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Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals—Assessing the Potential Effects of Mineral Commodity Supply Chain Disruptions on the U.S. Economy

Nedal T. Nassar, David Pineault, Sydney M. Allen, Dalton M. McCaffrey, Abraham J. Padilla, Jamie L. Brainard · U.S. Geological Survey

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Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals—Assessing the Potential Effects of Mineral Commodity Supply Chain Disruptions on the U.S. Economy 100,000 Rhodium (ZA)

Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP: $10 billion

Net decrease in U.S. GDP, in millions of current (2023) U.S. dollars

10,000

Niobium (BR) Samarium (CN)

1,000

Potash (CA) Platinum (ZA) Ruthenium (ZA) Aluminum (CA) Iridium (ZA) Silicon ferroalloys (RU) Barite (IN) Copper, refined (CL) Palladium (ZA) Titanium ferroalloys (CN)

Manganese alloys (MY) Cobalt chemicals (CN) Zinc, smelted (CA) Manganese sulfate (high purity) (CN) Vanadium (CN) Titanium sponge (CN) Magnesium compounds (CN) Titanium metal (RU) Manganese metal (CN) Fluorspar, acidspar (CN) Nickel, primary refined (CA) Titanium Rhenium (CA) pigment (CN) Tantalum (CN) Chromium ferroalloys (ZA) Lithium (CN) Titanium mineral concentrates (CA) Lead (CA) Silver (MX)

100

Germanium (CN) Gadolinium (CN)

Hafnium (CN) Thulium (CN) Neodymium (CN)

Tungsten (CN) Magnesium metal (CN) Yttrium (CN)

Lanthanum (CN) Praseodymium (CN)

$100 million Antimony (CN)

Erbium (CN)

Synthetic graphite (CN) Indium (CN)

Chromium metal (CN)

Holmium (CN)

Tin (ID)

Zirconium (ZA)

Europium (CN)

Phosphates (PE) Alumina (BR) Chromite (ZA) Manganese dioxide (CN)

Ytterbium (CN)

Arsenic (CN)

Chromium chemicals (CN)

$10 thousand Selenium (CN) Manganese ore (GA) Mica (CN) Feldspar (TR) Bauxite Cobalt metal (CA) (JM) 0

Bismuth (CN) Natural graphite (CN)

$10 million

Cerium (CN)

Beryllium (CN)

$100 thousand 10

Lutetium (CN) Terbium (CN) Dysprosium (CN) Gallium (CN)

$1 billion

$1 million

Median probability of scenario occurrence, in percent

Open-File Report 2025–1047 Version 2.0, 2026 U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey

100

Cover: Graph showing net decreases in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) and median probability of occurrence for the leading trade disruption scenario for 72 of the 84 mineral commodities examined. Refer to figure 2 on page 16 for more information.

Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals— Assessing the Potential Effects of Mineral Commodity Supply Chain Disruptions on the U.S. Economy By Nedal T. Nassar, David Pineault, Sydney M. Allen, Dalton M. McCaffrey, Abraham J. Padilla, Jamie L. Brainard, Mani Bayani, Ensieh Shojaeddini, John W. Ryter, Sara Lincoln, and Elisa Alonso

Open-File Report 2025–1047 Version 2.0, 2026

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2025 Revised: 2026 (ver. 2.0)

For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment—visit https://www.usgs.gov or call 1–888–392–8545. For an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications, visit https://store.usgs.gov/ or contact the store at 1–888–275–8747. Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. Although this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may contain copyrighted materials as noted in the text. Permission to reproduce copyrighted items must be secured from the copyright owner. Suggested citation: Nassar, N.T., Pineault, D., Allen, S.M., McCaffrey, D.M., Padilla, A.J., Brainard, J.L., Bayani, M., Shojaeddini, E., Ryter, J.W., Lincoln, S., and Alonso, E., 2025, Methodology and technical input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals— Assessing the potential effects of mineral commodity supply chain disruptions on the U.S. economy (ver. 2.0, 2026): U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2025–1047, 215 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20251047. Associated data for this publication: U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook data for select mineral commodities referenced in “U.S. Geological Survey Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals— Assessing the Potential Effects of Mineral Commodity Supply Chain Disruptions on the U.S. Economy”: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P14BRF29. ISSN 2331-1258 (online)

iii

Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Lee Bray, Chad Friedline, Robert Goodin, Ashley Hatfield, Daniel Hayba, Stephen Jasinski, Brian Jaskula, Natalie Juda, Kateryna Klochko, Graham Lederer, Timothy O’Brien, Emily Schnebele, Ruth Schulte, Robert R. Seal II, Miriam Stevens, and Colin Williams at the U.S. Geological Survey for their input and feedback. The authors would also like to thank the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis for providing detailed input-output tables for 2023, which were not publicly available at the time of publication, for use in this study.

Contents Acknowledgments��iii Abstract��1 Plain Language Summary��1 Introduction��2 Methods��2 Stages of the Economic Effects Assessment��3 Scenario Quantification��3 Equilibrium Displacement Modeling��3 Economic Impacts Modeling��4 Model Implementation��7 Scenario Probabilities��8 Risk Categorization��8 Results and Discussion��8 Results for Palladium��8 Results by Trade Disruption Scenario��9 Results by Industry��15 Results by Economic Effects Component��15 Summary of Results and Recommendations��17 Conclusions��26 References Cited��30 Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data��34 Appendix 2. U.S. Trade Data for Mineral Commodities��62 Appendix 3. Prices and Price Elasticities of Supply and Demand��83 Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry��91 Appendix 5. Python Implementation of the Economic Impacts Model��211 Appendix 6. Natural Breaks Classification��213

Figures 1.

Four graphs showing various results from modeling trade disruption scenarios (the restriction of U.S. net imports from producers from which the United States was a direct or indirect net importer) for palladium��10 2. Graph showing net decreases in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) and median probability of occurrence for the leading trade disruption scenario for 72 of the 84 mineral commodities examined��16

Tables 1.

Probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP), by scenario across all industries, and scenario contributing most to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for each mineral commodity��12

Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) by industry across all scenarios, and industry contributing most to probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for each mineral commodity��18 3. Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) by economic effects component (net decrease in U.S. GDP owing to changes in industry outputs or higher mineral commodity prices)��24 4. Overview of mineral commodity assessment, ranking, and categorization for inclusion on the draft List of Critical Minerals (LCM) in 2025��27

Abbreviations BEA

U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis

GDP

gross domestic product

HTS

Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States

input-output

LCM

List of Critical Minerals

MOFCOM Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China NAICS

North American Industry Classification System

NAPCS

North American Product Classification System

SPOF

single point of failure

USGS

U.S. Geological Survey

Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals—Assessing the Potential Effects of Mineral Commodity Supply Chain Disruptions on the U.S. Economy By Nedal T. Nassar,1 David Pineault,1 Sydney M. Allen,1 Dalton M. McCaffrey,1 Abraham J. Padilla,1 Jamie L. Brainard,1 Mani Bayani,1 Ensieh Shojaeddini,1 John W. Ryter,1 Sara Lincoln,2 and Elisa Alonso1

Abstract The Secretary of the Interior, acting through the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey, is tasked by section 7002 (“Mineral Security”) of title VII (“Critical Minerals”) of the Energy Act of 2020 (Public Law 116–260, December 27, 2020, 116th Congress) with reviewing and revising the methodology used to evaluate mineral commodity supply risk and the U.S. List of Critical Minerals (LCM) no less than every 3 years. Following two previous LCM assessments, this analysis represents the latest technical input for evaluating each mineral commodity’s supply risk and determining their recommended status on the LCM. We evaluated mineral commodity supply risk using two criteria: (1) an economic effects assessment that quantified the potential effects of various trade disruption scenarios on the U.S. economy, and (2) an examination of whether the mineral commodity’s U.S. supply chain relied on a sole domestic producer that represented a single point of failure. For the first criterion, postdisruption equilibrium quantities and prices for each mineral commodity were calculated based on their price elasticities of supply and demand and the availability of excess production capacity for each yearlong foreign trade disruption scenario. Subsequently, a nonlinear optimization routine was used with detailed economic input-output tables to estimate the potential economic effects on the U.S. economy of over 1,200 scenarios for 84 mineral commodities. After accounting for the probability of each scenario’s occurrence, the overall results are presented in terms of changes in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) by individual industry and the economy overall. The results, which ranged from a net decrease in U.S. GDP of nearly $4.5 billion to a net increase of $33 million, largely reflect U.S. import dependency and world production concentration. Using the Jenks natural breaks optimization method, a statistical classification technique, we 1U.S. Geological Survey. 2Akima Systems Engineering, under contract to the U.S. Geological Survey.

