ABSTRACT
Abstract
A lithium ion battery cell includes a housing, a cathode disposed within the housing, wherein the cathode comprises a cathode active material, an anode disposed within the housing, wherein the anode comprises an anode active material, and an electrolyte disposed within the housing and in contact with the cathode and anode. The electrolyte consists essentially of a solvent mixture, a lithium salt in a concentration ranging from approximately 1.0 molar (M) to approximately 1.6 M, and an additive mixture. The solvent mixture includes a cyclic carbonate, an non-cyclic carbonate, and a linear ester. The additive mixture consists essentially of lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB) in an amount ranging from approximately 0.5 wt % to approximately 2.0 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte, and vinylene carbonate (VC) in an amount ranging from approximately 0.5 wt % to approximately 2.0 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte.
Description
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
This application claims priority from and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/936,067, entitled âELECTROYLYTES WITH ESTER CO-SOLVENTS AND ADDITIVES FOR INPROVED WIDE OPERATING TEMPERATURE RANGEâ, filed Feb. 5, 2014, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes.
STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract, and is subject to the provisions of Public Law 96-517 (35 USC § 202) in which the Contractor has elected to retain title.
BACKGROUND
The present disclosure relates generally to the field of lithium-ion batteries and battery modules. More specifically, the present disclosure relates to battery cells that may be used in vehicular contexts, as well as other energy storage/expending applications.
This section is intended to introduce the reader to various aspects of art that may be related to various aspects of the present disclosure, which are described and/or claimed below. This discussion is believed to be helpful in providing the reader with background information to facilitate a better understanding of the various aspects of the present disclosure. Accordingly, it should be understood that these statements are to be read in this light, and not as admissions of prior art.
A vehicle that uses one or more battery systems for providing all or a portion of the motive power for the vehicle can be referred to as an xEV, where the term âxEVâ is defined herein to include all of the following vehicles, or any variations or combinations thereof, that use electric power for all or a portion of their vehicular motive force. For example, xEVs include electric vehicles (EVs) that utilize electric power for all motive force. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), also considered xEVs, combine an internal combustion engine propulsion system and a battery-powered electric propulsion system, such as 48 Volt (V) or 130V systems. The term HEV may include any variation of a hybrid electric vehicle. For example, full hybrid systems (FHEVs) may provide motive and other electrical power to the vehicle using one or more electric motors, using only an internal combustion engine, or using both. In contrast, mild hybrid systems (MHEVs) disable the internal combustion engine when the vehicle is idling and utilize a battery system to continue powering the air conditioning unit, radio, or other electronics, as well as to restart the engine when propulsion is desired. The mild hybrid system may also apply some level of power assist, during acceleration for example, to supplement the internal combustion engine. Mild hybrids are typically 96V to 130V and recover braking energy through a belt or crank integrated starter generator. Further, a micro-hybrid electric vehicle (mHEV) also uses a âStop-Startâ system similar to the mild hybrids, but the micro-hybrid systems of a mHEV may or may not supply power assist to the internal combustion engine and operates at a voltage below 60V. For the purposes of the present discussion, it should be noted that mHEVs typically do not technically use electric power provided directly to the crankshaft or transmission for any portion of the motive force of the vehicle, but an mHEV may still be considered as an xEV since it does use electric power to supplement a vehicle's power needs when the vehicle is idling with internal combustion engine disabled and recovers braking energy through an integrated starter generator. In addition, a plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any vehicle that can be charged from an external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the energy stored in the rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels. PEVs are a subcategory of EVs that include all-electric or battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.
xEVs as described above may provide a number of advantages as compared to more traditional gas-powered vehicles using only internal combustion engines and traditional electrical systems, which are typically 12V systems powered by a lead acid battery. For example, xEVs may produce fewer undesirable emission products and may exhibit greater fuel efficiency as compared to traditional internal combustion vehicles and, in some cases, such xEVs may eliminate the use of gasoline entirely, as is the case of certain types of EVs or PEVs.
As xEV technology continues to evolve, there is a need to provide improved power sources (e.g., battery systems or modules) for such vehicles. For example, it is desirable to increase the distance that such vehicles may travel without the need to recharge the batteries. Additionally, it may also be desirable to improve the performance of such batteries and to reduce the cost associated with the battery systems. In particular, it may be desirable for an xEV battery power source to enable operation of the xEV in a number of environments (e.g., high and low temperature environments, humid environments, arid environments).
SUMMARY
The present disclosure relates generally to the field of lithium-ion batteries and battery modules. More specifically, the present disclosure relates to battery cells that may be used in vehicular contexts, as well as other energy storage/expending applications.
In one embodiment, a lithium ion battery cell includes a housing, a cathode disposed within the housing, wherein the cathode comprises a cathode active material, an anode disposed within the housing, wherein the anode comprises an anode active material, and an electrolyte disposed within the housing and in contact with the cathode and anode. The electrolyte consists essentially of a solvent mixture, a lithium salt in a concentration ranging from approximately 1.0 molar (M) to approximately 1.6 M, and an additive mixture. The solvent mixture includes a cyclic carbonate, an non-cyclic carbonate, and a linear ester. The additive mixture consists essentially of lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB) in an amount ranging from approximately 0.5 wt % to approximately 2.0 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte, and vinylene carbonate (VC) in an amount ranging from approximately 0.5 wt % to approximately 2.0 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte.
In another embodiment, a lithium ion battery cell includes a housing, a cathode disposed within the housing, wherein the cathode comprises a cathode active material, an anode disposed within the housing, wherein the anode comprises an anode active material, and an electrolyte disposed within the housing and in contact with the cathode and anode. The electrolyte includes a solvent mixture, a lithium salt in a concentration ranging from approximately 1.0 molar (M) to approximately 1.6 M, and lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB) in an amount ranging from approximately 0.5 wt % to approximately 2.0 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte. The solvent mixture includes a cyclic carbonate, a non-cyclic carbonate, and a linear ester. The cyclic carbonate consists essentially of fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC).
