H. : The Principles of Sociology . New York, 1896. Gomme, Sir Laurence : "Folklore as an Historical Science"; in The Antiquary's Books . London, 1908. Graebner, F. : Article in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie . 1905. Berlin, 1905. Grosse, Ernst : Die Formen der Familie und die Formen der Wirthschaft. Freiburg i. B. and Leipsic, 1896. Haddon, A. C. : Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits , vols. v. and vi. Cambridge, 1904. Hartland, Edwin Sidney : Primitive Paternity. 2 vols. London, 1909. Kohler, J. : "Über das Recht der Australneger"; in Zeitschr. f. vergleichende Rechtswiss. , vol. vii. Stuttgart. Lang, Andrew : The Secret of the Totem. London, 1905. —— Article in the Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor . Oxford, 1907. —— "The Origin of Terms of Human Relationship"; in Proceedings of the British Academy . London, 1909. Lévy-Bruhl, L. : Les Fonctions mentales dans les sociétés inférieurs. Paris, 1910. MacLennan : Studies in Ancient History. London, 1886. Morgan, L. H. : Ancient Society. London, 1877. —— "Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family"; in Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge , vol. xvii. Washington, 1871. Nieboer, H. J. : Slavery as an Industrial System. The Hague, 1900. Post, A. H. : Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz. 2 vols. Oldenburg and Leipsic, 1894-95. Reitzenstein, Frhr. v. : Article in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie , vol. xli. Berlin. Rivers, W. H. R. : The Todas. London, 1906. —— "On the Origin of the Classificatory System of Relationships"; in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor . Oxford, 1907. —— Several chapters in Reports, Cambridge Expedition , etc. See under Haddon. —— "The Genealogical Method of Anthropological Inquiry"; in Sociological Review , vol. iii. Manchester and London, 1910. Schmidt, Fr. W. : "Die Stellung d. Aranda"; in Zeitschr. f. Ethn. , 1908. Seligmann, C. G. : The Melanesians of British New Guinea. Cambridge, 1910. Steinmetz, S. R. : "Das Verhältnis zwischen Eltern und Kindern bei den Naturvölkern"; in Zeitschr. f. Sozialwissensch. , vol. i. Berlin, 1898. —— "Die neueren Forschungen zur Geschichte der menschlichen Familie"; in Zeitschr. f. Sozialwissensch. , vol. ii. Berlin, 1899. —— Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwickelung der Strafe. 2 vols. Leiden and Leipsic, 1894. Thomas, N. W. : Kinship Organisations and Group Marriage in Australia. Cambridge, 1906. Webster, Hutton : Primitive Secret Societies. New York, 1908. Westermarck, Edward A. : The History of Human Marriage. London, 1901. —— The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas. 2 vols. London, 1908. Wheeler, G. C. : The Tribe, and Intertribal Relations in Australia. With a prefatory note by E. A. Westermarck. London, 1910. INDEX Abduction, considered as a crime, 38 , 39 , 41 , 55 Adoption, alternative for infanticide, 247 Adultery, punishment of, 92-97 , 99 , 103 , 124 Affection : Between husband and wife, 68 , 70-74 , 82-84 , 307 Parental, 191-197 , 238-257 , 269-272 , 299 Aggregation, social, its influences, 132-134 Alatunja: Head of local group, 143 Position hereditary among the Arunta, 225-226 Alcheringa ancestors, reincarnation belief, 214 , 215 , 218 , 221 Allotment of females, its consequences, 60 . See also Infant Betrothal Altjira, term explained, 215 Ancestors, reincarnation beliefs discussed, 212-233 Angas, G. F., on—marriage customs, 261 ; maternal