categorized the mineral commodities into several classes based on this overall risk quantification. Mineral commodities with annualized probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP greater than $2 million were recommended for inclusion on the LCM. If a mineral commodity did not meet the threshold for inclusion on the LCM under the first criterion, its domestic supply chain was examined under the second criterion, which recommended a mineral commodity for inclusion on the LCM if there was only a single domestic producer. Ultimately, the two criteria resulted in the recommendation of the addition of six mineral commodities (in descending risk order, potash, silicon, copper, silver, rhenium, and lead) to and the removal of two mineral commodities (arsenic and tellurium) from the LCM. By using an economic effects assessment, the results of this analysis provide a prioritization that can also be compared directly against other risk analyses and the cost of various risk mitigation strategies.

Plain Language Summary To quantify the risks associated with potential disruptions and to recommend mineral commodities for inclusion on the updated U.S. List of Critical Minerals, as required by the Energy Act of 2020, the U.S. Geological Survey developed an economic model to estimate the potential effects of foreign trade disruptions of mineral commodities on the U.S. economy. The results of the study recommend the addition of six mineral commodities (in descending risk order, potash, silicon, copper, silver, rhenium, and lead) to and the removal of two mineral commodities (arsenic and tellurium) from the List of Critical Minerals. The analysis also provides a prioritization based on the results. The economic model has several advantages over previous assessments including the ability to directly compare the results against other economic risks and the costs of initiatives aimed at reducing the risks.

2 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Introduction Reliable supplies of mineral commodities, which are used in a myriad of technologies—old and new—are necessary for maintaining and growing the U.S. economy. The concentration of mineral commodity production in a few countries and the high degree of reliance of the United States on imports from these countries increases the risks associated with foreign supply disruptions (Nassar and others, 2020). These risks have been exemplified in recent months as the Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China (MOFCOM) has placed controls and outright bans on the exports of several mineral commodities including antimony, gallium, and germanium to the United States (Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China, 2024). The Secretary of the Interior, acting through the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey, is tasked by section 7002 (“Mineral Security”) of title VII (“Critical Minerals”) of the Energy Act of 2020 (Public Law 116–260, December 27, 2020, 116th Congress) with reviewing and revising the methodology used to evaluate mineral commodity supply risk and the U.S. List of Critical Minerals (LCM) no less than every 3 years. In fulfilling part of the requirements of the Energy Act of 2020, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) provides the technical input for identifying mineral commodities whose supply disruption poses the greatest risk to the U.S. economy and national security. The Energy Act of 2020 defines “critical minerals” as the minerals, elements, substances, or materials that “(i) are essential to the economic or national security of the United States; (ii) the supply chain of which is vulnerable to disruptions (including restrictions associated with foreign political risk, abrupt demand growth, military conflict, violent unrest, anti-competitive or protectionist behaviors, and other risks throughout the supply chain); and (iii) serve an essential function in the manufacturing of a product (including energy technology-, defense-, currency-, agriculture-, consumer electronics-, and healthcare-related applications), the absence of which would have significant consequences for the economic or national security of the United States” (Public Law 116–260, section 7002(c)(4)(A)). The Energy Act of 2020 followed Executive Order 13817, “A Federal Strategy To Ensure Secure and Reliable Supplies of Critical Minerals” (3 CFR, 2017 Comp, p. 397–399), which tasked the Secretary of the Interior with submitting to the Federal Register a draft list of minerals determined to be critical. The methodology used in the first List of Critical Minerals (LCM) in 2018 involved two quantitative criteria (the concentration of global mineral commodity production and U.S. net import reliance) and a qualitative examination of the importance of each mineral commodity’s use (Fortier and others, 2018). After the passage of the Energy Act of 2020, a new methodology that provided several enhancements to the original approach was

used in determining the second LCM in 2022 (Nassar and Fortier, 2021). Using a risk modeling framework, the second assessment retained the U.S. net import reliance indicator and weighted the previous global production concentration indicator by measures of each producing country’s willingness and ability to continue to supply the United States. In addition, it converted the qualitative examination of each mineral commodity’s importance into a quantitative assessment using data on each mineral commodity consuming industry’s contributions to U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) and gross operating surplus. It also added a criterion for including any mineral commodity on the LCM if there was only a single domestic producer, which represented a potential single point of failure (SPOF) within the mineral commodity’s domestic supply chain. The analysis presented in this report takes another major step forward in assessing the risk associated with foreign trade disruptions. While the analysis presented here retains the same conceptual framework as the previous assessments, it moves away from normalized indicators and toward an economic effects assessment. In this approach, the risks associated with foreign trade disruptions are assessed probabilistically, and the results are provided in terms of expected (or probability-weighted) net decreases in U.S. GDP at the level of individual industries and the economy overall. Our analysis, which was conducted using data for year 2023 (unless otherwise noted), assessed over 1,200 scenarios for 84 mineral commodities.

Methods We used two criteria in recommending a mineral commodity for inclusion on the LCM. One criterion assessed the potential economic effects of foreign trade disruptions on the U.S. economy. The other criterion evaluated whether there was a single producer of that mineral commodity (for example, a sole mine or refinery) in the United States (referred to as a SPOF). The methodology used to estimate the potential economic effects was primarily based on Nassar and others (2024) and consists of three stages: scenario quantification, equilibrium displacement modeling, and economic impacts modeling. These three stages of the economic effects assessment are discussed in detail below. If a mineral commodity did not meet the first criterion, its domestic supply chain was reviewed using the information presented in the USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a) to determine if there was a SPOF within its domestic supply chain. Details regarding specific sources and methods are found in the appendixes, which were initially published as a preprint (Nassar and others, 2025) before being edited and formatted for release in this version of this publication.

Methods 3

Stages of the Economic Effects Assessment Scenario Quantification The first stage of the economic effects assessment defined a specific set of scenarios. These scenarios were ones in which U.S. net imports (imports minus exports) for the mineral commodity of concern from each trading partner country were completely restricted for an entire year. A scenario was thus developed for each mineral commodity–restricting country pair if that country was also a producer of the mineral commodity. Any positive U.S. net imports for that mineral commodity (when summed across all forms included in the analysis) from non-producing countries were allocated to producing countries proportionally to their share of world production. This step was added to account for the fact that positive net imports from non-producing countries must have, at some point, originated from producing countries. For each mineral commodity, annualized country-level global production and trade data were collected by production stage (for example, mining) or mineral-commodity form (for example, ores and concentrates). Data availability allowed for the assessment of 84 mineral commodities. Of these 84, 31 represent different stages or forms of 11 mineral commodity supply chains: aluminum (alumina, aluminum, and bauxite), chromium (chemicals, chromite, ferroalloys, and metal), cobalt (chemicals and metal), copper (mined and refined), graphite (natural and synthetic), fluorspar (acidspar and metspar), manganese (alloys, dioxide, high-purity sulfate, metal, ore), nickel (mined and primary refined), silicon (ferroalloys and metal), titanium (ferroalloys, metal, mineral concentrates, pigment, and sponge), and zinc (mined and smelted). Magnesium compounds and magnesium metal were treated as separate mineral commodity supply chains given their distinct sources and uses. Mineral production data included primary production and, if applicable and available, secondary (specifically, end-of-life or post-consumer recycling) production by country. Production data were mainly obtained from the most recent USGS publications, although other sources were used where necessary (refer to appendix 1 for details). For a few mineral commodities, secondary production data were only available by region or for the entire world. In cases where it was not possible to allocate these secondary production data to individual countries, the reported regional production quantities were treated as if they were a single entity in the scenario. Global trade data were obtained from the Global Trade Tracker database (Zen Innovations AG, 2025) using the Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States (HTS) and Schedule B codes identified in appendix 2 for the imports and exports of each mineral commodity, respectively. The trade data were obtained from the U.S. perspective (meaning as reported by the United States) unless the trade data from the trade partner country’s perspective were determined to be more representative for the mineral commodity (refer

to appendix 2 for details). Production and trade data were converted into elemental content (for example, the antimony content of antimony trioxide) to allow for summation across different chemical forms and were calculated net of any reimports or reexports (meaning that trade flows were calculated exclusive of the flows of commodities that were previously recorded as exports or imports, respectively, in substantiality the same condition) (International Trade Administration, 2015). Trade codes were selected to reflect the chemical forms (typically alloys, compounds, concentrates, metals, ore, and scrap) that were produced by the associated production processes up to the supply chain process associated with the identified consuming industries (as explained in the “Economic Impacts Modeling” section of this report). Additional notes and assumptions are provided in appendixes 1 and 2 for production and trade data, respectively.