In a further embodiment, a lithium ion battery cell includes a housing, a cathode disposed within the housing, wherein the cathode comprises a cathode active material; an anode disposed within the housing, wherein the anode comprises a titanate-based active material, and an electrolyte disposed within the housing and in contact with the cathode and anode. The electrolyte includes a solvent mixture, a lithium salt in a concentration ranging from approximately 1.0 molar (M) to approximately 1.6 M, and lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB) in an amount ranging from approximately 0.5 wt % to approximately 2.0 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte. The solvent mixture includes a cyclic carbonate, an non-cyclic carbonate, and a linear ester, wherein the cyclic carbonate consists essentially of propylene carbonate (PC).
DRAWINGS
FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an xEV having a battery system configured in accordance with present embodiments to provide power for various components of the xEV, in accordance with an aspect of the present disclosure;
FIG. 2 is a cutaway schematic view of an embodiment of the xEV having a start-stop system that utilizes the battery system of FIG. 1 , the battery system having a lithium ion battery module, in accordance with an aspect of the present disclosure;
FIG. 3 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a lithium ion battery cell having a prismatic configuration;
FIG. 4 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a lithium ion battery cell having a pouch configuration;
FIG. 5 is a plot of area specific impedance (ASI) as a function of percent depth of discharge (% DOD) for battery cells having EC/EMC/MB or FEC/EMC/MB in 20/20/60 vol %, with 1 wt % VC and 0.5 wt % LiBOB;
FIG. 6 is a plot of ASI as a function of % DOD obtained at â25° C. for NMC/graphite battery cells having EC/EMC/DMC/MB (20/30/40/10 vol %), with 1 wt % VC and 0.5 wt % LiBOB or LiDFOB;
FIGS. 7 and 8 are graphs of ASI as a function of % DOD obtained at temperatures of 25° C. and â25° C., respectively, for different battery cells having different electrolyte formulations, where each formulation includes LiDFOB as an additive;
FIGS. 9 and 10 are plots of operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity obtained at â20° C. at a C/5 discharge rate and a 1C discharge rate, respectively, for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 11 and 12 are plots of corresponding anode potential and cathode potential, respectively, for the battery cells having the different electrolyte formulations set forth in FIGS. 9 and 10 ;
FIG. 13 is a plot of operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity obtained at â20° C. at a 4C discharge rate, for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 14 and 15 are plots of corresponding anode potential and cathode potential, respectively, for the battery cells having the different electrolyte formulations set forth in FIG. 13 ;
FIG. 16 is a plot of operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity obtained at â30° C. at a 1C discharge rate, for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 17 and 18 are plots of corresponding anode potential and cathode potential, respectively, for the battery cells having the different electrolyte formulations set forth in FIG. 16 ;
FIGS. 19, 20, and 21 are plots of battery cell impedance, anode impedance, and cathode impedance, respectively, obtained at â25° C. at a 5C discharge rate for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells and associated electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 22, 23, and 24 are plots of battery cell impedance, anode impedance, and cathode impedance, respectively, obtained at â30° C. at a 5C discharge rate for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 25 and 26 are plots of overall battery cell impedance obtained at 25° C. and â25° C., respectively, for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 27 and 28 are plots of operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity and percentage of room temperature capacity, respectively, obtained at â20° C. and a discharge rate of 2C for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 29 and 30 are plots of operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity and percentage of room temperature capacity, respectively, obtained at â20° C. and a discharge rate of 3C for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 31 and 32 are plots of operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity and percentage of room temperature capacity, respectively, obtained at â30° C. and a discharge rate of 3C for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIG. 33 is a plot of discharge capacity as a function of cycle number obtained at 60° C. and a 1C charge/discharge rate for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIG. 34 is a bar graph of percentage of formation capacity as a function of battery cell electrolyte obtained upon performing a charge/discharge cycle at a C/5 rate after 10 day storage at 60° C. for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having the listed formulations;
FIG. 35 is a chart depicting the ASI of different NMC/graphite battery cells as a function of their electrolyte and as a function of time;
FIG. 36 is a plot depicting operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity obtained for an NMC/LTO battery cell having a 1.2M LiPF6+0.1M LiDFOB in FEC/EMC/MB (20:20:60 vol %) electrolyte at different discharge rates at â20° C.;
FIG. 37 is a plot depicting operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity obtained for an NMC/LTO battery cell having a 1.2M LiPF6+0.1M LiDFOB in FEC/EMC/MP (20:20:60 vol %) electrolyte at different discharge rates at â20° C.;
FIG. 38 is a plot of discharge capacity as a function of cycle number obtained at 60° C. and a 1C charge/discharge rate for a plurality of NMC/LTO battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIG. 39 is a chart comparing charge and discharge 10-second internal resistance (IR) obtained at 25° C. for a first NMC/LTO battery cell having a 1.15M LiPF 6 in EC/EMC/DMC/PC (25:30:40:5 vol %)+1 wt % VC, 0.5 wt % LiBOB electrolyte and a second NMC/LTO battery cell having a 1.0M LiPF 6 in PC/EMC/DMC/MB (20:30:40:10 vol %)+1 wt % LiDFOB electrolyte;
FIG. 40 is a chart comparing charge and discharge 10-second power obtained at 25° C. for the first NMC/LTO battery cell having the 1.15M LiPF 6 in EC/EMC/DMC/PC (25:30:40:5 vol %)+1 wt % VC, 0.5 wt % LiBOB electrolyte and the second NMC/LTO battery cell having the 1.0M LiPF 6 in PC/EMC/DMC/MB (20:30:40:10 vol %)+1 wt % LiDFOB electrolyte;
FIG. 41 is a chart comparing charge and discharge 10-second internal resistance (IR) obtained at â25° C. for the first NMC/LTO battery cell having the 1.15M LiPF 6 </su
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
This application claims priority from and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/936,067, entitled âELECTROYLYTES WITH ESTER CO-SOLVENTS AND ADDITIVES FOR INPROVED WIDE OPERATING TEMPERATURE RANGEâ, filed Feb. 5, 2014, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes.
STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract, and is subject to the provisions of Public Law 96-517 (35 USC § 202) in which the Contractor has elected to retain title.
BACKGROUND
The present disclosure relates generally to the field of lithium-ion batteries and battery modules. More specifically, the present disclosure relates to battery cells that may be used in vehicular contexts, as well as other energy storage/expending applications.
This section is intended to introduce the reader to various aspects of art that may be related to various aspects of the present disclosure, which are described and/or claimed below. This discussion is believed to be helpful in providing the reader with background information to facilitate a better understanding of the various aspects of the present disclosure. Accordingly, it should be understood that these statements are to be read in this light, and not as admissions of prior art.
A vehicle that uses one or more battery systems for providing all or a portion of the motive power for the vehicle can be referred to as an xEV, where the term âxEVâ is defined herein to include all of the following vehicles, or any variations or combinations thereof, that use electric power for all or a portion of their vehicular motive force. For example, xEVs include electric vehicles (EVs) that utilize electric power for all motive force. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), also considered xEVs, combine an internal combustion engine propulsion system and a battery-powered electric propulsion system, such as 48 Volt (V) or 130V systems. The term HEV may include any variation of a hybrid electric vehicle. For example, full hybrid systems (FHEVs) may provide motive and other electrical power to the vehicle using one or more electric motors, using only an internal combustion engine, or using both. In contrast, mild hybrid systems (MHEVs) disable the internal combustion engine when the vehicle is idling and utilize a battery system to continue powering the air conditioning unit, radio, or other electronics, as well as to restart the engine when propulsion is desired. The mild hybrid system may also apply some level of power assist, during acceleration for example, to supplement the internal combustion engine. Mild hybrids are typically 96V to 130V and recover braking energy through a belt or crank integrated starter generator. Further, a micro-hybrid electric vehicle (mHEV) also uses a âStop-Startâ system similar to the mild hybrids, but the micro-hybrid systems of a mHEV may or may not supply power assist to the internal combustion engine and operates at a voltage below 60V. For the purposes of the present discussion, it should be noted that mHEVs typically do not technically use electric power provided directly to the crankshaft or transmission for any portion of the motive force of the vehicle, but an mHEV may still be considered as an xEV since it does use electric power to supplement a vehicle's power needs when the vehicle is idling with internal combustion engine disabled and recovers braking energy through an integrated starter generator. In addition, a plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any vehicle that can be charged from an external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the energy stored in the rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels. PEVs are a subcategory of EVs that include all-electric or battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.
xEVs as described above may provide a number of advantages as compared to more traditional gas-powered vehicles using only internal combustion engines and traditional electrical systems, which are typically 12V systems powered by a lead acid battery. For example, xEVs may produce fewer undesirable emission products and may exhibit greater fuel efficiency as compared to traditional internal combustion vehicles and, in some cases, such xEVs may eliminate the use of gasoline entirely, as is the case of certain types of EVs or PEVs.
As xEV technology continues to evolve, there is a need to provide improved power sources (e.g., battery systems or modules) for such vehicles. For example, it is desirable to increase the distance that such vehicles may travel without the need to recharge the batteries. Additionally, it may also be desirable to improve the performance of such batteries and to reduce the cost associated with the battery systems. In particular, it may be desirable for an xEV battery power source to enable operation of the xEV in a number of environments (e.g., high and low temperature environments, humid environments, arid environments).
SUMMARY
The present disclosure relates generally to the field of lithium-ion batteries and battery modules. More specifically, the present disclosure relates to battery cells that may be used in vehicular contexts, as well as other energy storage/expending applications.
In one embodiment, a lithium ion battery cell includes a housing, a cathode disposed within the housing, wherein the cathode comprises a cathode active material, an anode disposed within the housing, wherein the anode comprises an anode active material, and an electrolyte disposed within the housing and in contact with the cathode and anode. The electrolyte consists essentially of a solvent mixture, a lithium salt in a concentration ranging from approximately 1.0 molar (M) to approximately 1.6 M, and an additive mixture. The solvent mixture includes a cyclic carbonate, an non-cyclic carbonate, and a linear ester. The additive mixture consists essentially of lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB) in an amount ranging from approximately 0.5 wt % to approximately 2.0 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte, and vinylene carbonate (VC) in an amount ranging from approximately 0.5 wt % to approximately 2.0 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte.
In another embodiment, a lithium ion battery cell includes a housing, a cathode disposed within the housing, wherein the cathode comprises a cathode active material, an anode disposed within the housing, wherein the anode comprises an anode active material, and an electrolyte disposed within the housing and in contact with the cathode and anode. The electrolyte includes a solvent mixture, a lithium salt in a concentration ranging from approximately 1.0 molar (M) to approximately 1.6 M, and lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB) in an amount ranging from approximately 0.5 wt % to approximately 2.0 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte. The solvent mixture includes a cyclic carbonate, a non-cyclic carbonate, and a linear ester. The cyclic carbonate consists essentially of fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC).