love, 239 ; mode of living, 138 ; relations between husband and wife, 70 ; women's work, 276 Animism, fatherhood as determined by animistic ideas, 227-229 Anjea, supernatural being, 228 Annihilation, aboriginal belief in, asserted, 215-216 Anula, tribe: Marriage customs, 42 , 51 Reincarnation and kinship ideas, 220 Aralkililima ceremony, 85 Arunta nation: Camping rules, 265 Ceremonial licence, 106 Division of labour, 278 Hereditary position of Alatunja, 225-226 Infanticide and motive for, 236 Marriage customs, 41-42 Mourning ceremonies, 85-86 Procreation and reincarnation beliefs, 209 , 212 , 216 , 220-221 Relations of husband and wife, 72 Treatment of children, 244-245 Tribal government, 13 Atninga, avenging party, 13 Authority: Marital, 67 , 68-74 , 76 , 77-79 , 302 Parental, 254-256 See also Law Avebury, Lord, on primitive law, 10 Bachelors' camp, 164 , 262-269 Bahumul, form of betrothal, 40 Bangerang tribe: Camping rules, 263 Marriage customs, 37 , 258 , 260 Mode of living, 137 , 154 , 155 , 156 , 159 Relations between husband and wife, 69 Treatment of children, 238-239 , 248-249 Banks Islanders, determination of paternity, 180 Barrington, George, on marriage customs, 40 ; on mode of living, 162 Bates, Mrs. D. M., on—infanticide, 236 ; procreation beliefs, 227 ; sexual aspect of marriage, 99 ; tribal divisions and ownership of land, 147-148 Bennett, G., on—infanticide, 235 ; treatment of children, 241 Betrothal: Evidence in favour of a ceremony, 52 - 53 , 61-62 Individual appropriation affirmed by, 296 Legal aspect, 57 , 60 Prevalence of custom, 48 , 66 , 306 Statements of authorities, 36-48 Beveridge, P., on—mode of living, 161 ; sexual relations, 93 Bidwelli tribe, no initiation ceremonies, 262 Binbinga tribe: Marriage customs, 42 , 43 , 50 , 51 Reincarnation and kinship ideas, 220 Birth. See Procreation Blood relationship. See Consanguinity Bonney, T., on—parental affection, 270 ; relations between husband and wife, 70 Boundaries, tribal, 136-157 Brother and sister , relations between, 272-273 , 309 Browne, J., on sexual division of labour, 281 Buckley, William, treatment by the natives, 222 , 271 Bulmer, J., on marriage customs, 36 Burial ceremonies: Description of and deductions from, 84-88 Duties and behaviour of relatives, 271-272 , 308 Cameron, H. L. P., on sexual aspect of marriage, 95 Campbell, Major, on tribal divisions, 146 Camps: Bachelor, statements and remarks, 164 , 262-269 Customs regulating, 158-167 , 298 Unmarried females, 104 , 266 Capture, marriage by, 40 , 41 , 53-55 , 58 Celibacy, female, 104 , 266 Ceremonies: Betrothal, individual appropriation affirmed by, 296 ; legal aspect of, 57 , 60 ; statements of authorities and deductions from, 37 , 38 , 42 , 43-44 , 48-50 , 52-53 , 61-62 , 66 , 306 Initiation, age of commencement and duration, 259 , 262-269 ; education of boys begun at, 256-257 ; sexual promiscuity in connection with, 97-99 , 104 , 105-106 , 129 Licence practised at, 105-107 , 123 Marriage, a breaking of the taboo, 305 ; ideas embodied in, 61 , 307 ; individual appropriation affirmed by, 296 ; statements of authors and deductions from, 42-44 , 52-53 , 61-62 , 306-307 Mourning and burial, description of, and their meaning, 84-88 , 271-272 , 308 ; proof of strength of marriage tie, 296 ; scars self-inflicted by women, 72 Chastity, how regarded, 104-105 , 125 , 178 Chauncy, Ph., on treatment of children, 246 Chepara tribe: Communism in food, 284 Mourning customs, 271 Children. See Parent and child Choi, term explained, 