Equilibrium Displacement Modeling In the second stage of the economic effects assessment, the production and trade data were allocated to two regions or markets—the restricting country and the rest of the world— that varied by scenario. The quantity that was disrupted (∆Q) in each scenario (s) for each mineral commodity (c) was set equal to the U.S. net imports from the restricting country (NI) for the year. A postdisruption equilibrium price (P′) and quantity (Q′) for the rest of the world were determined based on (1) the quantity disrupted, (2) excess production capacity of the mineral commodity in the rest of the world (κROW), (3) the mineral commodity’s price elasticities of supply (εS) and demand (εD), and (4) the predisruption quantity of the mineral commodity available (Q). Specifically, the postdisruption equilibrium price relative to the predisruption price (P) was determined as follows: S

c c P P ns ,c � s ,c s ,c ,(1) Pc Pc ∆Q where n was the relative shift in quantity available ( ). The Q predisruption quantity of the mineral commodity available (Q) was defined as the sum of the predisruption quantity that was produced by the rest of the world (ψROW) and the net imports from the restricting country (NI):

ns ,c

Qs ,c Qs ,c

NI s ,c NI s ,c � sROW ,c

.(2)

This approach defined the system boundaries of the mineral commodity market that would be available to the United States, which varied by scenario because the definition (and, in turn, the net imports and production) of the rest of the world varied depending on which country was the restricting country. A scenario in which the restricting country was the sole producer of the mineral commodity would yield a relative shift in quantity available (n) of 100 percent. (Note that no

Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

such scenario was encountered in this analysis.) Establishing the system boundaries in this manner implicitly assumes that the mineral commodity produced by the non-restricting countries would be available and thus could be diverted to the United States. It also assumes that the restricting country applies its export restrictions extraterritorially, meaning that its exports to countries other than the United States are prohibited from being reexported to the United States. This assumption would also apply to downstream materials (for example, rare earth permanent magnets) that were included in the trade data, thereby effectively prohibiting non-restricting countries from exporting materials that they processed if the precursor materials were originally sourced from the restricting country. Postdisruption equilibrium prices were determined numerically by setting equation 1 equal to equation 2. With the postdisruption equilibrium price, the relative change in the postdisruption equilibrium quantity, also referred to as the net disruption level (n′), was determined as follows: D

c c P P ns,c 1 s ,c 1 ns ,c s ,c .(3) Pc Pc If the specified scenario resulted in a supply disruption greater than the available excess capacity in the rest of the world (κROW), then equation 3 simplified to:

ns,c ns ,c �

sROW ,c . Qs ,c

(4)

This simplification was possible because the supply curve was assumed to become vertical at the point in which all excess capacity was used—a reflection of the inability to increase supplies in the short-term beyond the estimated capacities. Under such scenarios, the demand curve intercepts the vertical portion of the supply curve thereby allowing the postdisruption equilibrium price to be calculated directly: 1

Ps,c Pc 1 ns,c cD .

Economic Impacts Modeling Three intermediate results for each scenario were obtained from the equilibrium displacement modeling (stage 2 of the economic effects assessment): the postdisruption equilibrium price, quantity, and the growth in production for the rest of the world. In the third stage of the economic effects assessment—the economic impacts modeling—these results were used with detailed economic input-output (IO) tables for the United States in a nonlinear optimization routine to estimate the potential effects of the scenarios on the U.S. economy (specifically, net decreases in U.S. GDP by industry). The intuition behind the model is that, in the event of a supply disruption, economic actors (be they final consumers, industries, or governments) will attempt to reestablish their economic activity patterns as closely as possible to their predisruption levels (Oosterhaven and Bouwmeester, 2016). As described by Nassar and others (2024), the objective function of the optimization model therefore attempted to minimize the change between the predisruption and postdisruption interindustry intermediate demand, final demand, and value added across all industries, as follows:

(5)

Minimi

The growth in the production of the rest of the world ROW ) that was necessary to achieve the postdisruption ( equilibrium quantity was calculated as follows: sROW Qs ,c ns,c Qs ,c . ,c

in the analysis). Where possible, short-run (1-year) price elasticities were used, and price elasticities of demand were estimated to include inventory releases as a demand category. Data on production capacity by country were obtained from published sources (refer to appendix 1) or, if not available, were estimated for each producing country based on historical production. Specifically, for the latter, production capacity for each currently producing country was assumed to equal its maximum production that was reported during the preceding 5-year period (2019–2023) divided by 80 percent to simulate an assumed capacity utilization rate. Additionally, a linear ramp-up time of 6 months was assumed to be required to reach the reported or estimated production capacity by country.

where

zij

2 i

vi (7) 2

were the predisruption and postdisruption interindustry intermediate demand, respectively;

(6)

The derivations of these equations are provided by Nassar and others (2024). Following Shojaeddini and others 2025, each mineral commodity’s price elasticities of supply and demand were estimated using fixed effects models for panel data and two-stage dynamic ordinary least-squares along with autoregressive distributed lag models for time-series data (refer to appendix 3 for a summary of the elasticities used

zij

were the predisruption and postdisruption final demand, respectively; were the predisruption and postdisruption value added, respectively; and i, j

were subscripts that indicate individual industries.

Methods 5 The decision variables in the model were each industry’s postdisruption output (x′). Each industry’s postdisruption final demand (y′) was determined using the Leontief equation (Leontief, 1951), which provided the overall supply and demand equilibrium for the U.S. economy: y′ = (I – A) x′,

(8)

where I was the identity matrix and A was the industry-by-industry direct requirements matrix. Additionally, values for individual postdisruption interindustry intermediate demand (z′), were calculated using the direct requirements matrix: z′ = A x′.

(9)

Data for each of the predisruption parameters of equations 7, 8, and 9 (all reported in current [2023] U.S. dollars) were available for the United States from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) at the detailed 402-industry level for years 2007, 2012, and 2017 (U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2025). The BEA industry groupings generally correspond to the definitions of the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS), which was developed under the auspices of the Office of Management and Budget to coordinate and publish industry data by Federal statistical agencies (U.S. Census Bureau, 2024). At the detailed level, an industry consists of establishments that are primarily engaged in similar processes to produce a narrowly defined category of products or services (for example, the “Computer storage device manufacturing” industry with NAICS code 334112). Multiple industries make up a subsector (for example, the “Computer and electronic product manufacturing [334]” subsector), which itself falls within a specific sector (for example, the “Manufacturing [31–33]” sector) of the economy (Office of Management and Budget, 2022). The BEA publishes updates to the IO tables annually but only at aggregated levels (U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2025). These aggregated data are based on estimated detailed IO tables, which were provided to the authors (U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, written comm., October 31, 2024). The most recent data provided (for year 2023) were used in this analysis. The optimization routine was subjected to several constraints, including a mineral commodity availability constraint:

m x M .(10) i

i ,c i , s ,c

s ,c

This constraint specified that the total quantity of the mineral commodity used by industries in the United States— calculated as the product of each consuming industry’s output and its mineral consumption ratio (m), summed across all