In a further embodiment, a lithium ion battery cell includes a housing, a cathode disposed within the housing, wherein the cathode comprises a cathode active material; an anode disposed within the housing, wherein the anode comprises a titanate-based active material, and an electrolyte disposed within the housing and in contact with the cathode and anode. The electrolyte includes a solvent mixture, a lithium salt in a concentration ranging from approximately 1.0 molar (M) to approximately 1.6 M, and lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB) in an amount ranging from approximately 0.5 wt % to approximately 2.0 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte. The solvent mixture includes a cyclic carbonate, an non-cyclic carbonate, and a linear ester, wherein the cyclic carbonate consists essentially of propylene carbonate (PC).
DRAWINGS
FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an xEV having a battery system configured in accordance with present embodiments to provide power for various components of the xEV, in accordance with an aspect of the present disclosure;
FIG. 2 is a cutaway schematic view of an embodiment of the xEV having a start-stop system that utilizes the battery system of FIG. 1 , the battery system having a lithium ion battery module, in accordance with an aspect of the present disclosure;
FIG. 3 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a lithium ion battery cell having a prismatic configuration;
FIG. 4 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a lithium ion battery cell having a pouch configuration;
FIG. 5 is a plot of area specific impedance (ASI) as a function of percent depth of discharge (% DOD) for battery cells having EC/EMC/MB or FEC/EMC/MB in 20/20/60 vol %, with 1 wt % VC and 0.5 wt % LiBOB;
FIG. 6 is a plot of ASI as a function of % DOD obtained at â25° C. for NMC/graphite battery cells having EC/EMC/DMC/MB (20/30/40/10 vol %), with 1 wt % VC and 0.5 wt % LiBOB or LiDFOB;
FIGS. 7 and 8 are graphs of ASI as a function of % DOD obtained at temperatures of 25° C. and â25° C., respectively, for different battery cells having different electrolyte formulations, where each formulation includes LiDFOB as an additive;
FIGS. 9 and 10 are plots of operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity obtained at â20° C. at a C/5 discharge rate and a 1C discharge rate, respectively, for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 11 and 12 are plots of corresponding anode potential and cathode potential, respectively, for the battery cells having the different electrolyte formulations set forth in FIGS. 9 and 10 ;
FIG. 13 is a plot of operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity obtained at â20° C. at a 4C discharge rate, for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 14 and 15 are plots of corresponding anode potential and cathode potential, respectively, for the battery cells having the different electrolyte formulations set forth in FIG. 13 ;
FIG. 16 is a plot of operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity obtained at â30° C. at a 1C discharge rate, for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 17 and 18 are plots of corresponding anode potential and cathode potential, respectively, for the battery cells having the different electrolyte formulations set forth in FIG. 16 ;
FIGS. 19, 20, and 21 are plots of battery cell impedance, anode impedance, and cathode impedance, respectively, obtained at â25° C. at a 5C discharge rate for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells and associated electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 22, 23, and 24 are plots of battery cell impedance, anode impedance, and cathode impedance, respectively, obtained at â30° C. at a 5C discharge rate for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 25 and 26 are plots of overall battery cell impedance obtained at 25° C. and â25° C., respectively, for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 27 and 28 are plots of operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity and percentage of room temperature capacity, respectively, obtained at â20° C. and a discharge rate of 2C for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 29 and 30 are plots of operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity and percentage of room temperature capacity, respectively, obtained at â20° C. and a discharge rate of 3C for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIGS. 31 and 32 are plots of operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity and percentage of room temperature capacity, respectively, obtained at â30° C. and a discharge rate of 3C for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIG. 33 is a plot of discharge capacity as a function of cycle number obtained at 60° C. and a 1C charge/discharge rate for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIG. 34 is a bar graph of percentage of formation capacity as a function of battery cell electrolyte obtained upon performing a charge/discharge cycle at a C/5 rate after 10 day storage at 60° C. for a plurality of NMC/graphite battery cells having the listed formulations;
FIG. 35 is a chart depicting the ASI of different NMC/graphite battery cells as a function of their electrolyte and as a function of time;
FIG. 36 is a plot depicting operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity obtained for an NMC/LTO battery cell having a 1.2M LiPF6+0.1M LiDFOB in FEC/EMC/MB (20:20:60 vol %) electrolyte at different discharge rates at â20° C.;
FIG. 37 is a plot depicting operating voltage as a function of discharge capacity obtained for an NMC/LTO battery cell having a 1.2M LiPF6+0.1M LiDFOB in FEC/EMC/MP (20:20:60 vol %) electrolyte at different discharge rates at â20° C.;
FIG. 38 is a plot of discharge capacity as a function of cycle number obtained at 60° C. and a 1C charge/discharge rate for a plurality of NMC/LTO battery cells having different electrolyte formulations;
FIG. 39 is a chart comparing charge and discharge 10-second internal resistance (IR) obtained at 25° C. for a first NMC/LTO battery cell having a 1.15M LiPF 6 in EC/EMC/DMC/PC (25:30:40:5 vol %)+1 wt % VC, 0.5 wt % LiBOB electrolyte and a second NMC/LTO battery cell having a 1.0M LiPF 6 in PC/EMC/DMC/MB (20:30:40:10 vol %)+1 wt % LiDFOB electrolyte;
FIG. 40 is a chart comparing charge and discharge 10-second power obtained at 25° C. for the first NMC/LTO battery cell having the 1.15M LiPF 6 in EC/EMC/DMC/PC (25:30:40:5 vol %)+1 wt % VC, 0.5 wt % LiBOB electrolyte and the second NMC/LTO battery cell having the 1.0M LiPF 6 in PC/EMC/DMC/MB (20:30:40:10 vol %)+1 wt % LiDFOB electrolyte;