145 Class taboo, theory of origin, 288-289 Collective feelings, 191-192 , 197-198 Collective ideas, 192-198 Collective mind, explanation of term, 175 , 308-309 Collins, D., on—authority of husbands, 71 ; infanticide, 236 ; land ownership, 141 ; mode of living, 161-162 Communism: Food, 283-286 , 289-290 , 300 , 309 In mode of living, instances, 160 Suckling and rearing children, remarks on, 234 , 236-237 Consanguinity : Absence (in the sociological sense) of tie in primitive societies, 179-182 , 209 , 217 , 232 , 309 Analysis of concepts of, 176-185 , 204-207 Claim to kinship on basis of, in certain tribes, 231 Definition, 182 Coombangree tribe, tribal divisions, 142-143 Corroborees, licence at, 106-107 Cotertie, marriage custom, 46 Councils, tribal, authority exercised by, 12-13 Couvade custom, 183-184 , 309 ; similar customs in Australia, 225 , 226 Crawley, on religious side of human relations, 305-309 Curr, E. M., on—camping rules, 263 ; economics of family life, 275-276 ; kinship, 3 , 5 ; marriage customs, 4 , 258 , 259 ; mode of living, 137-138 , 159-160 ; parental affection, 269 ; relations between husband and wife, 69 , 82 ; sexual aspect of marriage, 92-93 ; treatment of children, 238-239 Dargun, Prof. L., on kinship, 188-189 Dawson, J., on—camping rules, 264 ; communism in food, 284 ; economics of family life, 275 ; relations between husband and wife, 69-70 , 78 ; sexual aspect of marriage, 93 Dawson, R., on—mode of living, 160 , 163 ; parental affection, 195 , 269 ; relations between husband and wife, 72 ; treatment of children, 242 Defloration of girls at initiation ceremonies , 42-43 , 98 , 104 , 105-106 , 129 Dieri tribe: Chiefs, 12 Ignorance of physiological fatherhood inferred, 128 Infanticide and motive for, 236 Marriage customs, 41 , 261 Mode of living, 154 , 156 Mourning ceremonies, 88 Parental affection, 195-196 Pinya party of, 13 Pirrauru custom, 108-109 , 117-118 Sexual aspect of marriage, 96 , 105 Treatment of children, 238 Tribal divisions, 143 Division of labour. See under Labour Divorce , mention of, 62 , 64-66 , 69 , 78 , 307 Durkheim, Émile, on—importance of social regulations, 300-301 ; kinship, 204 ; primitive law, 10 ; sexual division of labour, 289 Dwellings , statements and deductions from, 158-167 Economics of family life, 274-291 , 299-300 Education: At bachelor camps, 263-264 , 267 Initiation the beginning of, 256-257 Parental, discussed, 241 , 242-243 , 245 , 246 , 256-257 Elopement: Individual appropriation affirmed by, 295 Punishment for, 36-46 , 55-58 , 66 , 92 , 103 , 295 Sexual love denoted by, 83 Statements of authors and deductions from, 36 , 41-47 , 55-58 , 66 Emotional side of kinship. See Affection Euahlayi tribe: Authority of grandparents, 270 Camping rules, 265 Communism in food, 285 Marriage customs, 40 , 61 , 261 Sexual aspect of marriage, 95-96 , 102 , 103 Treatment of wives, 72 Exchange, mode of obtaining wives: Effect on treatment of wives, 81-82 Form of marriage by purchase, 50-52 , 58-59 Individual appropriation affirmed by, 296 Prevalence of custom, 48-49 Statements of authors, 36-38 , 41-44 , 47 Eyre, E. J., on—marriage customs, 261 ; mode of living, 139 , 160-161 ; relations between husband and wife, 70 Family: Analysis of family life a necessity, 6-9 , 206 Customs regulating social life, 158-167 Economic facts connected with, 274-291 Evidence, method of dealing with, 17-33 Husband and wife, 67-88 Importance in marriage contracts, 49-50 , 57 Individual appropriation proved, 295-304 Kinship, discussion