industries—must equal the total postdisruption quantity of the mineral commodity (M′) that was available under the specified disruption scenario. The quantity of the mineral commodity that was available after the supply disruption was based on the predisruption quantity consumed in the United States (M) and the net disruption level (n′) that was derived in equilibrium displacement modeling: M′s,c = (1 – n′s,c) Mc.(11) The implicit assumption here is that the quantity that would be available for consumption in the United States decreases in the same relative proportion as that of the rest of the world (outside of the restricting country). For each mineral commodity, the predisruption quantity that was consumed in the United States was calculated as the sum of domestic primary and secondary production, net imports, and changes in inventories. Data for each of these were obtained from the same sources as those listed in appendixes 1 and 2, with additional data for inventories obtained from the latest USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a) where applicable. The calculated or “apparent” consumption quantity was split into specific applications that were linked to individual industries. For example, the use of barite to increase the density of drilling mud in the petroleum industry was connected to the “Drilling oil and gas wells [213111]” BEA industry. As much as possible, we aligned the trade codes used in the equilibrium displacement model to the forms of the mineral commodities that would be purchased by (or the supply chain processes that directly precede) the selected BEA consuming industries. In certain cases, connections were made further downstream if the direct consuming industries were determined to be too broad to reasonably capture the use of the mineral commodity in the application. For example, cobalt metal’s use in high-performance “superalloys” was connected downstream to the “Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]” and the “Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing [333611]” industries rather than the “Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]” industry. Details regarding the application fractions and the BEA industry connections are provided in appendix 4. The monetary value of the trade of the mineral commodity was added to the value of domestic production and inventory releases to provide an estimate for the value of the apparent consumption. The monetary value of domestic production and inventory releases was calculated as the product of the quantities produced and released and the price noted in appendix 3 for each mineral commodity. In turn, an apparent consumption unit value was calculated as the ratio of the monetary value to the quantity of the calculated apparent consumption.

6 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Even at the detailed 402-industry level, not all the output of each identified BEA industry uses the mineral commodity in question. For example, not all of the output of the “Drilling oil and gas wells [213111]” industry uses barite, and not all of the output of the “Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]” industry uses gallium or germanium. To address this issue, Nassar and others (2024) used modified mineral consumption ratios that account for the portion of each BEA industry’s output that used the mineral commodity in question. In this analysis, we instead performed a streamlined IO table expansion. Specifically, each consuming BEA industry was split into two industries: one that consumes the mineral commodity and the other that does not. Because IO table expansion requires extensive additional data regarding the newly formed industries’ inputs from and outputs to all other industries and final demand (data which were not readily available), simplifications were required. One simplification was that the newly formed industries had the same relative production recipe (in terms of monetary inputs per unit of output) as the original industry from which they were disaggregated. This meant that the columns of the direct requirements table for the two new industries were unchanged from the original. The other simplification was that the newly formed industries’ outputs to the other industries and to final demand were all split using the same proportion, which was based on the share of the original industry’s output that was estimated to have used the mineral commodity in question. These proportions, by industry and mineral commodity, were estimated mainly using data on the revenues generated from the sales of specific product(s) as defined by the North American Product Classification System (NAPCS) and reported in the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufactures (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022). Other sources and methods were used where the NAPCS data did not provide sufficient disaggregation for the mineral commodity. Details are provided in appendix 4. Note that the newly formed industries were remerged after running the optimization routine in order to report the results across a consistent set of 402 industries. With expanded IO tables, the mineral consumption ratio was calculated as the ratio of the quantity of the mineral commodity consumed by that industry relative to that industry’s output in U.S. dollars. Another constraint used in the model was an industry production capacity constraint, which required each industry’s output to maintain a positive value that does not exceed that of its capacity (xc):

xi ,s ,c

xic

xi .(12) ui

Each industry’s output capacity was calculated by dividing its predisruption output by its capacity utilization rate, u. Data regarding annual capacity utilization rates for industries within the manufacturing, mining, and electric and gas utilities sectors of the United States were obtained from

the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (2024). As explained by Nassar and others (2024), these data were available at the 3-digit or 4-digit NAICS subsector level or equivalent, whereas the BEA IO tables were reported at the 4-, 5-, or 6-digit NAICS level equivalent. The capacity utilization data at the 3- and 4-digit levels were thus applied to the most appropriate level or sublevel, accordingly. For the remaining industries outside of the manufacturing, mining, and electric and gas utilities sectors, the capacity utilization rate was set to 80 percent, which was approximately the average utilization rate across all sectors with capacity utilization data in 2023 (Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, 2024). Each consuming industry’s postdisruption value added (its postdisruption contribution to U.S. GDP) was calculated as follows: v vi,s ,c � i xi,s ,c Ps,c Pc xi,s ,c mi ,c .(13) xi Changes to an industry’s value added were thus due to changes in both its output and its expenditure on the mineral commodity, with the latter being determined by changes in the mineral commodity’s price and the quantity consumed postdisruption. Although the changes in the mineral commodity’s price were determined in the equilibrium displacement model, changes in the quantity of the mineral commodity consumed were determined endogenously within the economic impacts model as it was a function of the consuming industry’s postdisruption output. Because the demand curve for each mineral commodity was estimated using a single price elasticity, it was necessary to introduce a price maximum for mineral commodities with highly inelastic demand under scenarios in which the quantity restricted was large enough that all excess production capacity in the rest of the world was used (in other words, where a nearly vertical demand curve intersected the vertical portion of the supply curve). The price maximum (Pmax) was based on the maximum willingness to pay for each consuming industry, which was assumed to take place when an industry’s entire value added was reduced to zero owing to the price increase of the mineral commodity consumed. The price maximum for each industry was therefore determined by setting equation 13 to zero: Pcmax ,i

vi Pc .(14) xi mi ,c

An overall price maximum for each mineral commodity was determined to be the largest of the calculated industry price maximums that achieved market clearing based on the mineral availability constraint. This price maximum was ultimately only necessary for four mineral commodity scenarios: trade disruption from China of lutetium, samarium, thulium, and ytterbium.

Methods 7 The postdisruption value added for producing industries was calculated in a similar manner to that of consuming industries except that the price effect increased rather than decreased the industry’s value added, and a mineral production ratio (r) was used instead of a mineral consumption ratio: v vi,s ,c � i xi,s ,c Ps,c Pc xi,s ,c ri ,c .(15) xi Like the mineral consumption ratio, the mineral production ratio was calculated as the ratio of the predisruption mineral production quantity of that industry to its output in U.S. dollars. As with mineral consuming BEA industries, each mineral producing BEA industry (identified in appendix 1) was split into two industries: one that was directly associated with the mineral commodity’s production and the other that represented the remainder of the BEA industry. The monetary value of the production of the mineral commodity as a percent of the industry’s output was the basis for splitting the mineral commodity producing BEA industries. Note that the predisruption price used for domestic production (noted in appendix 3), which was used for splitting the BEA producing industries and calculating the value added of producing industries in equation 15, was not necessarily the same as the predisruption consumption price used in splitting the consuming BEA industries and calculating the value added of consuming industries in equation 13. This price difference reflects the fact that the predisruption domestic consumption prices were based on the unit value of domestic apparent consumption, which accounted for the value and quantity of not only domestic production but also net imports. Differences in production and consumption prices were mainly a reflection of the differences in the commodity forms produced and consumed domestically. Although the predisruption consumption and production prices were different, they were both increased postdisruption at the same rate using the price ratio that was calculated in the equilibrium displacement model (or the calculated price maximum). As with the mineral commodity availability constraint (eq. 10), a mineral commodity production constraint was included in the optimization routine to match the equilibrium displacement model results:

rx i i i , s ,c

min

US s ,c

ROW s ,c ROW s ,c

, sUS,c .(16)

As illustrated in equation 16, domestic production (ψUS) of the mineral commodity was assumed to grow at the same rate as the production of the rest of the world but was limited by the maximum reported or estimated capacity of production in the United States, κUS. This constraint only applied to mineral commodities for which the United States was a producer. Note that because of this growth in domestic mineral commodity production, it was necessary in certain scenarios to remove the industry output capacity constraint (xci) for the producing industries.