FIG. 41 is a chart comparing charge and discharge 10-second internal resistance (IR) obtained at â25° C. for the first NMC/LTO battery cell having the 1.15M LiPF 6 in EC/EMC/DMC/PC (25:30:40:5 vol %)+1 wt % VC, 0.5 wt % LiBOB electrolyte and the second NMC/LTO battery cell having the 1.0M LiPF 6 in PC/EMC/DMC/MB (20:30:40:10 vol %)+1 wt % LiDFOB electrolyte;
FIG. 42 is a chart comparing charge and discharge 10-second power obtained at 25° C. for the first NMC/LTO battery cell having the 1.15M LiPF 6 in EC/EMC/DMC/PC (25:30:40:5 vol %)+1 wt % VC, 0.5 wt % LiBOB electrolyte and the second NMC/LTO battery cell having the 1.0M LiPF 6 in PC/EMC/DMC/MB (20:30:40:10 vol %)+1 wt % LiDFOB electrolyte;
FIG. 43 is a combined plot depicting discharge volumetric power density and regenerative volumetric power density for an 8 amp-hour (Ah) battery module incorporating a plurality of the first NMC/LTO battery cells and an 8 Ah battery module incorporating a plurality of the second NMC/LTO battery cells, with the volumetric power densities being a function of % DOD;
FIG. 44 is a plot depicting voltage response on pulsing at a temperature of â25° C. for 6 of the first NMC/LTO cells in series and 6 of the second NMC/LTO cells in series; and
FIG. 45 is a bar graph depicting percentage resistance increase as a function of electrolyte additive for a plurality of NMC/LTO battery cells each having a 1M LiPF 6 +PC/EMC/DMC/MB (20/30/40/10 vol %)+1 wt % additive electrolyte.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
One or more specific embodiments will be described below. In an effort to provide a concise description of these embodiments, not all features of an actual implementation are described in the specification. It should be appreciated that in the development of any such actual implementation, as in any engineering or design project, numerous implementation-specific decisions must be made to achieve the developers' specific goals, such as compliance with system-related and business-related constraints, which may vary from one implementation to another. Moreover, it should be appreciated that such a development effort might be complex and time consuming, but would nevertheless be a routine undertaking of design, fabrication, and manufacture for those of ordinary skill having the benefit of this disclosure.
The battery systems described herein may be used to provide power to a number of different types of xEVs as well as other energy storage applications (e.g., electrical grid power storage systems). Such battery systems may include one or more battery modules, each battery module having a number of battery cells (e.g., lithium ion cells) arranged to provide particular voltages and/or currents useful to power, for example, one or more components of an xEV. Accordingly, presently disclosed are a number of systems and methods for the manufacture of battery cells that enable a wide range of operating temperatures, such as temperatures of â20° C. and below (e.g., â30° C.) and at temperatures of 45° C. and above (e.g., 60° C.). For example, one important limitation associated with traditional automotive lithium ion batteries are the poor sub-ambient temperature performance due to relatively high impedance at low temperatures (e.g., 0 to â40° C.). Indeed, impedance is an important consideration at both the anode and cathode side of a lithium ion battery cell, since it can determine how fast the cell can be charged and discharged.
Charge and discharge rates are of particular concern in configurations where lithium ion batteries are intended to be used in parallel with or instead of lead acid batteries. In fact, it has proven very challenging to construct lithium ion battery cells having a combination of an appropriate size, an appropriate capacity, and appropriate cold cranking capabilities at â30° C. and 10C charge/discharge rates, to match lead acid batteries. As one example, micro hybrid systems place high demands on power requirements, and batteries used in these applications should be capable of a pulse charge/discharge power of 12 kW, and an engine cranking power of 5 kW at â30° C. Indeed, it is now recognized that it may be desirable to produce a lithium ion battery module capable of, for example, meeting a 12C cranking performance target of 10 seconds of consecutive cranking, for 3 times, at a 12C rate at â18° C. and a 5C rate at â30° C., a high temperature cycling performance target at 60° C. using 4C discharge/1C charge cycles, for >1000 cycles, with 80% capacity retention, and a high temperature calendar life performance target at 60° C. for 6 months with a capacity retention >80% and cell impedance growth <50%.
In accordance with certain embodiments of the present disclosure, an electrolyte may incorporate low viscosity ester-based co-solvents and carbonate-based solvent blends. Methyl butyrate (MB), methyl propionate (MP), and propyl butyrate (PB) are examples of such ester co-solvents, due to their desirable physical properties (viscosity, melting points, and boiling points) and their favorable compatibility. Other ester co-solvents can be used in accordance with the present disclosure, including ethyl propionate (EP), butyl butyrate (BB), methyl acetate (MA), ethyl acetate (EA), propyl propionate (PP), butyl propionate (BP), propyl acetate (PA), and butyl acetate (BA), or combinations thereof.
In accordance with an aspect of the present disclosure, one or more electrolyte additives may be used in combination with these electrolyte solvents, for example to produce robust electrode surface films (both at the anode and the cathode), even at high temperatures (e.g., up to approximately 60° C.). Example electrolyte additives that may be used in accordance with present embodiments include mono-fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), vinylene carbonate (VC), propane sultone (PS), lithium bis(oxalato) borate (LiBOB), and lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB). In the present disclosure, it is now recognized that the low-viscosity solvent mixtures and their synergistic effects with certain of the additives noted above are believed to unexpectedly improve the performance of individual electrodes and overall battery cells. Indeed, several improvements in battery cell performance are described herein. For example, improvements in battery cells using either graphite-based anodes or titanate-based anodes are presently disclosed. In accordance with the present disclosure, only one additive may be used, or multiple additives may be used in combination with electrolyte solvents that include one or more carbonate and one or more ester solvents.