of, 168-233 Legal aspect, 300-302 Mode of living, 132-167 Mode of obtaining wives, 33-66 Parents and children, 234-273 Scope of work and difficulties, 1-17 , 292-294 Sexual aspect of marriage, 89-131 Social units discussed, 132-135 , 136-167 Fatherhood. See Paternity Fire-sticks, carrying of, by women, 275 , 276 , 278 , 279 Fison, L., on—kinship, 203 ; marriage, 3 Folk-lore, kinship ideas suggested by, 207-233 Food: Acceptance by a woman from a man belief, 229-230 Bachelor camp rules, 263 , 267 Communism in, 283-286 , 289-290 , 309 Customs regulating the taking of meals, 159 , 163-164 , 166 Distribution among the family, 288-289 Division of labour in providing, 275-290 Taboos, 15 , 279 Forrest, John, on—marriage customs, 44-45 ; sexual division of labour, 280 Fraser, Dr. John, on—mode of living, 142 ; parental affection, 270 ; relations between brothers, 272 ; relations between husband and wife, 72 ; sexual division of labour, 277-278 ; treatment of children, 242-243 Frazer, Prof. J. G., on—kinship, 189-190 ; procreation beliefs, 226 ; social life of the aborigines, 156 ; totemic conception, 211 Frodsham, Dr., on procreation beliefs, 226 Game, statements on division of, 285-286 Gason, S., on—infanticide, 236 ; Pirrauru custom, 117-118 ; relation between brother and sister, 272 ; treatment of children, 243 Geawe Gal tribe: Marriage customs, 39 , 261 Sexual aspect of marriage, 95 Gennep, A. van, on folk-lore, 208 ; on kinship, 204 Giddings, F. H., on mode of living, 132-133 Gifts at marriage, 50-52 Gillen, F. See Spencer, Baldwin, and Gillen Gnanji tribe: Marriage customs, 43 Reincarnation beliefs, 218-219 Gomme, Sir Laurence, on kinship, 182 , 202 , 205-206 Gournditch Mara tribe: Chiefs, 12 Communism in food, 284 Marriage customs, 36 Mode of living, 159 Government, tribal : Existence of, 11-17 Intervention between husband and wife, 79 Marriage contracts supervised by, 57-58 Pirrauru relation authorised by, 110 Grey, Sir G., on—camping rules, 266 ; marriage customs, 64 , 65 ; mode of living, 164 ; relation between brother and sister, 273 ; sexual aspect of marriage, 99 ; treatment of children, 249 ; tribal divisions and ownership of land, 146-147 Gribble, Rev. J. B., on communism in food, 285 Grosse, E., criticism of Howitt's statements, 4 Group marriage: Existence in Australia discussed, 30 , 89 , 113-115 Relation of the Pirrauru custom to, 108-123 , 308 Hartland, E. S., on kinship, 201-202 ; on paternity, 181 , 208 Headmen, authority exercised by, 12-13 Henderson, John, on mode of living, 162 Hereditary positions, 225-226 Hodgkinson, Cl., on relations between husband and wife, 72 ; on tribal divisions, 142 Hodgson, C. P., on relations between husband and wife, 71 Howitt, A. W., on—economic side of family life, 275 ; group marriage, 4-5 , 30 , 109 , 113-114 , 121 ; kinship, 1-2 , 203 ; marriage customs, 261 , 262-263 ; mode of living, 136-137 ; parental affection, 195 ; Pirrauru custom, 108-112 , 117 , 120 ; relations between husband and wife, 68 , 81 ; sexual relations, 92 , 101 ; treatment of children, 238 , 241 Husband and wife : Affection between, existence of, 82-84 Authority of husband, 76 , 77-79 , 302 Bond created by affection for children, 253-254 , 299 Division of labour, 274-291 Individual relationship between, proved, 295-298 Mourning and burial ceremonies and their meaning, 84-88 Obligations of husband, 62-65 Parental aspect. See Parent and child Sexual aspect of marriage, 89-131 Statements of authors on relations between, 67-76 