The postdisruption value added for all other industries (meaning those that were neither direct consumers nor producers of the mineral commodity in question) were calculated without the price effect term of equations 13 and 15: v vi,s ,c � i xi,s ,c .(17) xi This approach assumed that direct consuming industries absorbed the entire price increase, with none of the price increase being passed on to downstream industries or final consumers. This assumption is not wholly realistic in all cases as many industries have the market power to pass through price increases, but it may be a reasonable assumption in the short term. These non-producing, non-direct consuming industries would thus be affected by the disruption indirectly through the IO tables and the objective function (eqs. 7–9), which seeks to minimize changes to not only each industry’s value added but also each interindustry intermediate and final demand. Increases in prices of mineral commodities were accounted for only in the value added variable and not the other variables (industry output, final demand, or interindustry intermediate demand). This approach allowed the IO model to remain in price equilibrium for all other goods and services, while still accounting for the effect of mineral commodities’ price increases on U.S. GDP. The overall economic effect, or net decrease in U.S. GDP, was calculated as the sum of the changes in value added across all industries for a single scenario: GDPs ,c � i vi vi,s ,c .(18) Note that in equation 18, a net decrease in U.S. GDP is presented as a positive value.

Model Implementation To solve the convex optimization problem at the core of the economic impacts model, we used the Clarabel solver (Goulart and Chen, 2024), an interior-point method designed for second-order cone and quadratic programming. Clarabel was written in the Rust programming language and integrated through Python via CVXPY (2025), allowing for both speed and ease of embedding in high-level modeling workflows. Unlike some legacy solvers, it offers better handling of problem scaling and numerical precision, which can be especially important for economic applications involving large IO models. For model implementation, we used Python version 3.11.8 (Python Software Foundation, 2024), along with CVXPY version 1.6.5. Additional details are provided in appendix 5. For each scenario, results included the postdisruption values for each industry’s output, interindustry intermediate demand, final demand, and value added. As noted earlier, the results for the newly formed industries were remerged

8 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals after running the optimization routine in order to report the results across a consistent set of 402 industries. Additionally, net decreases in U.S. GDP were grouped into one of the following economic effects components: consuming industries reducing their output, consuming industries paying higher prices, producing industries increasing their output, producing industries receiving higher prices, and all other industries reducing their output.

Scenario Probabilities Because not all scenarios are equally likely to occur, we estimated a probability for the occurrence of each scenario. The probability of an export restriction was set to 100 percent for 17 scenarios that represent China’s trade disruptions of the mineral commodities (antimony, bismuth, dysprosium, gadolinium, gallium, germanium, natural graphite, synthetic graphite, indium, lutetium, magnesium metal, molybdenum, samarium, tellurium, terbium, tungsten, and yttrium) that China’s MOFCOM has (as of this writing) explicitly identified as being either restricted or completely banned from being exported to the United States (Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China, 2024, 2025a, b). For all other scenarios, the probability of a country implementing a trade restriction on a given mineral commodity was obtained using the method developed in Ryter and Nassar (2025). These probabilities were calculated using an ensemble of several machine learning classifiers, each of which produced a probability estimate for each mineral commodity–country scenario. Exogenous variables such as prior trade barrier implementation (specifically, trade prohibition, quota, or licensing requirements) and global export dominance or dependence were used to train each classifier and inform its probability estimates. The median of the probabilities for the mineral production process or trade codes that most closely aligned with those selected in this analysis were used. Probabilities were unavailable for a few mineral commodity– country pairs. These pairs represent a small number (17 out of 1,205 scenarios) of low economic impact (with net decreases in U.S. GDP averaging less than $2 million) scenarios. For completeness, these scenarios were assigned a probability equal to the mean probability of all scenarios assessed (4 percent). With the probabilities (ρ) assigned to each scenario, the expected value or probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP across all scenarios (E[∆GDP]) for each mineral commodity was determined, as follows:

GDP c

s ,c

GDPs ,c .(19)

Risk Categorization A statistical approach was used to categorize the risk results. Specifically, the classification of the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP was conducted using the Jenks natural breaks optimization method (Jenks, 1967), which aims to minimize variance within classes while maximizing variance between classes. This method provides optimized cutoff points based on the specified number of classes, allowing for differentiation between various economic effects. To determine the appropriate number of classes and avoid overfitting, the elbow method suggested by Satopaa and others (2011) was employed. Additional details are provided in appendix 6.

Results and Discussion With 84 mineral commodities, 402 industries, and over 1,200 scenarios, the results of the analysis, which include changes in equilibrium prices and quantities, as well as changes in each industry’s output, interindustry intermediate demand, final demand, and contributions to U.S. GDP are too numerous to display and discuss in full in this report. Instead, below is a sampling of results for a single example mineral commodity, palladium (fig. 1), followed by a summary of the main result variable (the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP, which is presented as a positive value) for all mineral commodities by trade disruption scenario (table 1 and fig. 2), industry (table 2), and economic effects component (table 3). Palladium was selected as the example to present because it was one of only a few mineral commodities examined for which more than one trade disruption scenario contributed notably to its overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP.

Results for Palladium In figure 1A, the estimated supply and demand curves for palladium are displayed for a scenario in which U.S. net imports of palladium from Russia (a leading world producer and import source for the United States) were completely restricted for an entire year. The results indicate that the price would increase by 24 percent and the quantity available postdisruption would decrease by approximately 5 percent (the net disruption level, n′). This does not account for speculative (often temporary) price fluctuations in the cash market, but rather reflects the change in the modeled equilibrium price that would be expected from the supply shift. Excess production capacity in other producing countries, especially in South Africa, and inelastic demand were the main reasons that the net disruption level was not higher. Displayed as a scatter plot, figure 1B illustrates the postdisruption prices and net disruption levels for all palladium scenarios (defined by the complete restriction of

Results and Discussion 9 U.S. net imports of palladium from nine producers from which the United States was a direct or indirect net importer: Belgium, India, Norway, Russia, Serbia, South Africa, South Korea, Uzbekistan, and Zimbabwe). The results for South African and Russian scenarios were of similar magnitude, which is to be expected given that both countries produced and net exported to the United States roughly the same amount of palladium in 2023. The availability of Russian palladium helped to mitigate the effects of a South African disruption just as the availability of South African palladium helped to mitigate the effects of a Russian disruption. A scenario in which South Africa and Russia disrupted palladium trade simultaneously was not modeled but would have undoubtedly resulted in a markedly higher disruption level and price given the lack of substantial production outside of these two countries. In contrast, disruption scenarios for Belgium and South Korea, both of which refined and recycled but did not mine palladium, resulted in markedly lower net disruption levels and price increases. These smaller decreases correspond to not only lower U.S. net imports from these countries but also a larger quantity of palladium available from other countries, mainly Russia and South Africa. The impacts from the remaining five scenarios (India, Norway, Serbia, Uzbekistan, and Zimbabwe) were even less pronounced, with extremely low net disruption levels and price increases, primarily due to their markedly smaller contributions to U.S. net imports of palladium and the availability of palladium from major producers like Russia and South Africa. Scenarios from other palladium producers (for example, Canada) were excluded from the analysis because the United States was a net exporter of palladium to those producers in 2023. Results from the economic impacts modeling for all nine palladium scenarios by industry are displayed in figure 1C. Specifically, this part of the figure displays the modeled effects on U.S. GDP for 11 palladium-consuming industries that contributed the most to the decreases along with increases to U.S. GDP from 2 palladium-producing industries (mining and recycling) and an “all other industries” category that reflects the aggregate effect on the remaining 389 industries, which includes several additional industries that were direct consumers of palladium. All changes in U.S. GDP are presented in current (2023) U.S. dollars. Scenarios of Russian and South African palladium trade disruptions resulted in the largest net decreases in U.S. GDP (displayed in the data labels of each scenario in figure 1C) of approximately $1 billion each, whereas the scenarios for Belgium and South Korea both resulted in net decreases of less than $100 million and those from the five other scenarios resulted in net decreases of $1 million or less. Although the specific industry contributions to the decreases varied by scenario, the industries that contributed the most overall were the “Light truck and utility vehicle manufacturing [336112]” industry, where palladium is used in catalytic converters; the “Fertilizer manufacturing [325310]” industry, where palladium is used as a catchment gauze in nitric acid production; and the “Other electronic components manufacturing [33441A]” industry,