As is generally understood in the art, an âelectrolyte,â as used herein, is intended to denote a single composition having all solvents, co-solvents, additives, lithium salts, and so forth, used in a particular battery cell. Therefore, it should also be noted that the term âelectrolyteâ is understood in the art to denote a solution incorporating all such materials, and is not generally intended to be limited to only the lithium salt (or other ionic material) used to provide ionic conductivity to a solution. Rather, a âlithium saltâ will generally denote the salt that is the main source of lithium of the electrolyte. Lithium salts are generally expressed in terms of their molarity (M) in the solvents of the electrolyte. However, certain additives may also be presented as being present in a certain molarity. The solvents of the electrolyte compositions, for lithium ion battery cells, are non-aqueous, and are generally expressed in terms of their relative volume percentages, based on the total volume of solvents in the electrolyte composition. In this way, the volume percentages of solvents in a particular electrolyte will total 100 volume percent (% v/v or vol %). Additives of the disclosed electrolytes are generally expressed in terms of weight percentage (wt %) of the total composition of the electrolyte. In this way, it may be possible to determine if a particular component of an electrolyte is a solvent, lithium salt, additive, or the like, with reference to the manner in which its amount is expressed. It should also be noted that an âelectrolyteâ may also be referred to as an âelectrolyte compositionâ in some situations.
Battery cells in accordance with one aspect of the present disclosure include specific combinations of fluorinated non-aqueous solvents and certain additives that unexpectedly lower impedance in battery cells relative to battery cells using non-fluorinated versions of the solvents. In addition, battery cells in accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure include specific combinations of non-aqueous solvents and certain fluorinated additives that unexpectedly lower impedance in battery cells relative to battery cells using non-fluorinated versions of the additives. In yet a further aspect of the present disclosure, certain fluorinated solvents and certain fluorinated additives may be used in combination to unexpectedly lower impedance.
By way of example, in certain embodiments, the disclosed electrolyte compositions may include a solvent mixture including an ester solvent and certain carbonate solvents, where at least one of the carbonate solvents is fluorinated. The ester solvent may include, for example, an alkyl ester (e.g., methyl butyrate, methyl propionate, ethyl propionate). The carbonate solvents may include a fluorinated cyclic carbonate (e.g., FEC), a linear carbonate (e.g., ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC)), various esters, or a combination. Additives used in these electrolyte compositions may include LiBOB, LiDFOB, and others. Indeed, a variety of different combinations of non-aqueous solvents and additives may be used in accordance with the presently disclosed electrolyte compositions.
To help illustrate, FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a vehicle 10 , which may utilize a regenerative braking system. Although the following discussion is presented in relation to vehicles with regenerative braking systems, the techniques described herein are adaptable to other vehicles that capture/store electrical energy with a battery, which may include electric-powered and gas-powered vehicles.
It is now recognized that it is desirable for a non-traditional battery system 12 (e.g., a lithium ion car battery) to be largely compatible with traditional vehicle designs. In this respect, present embodiments include various types of battery modules for xEVs and systems that include xEVs. Accordingly, the battery system 12 may be placed in a location in the vehicle 10 that would have housed a traditional battery system. For example, as illustrated, the vehicle 10 may include the battery system 12 positioned similarly to a lead-acid battery of a typical combustion-engine vehicle (e.g., under the hood of the vehicle 10 ). Furthermore, as will be described in more detail below, the battery system 12 may be positioned to facilitate managing temperature of the battery system 12 . For example, in some embodiments, positioning a battery system 12 under the hood of the vehicle 10 may enable an air duct to channel airflow over the battery system 12 and cool the battery system 12 .
A more detailed view of the battery system 12 is described in FIG. 2 . As depicted, the battery system 12 includes an energy storage component 14 coupled to an ignition system 16 , an alternator 18 , a vehicle console 20 , and optionally to an electric motor 22 . Generally, the energy storage component 14 may capture/store electrical energy generated in the vehicle 10 and output electrical energy to power electrical devices in the vehicle 10 .
In other words, the battery system 12 may supply power to components of the vehicle's electrical system, which may include radiator cooling fans, climate control systems, electric power steering systems, active suspension systems, auto park systems, electric oil pumps, electric super/turbochargers, electric water pumps, heated windscreen/defrosters, window lift motors, vanity lights, tire pressure monitoring systems, sunroof motor controls, power seats, alarm systems, infotainment systems, navigation features, lane departure warning systems, electric parking brakes, external lights, or any combination thereof. Illustratively, in the depicted embodiment, the energy storage component 14 supplies power to the vehicle console 20 and the ignition system 16 , which may be used to start (e.g., crank) the internal combustion engine 24 .
Additionally, the energy storage component 14 may capture electrical energy generated by the alternator 18 and/or the electric motor 22 . In some embodiments, the alternator 18 may generate electrical energy while the internal combustion engine 24 is running. More specifically, the alternator 18 may convert the mechanical energy produced by the rotation of the internal combustion engine 24 into electrical energy. Additionally or alternatively, when the vehicle 10 includes an electric motor 22 , the electric motor 22 may generate electrical energy by converting mechanical energy produced by the movement of the vehicle 10 (e.g., rotation of the wheels) into electrical energy. Thus, in some embodiments, the energy storage component 14 may capture electrical energy generated by the alternator 18 and/or the electric motor 22 during regenerative braking. As such, the alternator and/or the electric motor 22 are generally referred to herein as a regenerative braking system.
To facilitate capturing and supplying electric energy, the energy storage component 14 may be electrically coupled to the vehicle's electric system via a bus 26 . For example, the bus 26 may enable the energy storage component 14 to receive electrical energy generated by the alternator 18 and/or the electric motor 22 . Additionally, the bus 26 may enable the energy storage component 14 to output electrical energy to the ignition system 16 and/or the vehicle console 20 . Accordingly, when a 12 volt battery system 12 is used, the bus 26 may carry electrical power typically between 8-18 volts.