Treatment of wife, 76 , 79-84 See also Wives and Women Huts. See Dwellings Iliaura tribes, ceremonial licence, 106 Illapurinja party, 13 Infant betrothal : Legal aspect, 57 , 60 Prevalence of custom, 48 , 66 Statements of authorities, 37-40 , 44-47 Infanticide: Adoption of child an exceptional alternative, 247 Reasons assigned for, 216 , 235-236 Inheritance, instances of, and discussion on, 136 , 137 , 290-291 , 301 Initiation ceremonies : Age of commencement and duration, 259 , 262-269 Beginning of education of boys, 256-257 Girls, of. See Defloration of Girls Sexual promiscuity at, 97-99 , 104 , 105-106 , 129 Jajaurung tribe, marriage customs, 38 Jealousy, sexual: Existence discussed, 92-100 , 102 , 124-131 , 297-298 Isolation of the family caused by, 159 , 163 , 164 Kabi tribe: Infanticide and motive for, 236 Marriage customs, 262 Relations of husband and wife, 73 Sexual aspect of marriage, 98 Treatment of children, 245 Tribal divisions and mode of living, 144 , 154 , 155 , 163 Kafirs, ideas on procreation, 180 Kaitish tribe: Ceremonial licence, 106 Mourning ceremonies, 86 Reincarnation belief, 216 Kamilaroi tribe, sexual aspect of marriage, 95 , 103 Karamundi tribes, communism in food, 284 Kinship : Aboriginal collective ideas, 171 , 183 , 207-233 , 309 Affection of parents, 191-197 Contradictions in authorities, 1-7 Definition aimed at, 8 Legal aspect, 185-191 Meaning generally attached to term, 170-178 Organisations creating group relationship, not dealt with, 303 Protection of wives by their relatives, 78 , 79 Relatives' part in mourning ceremonies, 88 Social factors, 170 , 308 Sociologists' application of concept, 200-206 Theoretical analysis, 168-207 Kohler, J., on primitive law, 10 Kühn, Rev. J., on customs of Turra tribe, 264 Kuinmurbura tribe, marriage customs, 43 , 52 Kulin tribe: Chiefs, 12 Procreation ideas, 231 Kurdaitcha party, 13 Kurnai tribe: Authority of grandparents, 270 Camping rules, 262-263 Communism in food, 283-284 Economics of family life, 275 Magic and its effect on sexual relations, 129 Marriage customs, 36 , 47 , 51 , 55 , 56 , 258 Mode of living, 136 , 154 , 155 , 158-159 , 162 Relations between husband and wife, 68 Sexual aspect of marriage, 92 , 101 , 103 , 105 Treatment of children by their parents, 238 Labour , sexual division of, 274-290 , 299 Land ownership : Conclusions from, 300 Form of, 150-157 Inheritance discussed, 290-291 Statements of authorities, 135 , 136-149 Use of term defined, 135 Lang, Andrew, on kinship, 3 , 7 Lang, G. S., on treatment of children, 242 Lang, J. D., on sexual aspect of marriage, 98 Larrekiya tribe, procreation ideas, 230 Law , primitive: Authority of husband over his wife, 76-79 , 297 , 302 Definition of concept, 9-17 Family governed by social rules, 300-301 Marriage and its social sanction, 35-36 , 56-66 , 307 Paternal authority discussed, 185-191 , 254-256 Leonhardi, Frhr. von, on folk-lore, 208 , 212-213 Levirate, prevalence of, and conclusions drawn from, 38 , 46 , 49 , 63-64 , 104 , 307 Lévy-Bruhl, M., on folk-lore, 214 Licence, sexual. See under Sexual Life Local group : Description as a tribal division, 143-144 Land ownership, 136-157 Mode of living, 158-167 Social unit, 136-157 Use of term defined, 135 Lumholtz, C., on—marriage customs, 64-65 ; relations of husband and wife, 73 ; sexual division of labour, 279 MacLennan, J. F., on kinship, 200-201 Magic: Mode of obtaining wives, 14 , 41 , 55 , 58 , 62 , 97 Punishment by means of, 10 , 13 Sexual intercourse influenced by belief in, 