where palladium is used in multilayer ceramic capacitors. The other industries affected reflect palladium’s use in dental alloys, hybrid integrated circuits, jewelry, catalytic converters for other vehicle classes, and catalysts for other chemical industries. In these scenarios of foreign supply disruptions, palladium-producing industries (under BEA industry code 2122A0 for mining and 331490 for recycling) garnered higher palladium prices and increased their palladium production, thereby increasing their positive contribution to U.S. GDP, which reduced the net effect of the trade disruptions on the economy overall. Figure 1D displays the results of the economic impacts model for each scenario (horizontal axis) and the median probability of the scenario occurring (vertical axis) based on the analysis conducted by Ryter and Nassar (2025). In this variable-width column graph, the area of each scenario (the product of the median probability and the net decrease in U.S. GDP) represents the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP. Although the South African scenario resulted in the largest decrease of U.S. GDP (as also displayed in figure 1C), its probability of occurrence (approximately 3.9 percent) was slightly lower than of the Russian scenario (approximately 4.1 percent). The probability of Russia restricting palladium supplies might seem low given recent geopolitical tensions but is attributable to the relative infrequency with which Russia imposes export restrictions on mineral commodities, which may be a reflection of their importance as a revenue source (Ryter and Nassar, 2025). Additionally, the scenarios do not account for any current or potential U.S.-imposed import sanctions. Nevertheless, the contribution of the Russian scenario (the product of the scenario’s impact and probability represented by the area of the scenario) to the overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP was slightly smaller ($40.2 million) than that of the South African scenario ($40.6 million). The contributions to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP from the South Korean and Belgian scenarios were both lower. Although the other 5 scenarios are displayed in figure 1D, they are too small (on the horizontal axis) to be legible. The probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP across all scenarios, the entirety of the shaded area of figure 1D, totaled approximately $85 million.

Results by Trade Disruption Scenario A summary of the contributions to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for each mineral commodity by leading country contribution is provided in table 1. The results indicate that samarium has the largest overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP of nearly $4.5 billion. This modeled economic impact comes almost entirely from the China disruption scenario, for which a probability of 100 percent was used because of the recent export restriction. Several of the other “middle” and “heavy” rare earth elements (that is, lutetium, terbium, dysprosium, gadolinium, and yttrium) were also determined

10 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals B

A 1.25

2.0

Russia

Demand

Postdisruption price (initial price = 1)

South Africa

Price (initial price = 1)

1.5 1.24

Initial supply

1.0 Postdisruption supply 0.5

1.20

1.15 India Zimbabwe

1.10

Norway Serbia Uzbekistan

1.05

Belgium South Korea

0.95 0

0.5

1.00

1.0

Quantity (initial quantity = 1)

1.5

Relative decrease in quantity available postdisruption, in percent

Figure 1. Four graphs showing various results from modeling trade disruption scenarios (the restriction of U.S. net imports from producers from which the United States was a direct or indirect net importer) for palladium. A, estimated palladium supply and demand curves for the rest of the world under a trade disruption scenario in which U.S. net imports of palladium from Russia were completely restricted for an entire year. Demand remaining constant, the supply curve shifts postdisruption, causing the postdisruption price to increase and quantity to decrease. B, estimated postdisruption price increase and relative decrease in quantity available postdisruption under nine trade disruption scenarios for palladium (the restriction of U.S. net imports of palladium from nine producers from which the United States was a direct or indirect net importer: Belgium, India, Norway, Russia, Serbia, South Africa, South Korea, Uzbekistan, and Zimbabwe). C, net decreases in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) by industry under nine trade disruption scenarios for palladium. Industries shown are those industries that had the highest contributions to the net decrease in U.S. GDP for palladium across the nine scenarios. Each industry is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets. Values represent the effect for each scenario in current (2023) U.S. dollars, but not do reflect the probability of occurrence. Negative values indicate an increase in U.S. GDP by a given industry. Number to the right of each data bar is the net decrease (sum of positive decreases and negative increases) in U.S. GDP for the scenario. The scenarios are listed in descending order of net decrease. D, estimated median probability of scenario occurrence and net decreases in U.S. GDP for nine trade disruption scenarios for palladium. Five scenarios have net decreases too small to be legible on the figure. Probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP (the product of the modeled net decrease for the scenario and its probability of occurrence) are represented as the area of each scenario with the value being displayed (in millions of U.S. dollars) below the country name for each scenario. The total area (across all scenarios) represents the overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for palladium. Scenarios are shown consecutively along the horizontal axis in descending order by the probability of the scenario occurring to show the relative contribution of the given scenarios to the overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP.

Results and Discussion 11

Scenario of trade disruption for palladium, by country

C South Africa

1,053

Russia

991

Belgium

South Korea

India

Zimbabwe

0.3

Norway

0.01

Serbia

0.002 0.002

Uzbekistan −400

−200

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

Decrease in U.S. gross domestic product, in millions of U.S. dollars EXPLANATION Palladium-consuming industry

Palladium-producing industry

Jewelry and silverware manufacturing [339910] Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180] Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413] Dental laboratories [339116] Heavy duty truck manufacturing [336120] All other direct and indirect consuming industries

Light truck and utility vehicle manufacturing [336112] Fertilizer manufacturing [325310] Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A] Dental equipment and supplies manufacturing [339114] Automobile manufacturing [336111] Other basic organic chemical manufacturing [325190]

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490] Iron, gold, silver, and other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Number to the right of each data bar is the net decrease (sum of positive decreases and negative increases) in U.S. gross domestic product for the scenario.

D Median probability of scenario occurring, in percent

4.5

South Korea $1.9

4.0 3.5

Belgium $2.4

Russia $40.2

3.0

South Africa $40.6

2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0

250

500

750

1,000

1,250

1,500

1,750

Cumulative net decrease in U.S. GDP, in millions of U.S. dollars

Figure 1.—Continued

2,000

[Mineral commodities are listed in order of overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP. Scenarios shown are the disruption of U.S. net imports of the mineral commodities from 12 producers from which the United States was a direct or indirect net importer that resulted in the greatest probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP across the mineral commodities examined: Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Russia, South Africa. All other scenarios are aggregated under the “all other countries” column. Probability-weighted net decreases are the product of the net decrease in U.S. GDP of the scenario and its median probability of occurrence. Results are in current (2023) U.S. dollars and were rounded to the nearest million U.S. dollars; may not add to totals shown. Probability-weighted net decrease values are gradationally shaded between the 5th and 95th percentiles of the values in the table to visually highlight positive (orange) to negative (blue) values. For mineral commodities with an overall negative net decrease (meaning those with an overall net increase) in U.S. GDP, the scenario contributing the most to the net decrease is not displayed. %, percent; —, indicates that the scenario was not applicable for that mineral commodity] Probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP by scenario

Scenario contributing most to probability-

(millions of U.S. dollars)

weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP

Mineral commodity Australia

Belgium

Brazil

Canada

Chile

China

Germany

India

Malaysia

Mexico

Russia

South

All other

Africa

countries

Total

Country name

Net

Median

decrease

probability of

in U.S.

occurrence

GDP

(%)