Additionally, as depicted, the energy storage component 14 may include multiple battery modules. For example, in the depicted embodiment, the energy storage component 14 includes a lithium ion (e.g., a first) battery module 28 and a lead-acid (e.g., a second) battery module 30 , which each includes one or more battery cells. In other embodiments, the energy storage component 14 may include any number of battery modules. Additionally, although the lithium ion battery module 28 and lead- acid battery module 30 are depicted adjacent to one another, they may be positioned in different areas around the vehicle. For example, the lead-acid battery module may be positioned in or about the interior of the vehicle 10 while the lithium ion battery module 28 may be positioned under the hood of the vehicle 10 .
In some embodiments, the energy storage component 14 may include multiple battery modules to utilize multiple different battery chemistries. For example, when the lithium ion battery module 28 is used, performance of the battery system 12 may be improved since the lithium ion battery chemistry generally has a higher coulombic efficiency and/or a higher power charge acceptance rate (e.g., higher maximum charge current or charge voltage) than the lead-acid battery chemistry. As such, the capture, storage, and/or distribution efficiency of the battery system 12 may be improved.
To facilitate controlling the capturing and storing of electrical energy, the battery system 12 may additionally include a control module 32 . More specifically, the control module 32 may control operations of components in the battery system 12 , such as relays (e.g., switches) within energy storage component 14 , the alternator 18 , and/or the electric motor 22 . For example, the control module 32 may regulate amount of electrical energy captured/supplied by each battery module 28 or 30 (e.g., to de-rate and re-rate the battery system 12 ), perform load balancing between the battery modules
28 and 30 , determine a state of charge of each battery module
28 or 30 , determine temperature of each battery module
28 or 30 , control voltage output by the alternator 18 and/or the electric motor 22 , and the like.
Accordingly, the control unit 32 may include one or processor 34 and one or more memory 36 . More specifically, the one or more processor 34 may include one or more application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), one or more field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), one or more general purpose processors, or any combination thereof. Additionally, the one or more memory 36 may include volatile memory, such as random access memory (RAM), and/or non-volatile memory, such as read-only memory (ROM), optical drives, hard disc drives, or solid-state drives. In some embodiments, the control unit 32 may include portions of a vehicle control unit (VCU) and/or a separate battery control module. Furthermore, as depicted, the lithium ion battery module 28 and the lead- acid battery module 30 are connected in parallel across their terminals. In other words, the lithium ion battery module 28 and the lead- acid module 30 may be coupled in parallel to the vehicle's electrical system via the bus 26 .
It should be noted that presently disclosed embodiments may be applicable to any battery module having the same or different configurations and/or orientations described above and in detail below. One of ordinary skill in the art would recognize that the components and examples used to describe battery modules in accordance with the present disclosure should not be construed to limit the present disclosure to those components and examples alone. Rather, the disclosed examples are merely intended to serve as non-limiting examples to facilitate discussion of the present disclosure.
As set forth above, in accordance with the present disclosure, embodiments of the lithium ion battery module 28 may utilize specific chemistries to enable wide temperature operation, including operation at low temperatures (e.g., â20° C. and below). Embodiments of the lithium ion battery module 28 may include one or more battery cells connected so as to provide features for the acceptance, storage, and release of energy in the form of an electrical charge, electrical potential, and so forth. Illustratively, FIGS. 3 and 4 depict embodiments of a battery cell 40 that may each incorporate the electrolyte compositions of the present disclosure. Generally, and as discussed in further detail below, the battery cells 40 will include a positive cell terminal 42 , a negative cell terminal 44 , and a housing 46 (also referred to as a casing) that contains the electrochemically active elements. However, the embodiments of the battery cell 40 illustrated in FIGS. 3 and 4 are merely provided as examples. In other embodiments, other shapes (e.g., oval, cylindrical, polygonal), sizes, terminal configuration and positions, and other features may be used in accordance with the present approach.
Specifically, FIG. 3 illustrates an embodiment of the lithium ion battery cell 40 having a prismatic configuration (i.e., is a prismatic battery cell), while FIG. 4 illustrates an embodiment of the lithium ion battery cell 40 having a pouch configuration (i.e., is a pouch battery cell). As may be appreciated with reference to FIGS. 3 and 4 , the prismatic and pouch configurations are similar from the standpoint of the cross-sectional geometries of their respective housings 40 , illustrated as generally rectangular. From the standpoint of producing battery modules having multiple battery cells, this rectangular shape generally affords higher energy densities and arrangement flexibility for the prismatic and pouch lithium ion battery cells 40 compared to other shapes, such as cylindrical configurations. However, this higher energy density and flexibility is usually balanced against possible losses in operating efficiencies due to non-symmetrical swelling and heating, among others.
Regarding the external features of the embodiments of the lithium ion battery cell 40 , the illustrated prismatic configuration of FIG. 3 includes both terminals
42 , 44 on the same region of the lithium ion battery cell 40 . This region is generally considered to correspond to a top portion 48 of the lithium ion battery cell 40 . The prismatic configuration illustrated in FIG. 3 includes a bottom portion 50 opposite the top portion 48 , two faces (including first and second faces 52 , 54 ) corresponding to the broad portion of the lithium ion battery cell 40 , and first and second sides
56 , 58 interconnecting the top portion 48 with the bottom portion 50 and the first face 52 with the second face 54 . While illustrated as being substantially flat, the first and <figure-callout id="56" label="second sides"
CLAIMS
Claims ( 21 )
The invention claimed is:
1. A lithium ion battery cell, comprising:
a housing;
a cathode disposed within the housing, wherein the cathode comprises a cathode active material;
an anode disposed within the housing, wherein the anode comprises an anode active material; and
an electrolyte disposed within the housing and in contact with the cathode and anode, wherein the electrolyte consists essentially of:
a solvent mixture comprising a cyclic carbonate, a first non-cyclic carbonate, a second non-cyclic carbonate, and a linear ester;
a lithium salt in a concentration ranging from approximately 1.0 molar (M) to approximately 1.6M; and
an additive mixture consisting essentially of lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB) in an amount ranging from approximately 0.5 wt % to approximately 2.0 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte, and vinylene carbonate (VC) in an amount ranging from approximately 0.5 wt % to approximately 2.0 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte,
wherein the solvent mixture consists essentially of:
the cyclic carbonate in an amount between approximately 5 vol % and approximately 30 vol % based on the total volume of the solvent mixture;
wherein the first and second non-cyclic carbonates together represent between approximately 50 vol % and approximately 80 vol % of the total volume of the solvent mixture; and
the linear ester in an amount between approximately 5 vol % and approximately 20 vol %, based on the total volume of the solvent mixture, wherein the volume percentage of the cyclic carbonate is greater than or approximately equal to the volume percentage of the linear ester.
2. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 1 , wherein the cyclic carbonate is ethylene carbonate (EC), the first non-cyclic carbonate is ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), the second non-cyclic carbonate is dimethyl carbonate (DMC), the linear ester is methyl butyrate (MB), and the lithium salt is lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF 6 ).
3. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 2 , wherein the solvent mixture is EC/EMC/DMC/MB (20:30:40:10 vol %), LiDFOB is present in an amount of approximately 0.5 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte, VC is present in an amount of approximately 1 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte, and LiPF 6 is in a concentration of approximately 1.2 M.
4. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 1 , wherein the first cyclic carbonate is fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) and the second cyclic carbonate is ethylene carbonate (EC), and FEC and EC are present in approximately equal volume percentages.
5. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 4 , wherein the linear ester is MB, the first non-cyclic carbonate is EMC, and the second non-cyclic carbonate is DMC.
6. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 1 , wherein the anode active material comprises a titanate-based material or a graphite-based material.
7. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 6 , wherein the electrolyte produces a solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer at the anode that is less resistive than would be obtained using lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB) in place of the LiDFOB.
8. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 1 , wherein the cathode active material comprises a lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NMC) active material, a lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) active material, a lithium metal oxide spinel (LMO-spinel) active material, or any combination thereof.
9. A lithium ion battery cell, comprising:
a housing;
a cathode disposed within the housing, wherein the cathode comprises a cathode active material;
an anode disposed within the housing, wherein the anode comprises an anode active material; and
an electrolyte disposed within the housing and in contact with the cathode and anode, wherein the electrolyte comprises a solvent mixture, a lithium salt in a concentration ranging from approximately 1.0 molar (M) to approximately 1.6 M, and lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB) in an amount ranging from approximately 0.5 wt % to approximately 2.0 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte; and
wherein the solvent mixture consists essentially of fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) in an amount between approximately 5 vol % and approximately 30 vol % based on the total volume of the solvent mixture, a non-cyclic carbonate in an amount between approximately 5 vol % and approximately 30 vol % based on the total volume of the solvent mixture, and a linear ester in an amount between approximately 50 vol % and approximately 70 vol % based on the total volume of the solvent mixture.
10. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 9 , wherein FEC and the non-cyclic carbonate are present in approximately equal volume percentages.
11. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 9 , wherein the non-cyclic carbonate is ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC).
12. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 9 , wherein the linear ester is methyl butyrate (MB), methyl propionate (MP), or ethyl propionate (EP).
13. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 9 , wherein the linear ester is EP.
14. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 13 , wherein the electrolyte is such that the lithium ion battery cell is less resistive, at a depth of discharge percentage (% DOD) ranging between approximately 0% and approximately 75% and at a temperature below approximately â25° C., than would be obtained using MB or MP in place of the EP.
15. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 9 , wherein the electrolyte consists essentially of the solvent mixture, the lithium salt, and LiDFOB.
16. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 15 , wherein the solvent mixture is FEC/EMC/MB (20:20:60 vol %), FEC/EMC/MP (20:20:60 vol %), or FEC/EMC/EP (20:20:60 vol %).
17. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 9 , wherein the electrolyte is 1.20 M LiPF 6 in FEC/EMC/MB (20:20:60 vol %)+1 wt % LiDFOB, or 1.20 M LiPF6+0.10M LiDFOB in FEC/EMC/MP (20:20:60 vol %), or 1.20M LiPF 6 in FEC/EMC/EP (20:20:60 vol %)+1 wt % LiDFOB.
18. A lithium ion battery cell, comprising:
a housing;
a cathode disposed within the housing, wherein the cathode comprises a cathode active material;
an anode disposed within the housing, wherein the anode comprises a titanate-based active material; and
an electrolyte disposed within the housing and in contact with the cathode and anode, wherein the electrolyte comprises a solvent mixture, a lithium salt in a concentration ranging from approximately 1.0 molar (M) to approximately 1.6 M, and lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB) in an amount ranging from approximately 0.5 wt % to approximately 2.0 wt % based on the weight of the electrolyte;
wherein the solvent mixture consists essentially of propylene carbonate (PC) in an amount between approximately 5 vol % and approximately 30 vol % based on the total volume of the solvent mixture, a first non-cyclic carbonate and a second non-cyclic carbonate, wherein the first and second non-cyclic carbonates together represent between approximately 50 vol % and approximately 80 vol % of the total volume of the solvent mixture, and a linear ester in an amount between approximately 5 vol % and approximately 20 vol % based on the total volume of the solvent mixture, wherein the volume percentage of the PC is greater than or approximately equal to the volume percentage of the linear ester.
19. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 18 , wherein the volume percentage of the PC is less than or approximately equal to the total volume percentage of the first and second non-cyclic carbonates.
20. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 18 , wherein the electrolyte consists essentially of the solvent mixture, the lithium salt, and LiDFOB.
21. The lithium ion battery cell of claim 18 , wherein the solvent mixture is PC/ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC)/dimethyl carbonate (DMC)/metyl butyrate (MB) (20:30:40:10 vol %).
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