129-130 Mara tribe: Marriage customs, 42 , 43 , 51 Reincarnation and kinship ideas, 220 Marriage: Affection in, 82-84 Age of girls, 257-259 Breaking the taboo necessary, 305 Contradictions of authorities, 2-3 , 3-5 Definition, 34-35 Defloration ceremony, 42-43 , 98 , 104 , 105-106 , 129 Disparity of age, 259-262 Duration, length of, 64-66 Ideas embodied in ceremonies, 61-62 , 307 Individual appropriation proved by evidence, 59 , 295-298 Legal aspect, 8 , 35 , 56-66 , 307 Modes of obtaining wives, 35-66 Mourning rites of widows, 84-88 Pirrauru relation distinguished from, 109-123 Prevalence of ceremonies, statements, 52-53 , 61-62 , 306-307 Sexual aspect, 89-131 See also Husband and wife , Parent and child , Purchase marriages Maternity: Definition of individual motherhood, 173 Relative unimportance of physiological motherhood, 230-232 See also Parent and Child Mathew, Rev. J., on—marriage, 4 ; mode of living, 163 ; sexual division of labour, 278-279 Mathews, R. H., on—Communism in food, 285 ; hereditary offices, 225 ; reincarnation beliefs, 212 ; tribal divisions, 144 Meyer, H. E. A., on sexual division of labour, 277 Mitchell, Major T. L., on—relations between husband and wife, 70 ; treatment of children, 240 ; women's work, 276-277 Moore, G. F., on—marriage customs, 46 ; on sexual division of labour, 280 Moore-Davies, J., on mode of living, 161 ; on sexual licence, 94 Morgan, John, on—kinship, 200 ; use of terms kinship and consanguinity, 171 Mourning ceremonies: Description of, and deductions from, 84-88 , 308 Duties of relatives, 271-272 Proof of strength of marriage ties, 296 Scars self-inflicted by women, 72 Mukjarawaint tribe: Authority of grandparents, 254-255 , 270 Communism in food, 284 Murring tribe: Communism in food, 284 Mode of living, 136 , 154 , 159 , 162 Sexual life, 92 Treatment of children, 241 Murrumbidgee tribes, treatment of children, 241 Nanarree, form of betrothal, 40 Narran-ga tribe, communism in food, 284 Narrinyeri tribe: Communism in food, 285 Marriage customs, 38 , 52 Mode of living, 139-140 , 155 Relation between husband and wife, 70-71 Sexual aspect of marriage, 94 , 105 Naudowessies, ideas on procreation, 180 Ngarigo tribe, camping rules, 263 Ngura-mundu custom, 96 Nieboer, H. J., on relation between husband and wife, 75-76 Nind , Scott, on sexual aspect of marriage, 100 ; on tribal divisions, 148-149 Oldfield, A., on—relation between brother and sister, 272-273 ; sexual aspect of marriage, 99 ; treatment of children, 246 Orphans, adoption of, 242 Palmer, E., on—relation of husband and wife, 73 ; treatment of children, 245-246 ; tribal boundaries, 145 Parent and child : Aboriginal ideas of procreation and their influence, 128-129 , 176-183 , 206 , 208-233 Affection and its effect on their relations, 191-197 , 269-272 , 299 Authority of father, 254-256 Characteristic features of relationship, 299 Early separation from parental control, 257-269 , 299 Jealousy on question of paternity discussed, 127-129 Kinship, discussion, 171-233 Mode of living impresses relation to actual parent, 167 Pirrauru relationship, 117-118 Suckling and rearing children, bond created by, 234-237 Treatment of children, 238-257 Parkengee tribe, marriage customs, 38 Parker, Mrs., on—marriage customs, 261 ; procreation beliefs, 227 Paternity : Aboriginal ideas on procreation and kinship discussed, 128 , 179-183 , 208-233 Bond established by rearing of children, 237 Definition of term, 173 See also Parent and Child Patria potestas : Definition, 254 Not