Samarium

—

4,498

—

4,498

China

4,498

100

Rhodium

—

214

—

2,482

2,752

South Africa

64,340

Lutetium

—

2,059

—

2,059

China

2,059

100

Terbium

—

1,809

—

1,809

China

1,809

100

Dysprosium

—

1,624

—

1,624

China

1,624

100

Gallium

—

1,418

—

1,419

China

1,418

100

Germanium

—

805

—

814

China

805

100

Gadolinium

—

758

—

758

China

758

100

Tungsten

—

539

—

544

China

539

100

Niobium

—

387

—

394

Brazil

10,441

Magnesium metal

—

296

—

303

China

296

100

Yttrium

—

295

—

295

China

295

100

Potash

—

274

—

287

Canada

2,541

Hafnium

—

181

—

206

China

480

Aluminum

—

166

—

201

Canada

1,537

Thulium

—

180

—

180

China

452

Neodymium

—

153

—

154

China

383

Silicon ferroalloys

—

140

Russia

1,000

Antimony

—

129

—

131

China

129

100

Barite

—

104

India

1,001

Synthetic graphite

—

100

China

100

Indium

—

China

100

Vanadium

—

China

217

Palladium

—

South Africa

1,053

Manganese alloys

—

Malaysia

456

Lanthanum

—

China

186

Praseodymium

—

China

165

Titanium ferroalloys

—

China

520

12 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Table 1. Probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP), by scenario across all industries, and scenario contributing most to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for each mineral commodity.—Continued [Mineral commodities are listed in order of overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP. Scenarios shown are the disruption of U.S. net imports of the mineral commodities from 12 producers from which the United States was a direct or indirect net importer that resulted in the greatest probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP across the mineral commodities examined: Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Russia, South Africa. All other scenarios are aggregated under the “all other countries” column. Probability-weighted net decreases are the product of the net decrease in U.S. GDP of the scenario and its median probability of occurrence. Results are in current (2023) U.S. dollars and were rounded to the nearest million U.S. dollars; may not add to totals shown. Probability-weighted net decrease values are gradationally shaded between the 5th and 95th percentiles of the values in the table to visually highlight positive (orange) to negative (blue) values. For mineral commodities with an overall negative net decrease (meaning those with an overall net increase) in U.S. GDP, the scenario contributing the most to the net decrease is not displayed. %, percent; —, indicates that the scenario was not applicable for that mineral commodity] Probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP by scenario

Scenario contributing most to probability-

(millions of U.S. dollars)

weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP

Mineral commodity Australia

Belgium

Brazil

Canada

Chile

China

Germany

India

Malaysia

Mexico

Russia

South

All other

Africa

countries

Total

Country name

Net

Median

decrease

probability of

in U.S.

occurrence

GDP

(%)

878

—

Chile

Platinum

—

South Africa

1,144

Ruthenium

—

South Africa

1,249

Zinc, smelted

—

Canada

346

Iridium

—

South Africa

Cobalt chemicals

—

Erbium

—

Chromium metal

—

Silver

—

Natural graphite

—

Tin

—

Bismuth

—

Manganese sulfate (high purity)

—

Magnesium compounds

—

Titanium sponge

—

Nickel, primary refined

—

Tantalum

—

Holmium

—

Fluorspar, acidspar

—

Lithium

—

Titanium pigment

—

Rhenium

—

Titanium mineral concentrates

—

Cerium

—

Manganese metal

—

Lead

—

Titanium metal

—

Chromium ferroalloys

—

1,163

China

395

China

108

China

Mexico

435

China

100

—

Indonesia

—

China

100

—

China

409

—

China

185

—

China

186

—

Canada

—

China

—

China

—

China

—

China

—

China

—

Canada

—

−0

Canada

—

China

—

China

104

—

Canada

—

−1

Russia

178

—

South Africa

Results and Discussion 13

Copper, refined

Scenario contributing most to probability-

(millions of U.S. dollars)

weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP

Mineral commodity Australia

Belgium

Brazil

Canada

Chile

China

Germany

India

Malaysia

Mexico

Russia

South

All other

Africa

countries

Total

Country name

Net

Median

decrease

probability of

in U.S.

occurrence

GDP

(%)

Beryllium

—

China

Europium

—

China

Ytterbium

—

China

Chromium chemicals

—

China

Arsenic

—

China

Phosphates

—

Peru

Selenium

—

China

Zirconium

—

South Africa

Cobalt metal

—

Canada

Mica

—

China

Manganese dioxide

—

China

Alumina

—

Brazil

Chromite

—

South Africa

Bauxite

—

Jamaica

Feldspar

—

Turkey

Manganese ore

—

Gabon

Strontium

—

Mexico

Fluorspar, metspar

—

China

Cadmium

—

China

Tellurium

—

China

100

Nickel, mined

−0

—

−0

—

−0

—

Copper, mined

−0

—

−0

—

−0

—

−0

—

Zinc, mined

—

−0

—

−0

—

Iron ore

−0

—

−0

—

−0

—

−0

—

Helium

—

−0

—

−0

—

−0

−1

—

Silicon metal

−0

—

−1

—

−0

—

−0

—

−0

−2

—

Molybdenum

−0

—

−1

—

−0

—

−1

−3

—

Gold

—

−1

−20

−1

−0

—

−3

−0

−2

−7

−33

—

14 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Results and Discussion 15 to have among the largest probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP among all the mineral commodities examined, owing to the near complete lack of production of these mineral commodities outside of China. China was the leading contributor to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP of 46 of the 84 mineral commodities examined, including all the rare earth elements, gallium, germanium, tungsten, and magnesium metal. Canada and South Africa were each the leading contributor to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for eight mineral commodities including potash, aluminum, and zinc (smelted) for Canada and rhodium, platinum, ruthenium, iridium, and chromium ferroalloys for South Africa. Most (at least 50 percent) of the contributions to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP come from a single scenario for 65 out of the 76 mineral commodities that had positive probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP—a reflection of the high degree of country-level concentration of both world production and U.S. imports. Summing the economic impact across mineral commodities should not be viewed as the potential effect of simultaneous disruptions across multiple mineral commodities, as such a scenario may have notably different results owing to the interactions between the industries and mineral commodities involved. If a specific disruption scenario were to take place, its impact would be greater than the probability-weighted value. For example, the modeled South African trade disruption of rhodium was estimated to result in a net decrease of over $64 billion in U.S. GDP. However, because the probability of such an occurrence is 3.9 percent, the probability-weighted decrease was just under $2.5 billion. Similarly, a niobium disruption from Brazil was estimated to result in a net decrease of over $10.4 billion in U.S. GDP, but the estimated probability of occurrence is 3.7 percent. This is more clearly displayed in figure 2, which plots the effect (net decreases) on U.S. GDP (vertical axis) and the median probability of occurrence (horizontal axis) for the leading scenario for each mineral commodity. Scenarios with net decreases less than $1 million are not displayed in figure 2. Figure 2 only displays the scenario with largest net decrease in U.S. GDP for each mineral commodity. Only one scenario is thus displayed for each mineral commodity even if that mineral commodity has more than one scenario with net decreases over $1 million. Consequently, figure 2 does not display the mineral commodity’s overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP across all scenarios.

Results by Industry Table 2 displays the same probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for each mineral commodity as table 1 but now by leading contributing industry. This figure highlights that samarium’s probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP was mainly driven by the “Guided missile and space vehicle manufacturing [336414]” and the

“Search, detection, and navigation instruments manufacturing [334511]” industries. The “Search, detection, and navigation instruments manufacturing [334511]” industry was also a notable contributor to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for germanium. The largest contributing industry to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for germanium was, however, the “Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]” industry, which was also a leading contributor to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for gallium, lutetium, and thulium. The “Electric lamp bulb and part manufacturing [335110]” industry was the largest contributor to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for terbium, gadolinium, and yttrium, where these mineral commodities are used as phosphors. A large contributor to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP decline for terbium and other rare earths used in permanent magnets (dysprosium, gadolinium, neodymium, and praseodymium) was the “Audio and video equipment manufacturing [334300]” industry. These results are as much a reflection of the scenarios (and the probability of each scenario’s occurrence) as they are of the importance of the mineral commodity to the identified industry. For example, neodymium and praseodymium play prominent roles in permanent magnets, perhaps more so than samarium. However, the disruption scenarios for these two rare earth elements yielded notably lower impacts than those of the other rare earth elements used in permanent magnets owing to the increased production of separated “light” rare earth elements outside of China in recent years. Similarly, lutetium has a very limited role (as a cracking catalyst) in petroleum refining, in contrast to palladium, platinum, and rhenium. The notable contribution to lutetium’s probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP from that industry is thus more of a reflection of that scenario (in which virtually no lutetium production exists outside of China) than of lutetium’s importance to the petroleum refining industry. Moreover, because of extremely inelastic supply and demand, a large portion of the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for lutetium was modeled to come from the consuming industry paying higher prices.