applicable to conditions of Australian aborigines, 1 86 , 187-191 Pinnaru, Council of, 13 Pinya party, 13 Piraungaru custom, 96 , 115 Pirrauru custom: Account of, and its relation to individual marriage, 96 , 108-123 , 298 Not a group marriage, 108-123 , 308 Pointing the bone, form of punishment, 10 Polygyny, prevalence of, 63 , 307 Post, A. H., on primitive law, 10 Potestas. See Patria potestas Procreation , aboriginal ideas discussed, 175 , 176-183 , 206 , 208-233 Property in land. See Land ownership Puberty: Boys' initiation at. See Initiation Ceremonies Marriage of girls at, 257-259 Rites undergone by girls at, 105-106 Punishment: Abduction, 38 , 39 , 41 , 55 Adultery, 92-97 , 99 , 103 , 124 Elopement, 36 , 38 , 39 , 41-46 , 55-58 , 66 , 92 , 103 , 295 Magic as a means of, 10 , 13 Marriage of men under thirty, 259 , 262 Various modes of punishment, 14-15 Purchase marriages : Marriage by exchange, a form of, 50-52 Proof of individual marriage, 59 Reincarnation of ancestors, aboriginal ideas and beliefs discussed, 212-233 Relationship. See Kinship Repudiation of wives. See Divorce Rivers, W. H. R., on kinship, 6-7 , 202-203 Roth, W. E., on—camping rules, 266 ; folk-lore, 227 ; food taboos, 279 ; kinship, 225 ; marriage customs, 306-309 ; mode of living, 163 ; mourning ceremonies, 88 ; origin of class taboo, 288-289 ; relation between husband and wife, 73-74 ; tribal divisions, 145 Rusden, G. W., on relations between husband and wife, 72 Salvado, R., on—affection for parents, 271 ; camping rules, 266 ; marriage customs, 45 , 64 , 65 , 259 ; mode of living, 164 ; relation between husband and wife, 74 ; sexual aspect of marriage, 99-100 ; treatment of children, 246-247 ; tribal divisions and ownership of land, 147 Schultze, L., on marriage customs, 41 Schürmann, C. W., on—mode of living, 162 ; sexual aspect of marriage, 94 Scott Nind. See Nind Separation of husband and wife, 69 . See also Divorce Sexual life: Aboriginal ideas on procreation discussed, 175 , 176-183 , 206 , 208-233 Ceremonial licence, 105-107 , 123 Chastity, how regarded, 104-105 , 125 , 178 Elopement a proof of sexual love, 83-84 Jealousy, existence discussed, 124-131 Pirrauru custom, 108-123 Relative unimportance for unity of family, 299-300 Rights and restrictions of the husband, 101-103 , 112 , 126-127 , 297-298 , 300 Statements of authorities, 89-101 Subject to rules, 123 , 305 Young females monopolized by old men, 260-262 , 309 Sister and brother. See Brother and Sister Smyth, R. Brough, on mode of living, 161 ; on treatment of children, 239-240 Society, primitive: Collective mind, explanation of term, 175 , 308-309 Early modes of thought the only manner of explanation, 168-169 , 308 Kinship as affected by social conditions, 175-207 Manner of influencing an institution, 300-301 Unit of aboriginal society, problem discussed, 1-17 Spencer, Baldwin, and Gillen , F., on—folk-lore, 208 , 211 , 212 , 216 , 220 , 225 , 226 ; food customs, 285 ; kinship, 2 , 3 , 5 ; marriage customs, 41-43 ; mode of living, 163 ; mourning ceremonies, 85-88 , 272 ; Pirrauru custom, 108 , 115 , 117 , 120 ; relation between brother and sister, 273 ; treatment of children, 243-244 ; tribal divisions, 143 Stanbridge, W. E., on marriage customs, 38 Strehlow, Herr C., on folk-lore, 208 , 210-215 Suckling of children, bond established by, 234-237 Taboo: Breaking of, necessary for marriage, 305 Class, theory of origin, 288-289 Food, 15 , 279 Paternal, during pregnancy of wife, 225 Taplin, G., on relation between husband and wife, 70 Tench, W., on—marriage customs, 40 ; relation between husband and wife, 71 ; sexual division of labour, 277 ; sexual licence, 95 Theddora tribe, chiefs, 12 Thomas, N. W., on—kinship, 7 , 187 ; marriage, 91 ; Pirrauru custom, 119 Tippa Malku marriage, 41 , 96 , 110 Tjinjilli tribe, marriage customs, 43 Todas, determination of paternity, 180 Tongaranka tribe: Chief, 12 Mourning customs, 271 Torres Straits Islanders, kinship of, 203 Totems: Ideas on conception and birth connected with, 208-233 Totemic centres, statements on, 146 , 153 Tribal government. See Government, Tribal Tribe: Local group as subdivision of. See Local Group Social divisions of, 136-157 , 298 Use of term defined, 134 Tualcha Mura marriage custom, 41 , 42 , 50 , 261 Turnbull, John, on—marriage customs, 39 ; mode of living, 141 ; relation between husband and wife, 71 ; sexual aspect of marriage, 95 ; treatment of children, 242 Turra tribe: Marriage customs, 264 Mode of living, 162 Sexual aspect of marriage, 94 , 101 , 103 , 105 Turrubul tribe, customs, 285-286 Umbaia tribe, reincarnation beliefs, 218-219 Unmatjera tribe: Mourning ceremonies, 86 Reincarnation belief, 216 Urabunna tribe: Ignorance of physiological fatherhood, 128 Pirrauru custom, 108 , 115 , 118 Reincarnation belief, 212 , 216 Sexual aspect of marriage, 96 Treatment of children, 243-244 Wakelbura tribe, marriage customs, 44 , 56 Wakka tribe: Infanticide and motive for, 236 Marriage customs, 262 Relations between husband and wife, 73 Sexual aspect of marriage, 98 Treatment of children, 245 Tribal divisions and mode of living, 144 , 154 , 155 , 163 Warramunga tribe: Ceremonial licence, 106-107 Marriage customs, 42 , 43 Mourning ceremonies, 85 , 86 Reincarnation belief, 212 , 217 Watchandee tribe: Communism in food, 286 Marriage customs, 45 Westermarck, Prof. E. A., on—chastity among uncivilized people, 178 ; kinship, 205 ; marriage, 3-4 , 34-35 ; sexual jealousy, 125 ; study of family life, 134 Wheeler, G. C., on sociology of aborigines, 133 White men, believed to be ghosts of relatives, 222-224 Wife. See Wives , below Wiimbaio tribe: Chiefs, 12 Mourning customs, 271 Wilhelmi, C., on sexual aspect of marriage, 94 Wilkes, Charles, on sexual aspect of marriage, 95 Willshire, W. H., on sexual aspect of marriage, 97 Wiradjuri tribe: Chiefs, 12 Communism in food, 284 Marriage customs, 41 Procreation ideas, 230 Women's work, 277 Withnell, J. G., on tribal divisions, 146 Wives : Economic functions, 67 Exchange of, statements, 92-95 , 98 , 101 , 102-103 Modes of obtaining, 35-66 , 295 Obligations of the husbands, 62-65 See also Husband and Wife and Women Woeworung tribe, marriage customs, 37 , 52 Wogait tribe, procreation ideas, 230 Wolgal tribe: Camping rules, 263 Communism in food, 284 Marriage customs, 261 Procreation ideas, 231 Women : Condition of drudgery and servitude, 274-290 Licence among the unmarried, 266-267 Scars self-inflicted at mourning ceremonies, 72 , 86 See also Husband and Wife and Wives Wotjobaluk tribe: Communism in food, 284 Marriage customs, 37-38 , 50 Sexual aspect of marriage, 93 , 101 , 103 , 105 Wurrunjeri tribe: Communism in food, 284 Mode of living, 137 , 159 Wuurn, term explained, 160 Wyatt, W., on treatment of children, 241 Yantruwunta tribe, Pirrauru custom, 108 Yerkla-Mining tribe: Communism in food, 285 Sexual aspect of marriage, 94-95 , 102 Yuin tribe: Chiefs, 12 Marriage customs, 36 , 50 , 52 , 56 Procreation ideas, 231

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