Results by Economic Effects Component The effect of consuming industries paying higher prices is more clearly reflected in table 3, which summarizes the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for the following economic effects components: consuming industries reducing their output, consuming industries paying higher prices, producing industries increasing their output, producing industries receiving higher prices, and all other industries reducing their output. Displaying the results by component highlights the role of price elasticities and the availability of excess production capacity outside of the restricting country in the analysis. Approximately one-half of samarium’s probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP was due

16 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals 100,000 Rhodium (ZA)

Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP: $10 billion

Net decrease in U.S. GDP, in millions of current (2023) U.S. dollars

10,000

Niobium (BR) Samarium (CN)

1,000

100

Potash (CA) Platinum (ZA) Ruthenium (ZA) Aluminum (CA) Iridium (ZA) Silicon ferroalloys (RU) Barite (IN) Copper, refined (CL) Palladium (ZA) Titanium ferroalloys (CN)

Manganese alloys (MY) Cobalt chemicals (CN) Silver Zinc, smelted (CA) (MX) Manganese sulfate (high purity) (CN) Vanadium (CN) Titanium sponge (CN) Magnesium compounds (CN) Titanium metal (RU) Manganese metal (CN) Fluorspar, acidspar (CN) Nickel, primary refined (CA) Titanium Rhenium (CA) pigment (CN) Tantalum (CN) Chromium ferroalloys (ZA) Lithium (CN) Titanium mineral concentrates (CA) Lead (CA)

Germanium (CN) Gadolinium (CN)

Hafnium (CN) Thulium (CN) Neodymium (CN)

Tungsten (CN) Magnesium metal (CN) Yttrium (CN)

Lanthanum (CN) Praseodymium (CN)

$100 million Antimony (CN)

Erbium (CN)

Synthetic graphite (CN) Indium (CN)

Chromium metal (CN)

Holmium (CN)

Tin (ID)

Zirconium (ZA)

Europium (CN)

Phosphates (PE) Alumina (BR) Chromite (ZA) Manganese dioxide (CN)

Ytterbium (CN)

Arsenic (CN)

Chromium chemicals (CN)

$10 thousand Selenium (CN) Manganese ore (GA) Mica (CN) Feldspar (TR) Bauxite Cobalt metal (CA) (JM) 0

Bismuth (CN) Natural graphite (CN)

$10 million

Cerium (CN)

Beryllium (CN)

$100 thousand 10

Lutetium (CN) Terbium (CN) Dysprosium (CN) Gallium (CN)

$1 billion

$1 million

100

Median probability of scenario occurrence, in percent

Figure 2. Graph showing net decreases in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) and median probability of occurrence for the leading trade disruption scenario for 72 of the 84 mineral commodities examined. Scenarios with net decreases less than $1 million are not displayed. Vertical axis is displayed in a logarithmic scale. The gray curves are used to provide a visual reference for the resultant probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP (the product of the net decrease in U.S. GDP of the scenario and its median probability) at several different orders of magnitude, and intervals between the curves are shaded to help visually group scenarios of similar magnitudes. Point labels display the mineral commodity and (where necessary) the supply chain process or chemical form, followed by the restricting country in parentheses, shown using each country's 2-letter ISO 3166 country code, as follows: BR, Brazil; CA, Canada; CL, Chile; CN, China; GA, Gabon; ID, Indonesia; IN, India; JM, Jamaica; MX, Mexico; MY, Malaysia; PE, Peru; RU, Russia; TR, Turkey; ZA, South Africa.

Results and Discussion 17 to consuming industries paying higher prices. Consuming industries paying higher prices was a major contributor to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for several other mineral commodities including aluminum, antimony, copper (refined), gold, lead, neodymium, potash, rhodium, silver, tungsten, and zinc (smelted). In contrast, consuming industries reducing their output was a larger contributor to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for most of the other mineral commodities with large probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP including, dysprosium, gadolinium, gallium, germanium, hafnium, magnesium metal, niobium, terbium, and yttrium. Table 3 also provides insights into the availability or lack of domestic production. As noted earlier, under scenarios of foreign trade disruptions, domestic producers of the mineral commodity benefit from higher prices and increased output. For all mineral commodities examined, domestic producers benefited more from higher prices than from increased output. This was especially the case for producers of aluminum, copper (refined), gold, lead, rhodium, and tungsten. For gold, the higher prices that domestic producers would be expected to receive more than offset the expected decreases in U.S. GDP attributable to lower outputs of and higher prices paid by consuming industries. The impact on all other industries (those that are not direct consumers or producers of the mineral commodity) varies notably by mineral commodity and reflects how downstream industries may be affected. One factor that may have affected these results was whether the mineral commodity was consumed as a final good (as reflected in final demand) or was mainly an input for downstream manufacturers (as reflected in interindustry intermediate demand). Several of the mineral commodity alloys (for example, manganese alloys, silicon ferroalloys, and titanium ferroalloys) have much larger contributions to the probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP from downstream industries rather than from direct consuming industries. For some mineral commodities, the contributions to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP was negative for both the consuming industries and all other industries, reflecting a net increase in their overall economic activity. Note that these are aggregate results (across various industries and scenarios) and can be attributed to the optimization routine finding an optimal solution that allowed some industries to increase their economic activity while satisfying the specified constraints on mineral commodity availability and industry output capacity. This economic adjustment would occur when industries with relatively high contributions to U.S. GDP per unit of mineral commodity consumption increased their output while industries with lower contributions reduced their output even more, thereby reducing the overall consumption of the mineral commodity and meeting the mineral availability constraint of the scenario. These tradeoffs between industries were limited by the objective function of the optimization routine, which sought to minimize change. In practical terms, these net increases

in U.S. GDP from direct and indirect consuming industries reflects the ability of industries to adjust their economic activities in response to the trade disruption scenario.

Summary of Results and Recommendations Table 4 provides a summary of the key results (the probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP for each mineral commodity examined) and recommendations for each mineral commodity’s inclusion on the LCM. The results largely reflect the following factors: 1. the concentration of U.S. net imports from countries likely to prohibit exports, 2. the size of U.S. imports as a share of production outside of the restricting country, 3. the import dependence of the United States, 4. the availability of excess capacity outside of the restricting country, 5. the responsiveness (elasticity) of supply and demand in the short term (within 1 year), and 6. the economic value of the (direct and indirect) consuming and producing industries’ contributions to the U.S. economy. As described in the “Methods” section, statistical risk categories were determined based on the Jenks natural breaks optimization method. The results of that statistical method indicate that the probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP for the 84 mineral commodities examined can be classified into five risk classes or categories (after excluding the mineral commodities with overall net increases to the probability-weighted U.S. GDP, indicated as “negative” in table 4). These risk categories, as shown in table 4, had the following descriptors and ranges of probability-weighted net decreases (in millions of current [2023] U.S. dollars): “negligible,” 0 to 0.06; “limited,” >0.06 to 2; “moderate,” >2 to 22; “elevated,” >22 to 206; and “high,” >206. Based on the first criterion, mineral commodities are recommended be included on the updated LCM if the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP decline was found to be at or above the “moderate” risk category in any stage of the supply chain (or chemical form). With two risk categories above and two risk categories below, selecting the “moderate” risk category prevents the exclusion of mineral commodities with notable risks (those with probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP in the tens of millions of current [2023] U.S. dollars) and avoids the inclusion of those with risks that are likely too low for consequential policy consideration (those with probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP in the hundreds of thousands of U.S. dollars and up to $2 million). Policymakers and other users who use the LCM may,

18 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 2. Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) by industry across all scenarios, and industry contributing most to probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for each mineral commodity. [Mineral commodities are listed in order of overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP. Only the 10 industries that contributed the most (in descending order from left to right) to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP across all mineral commodities are displayed. The probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for the remaining 392 industries are aggregated under the “all other industries” category. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets. Results are in current (2023) U.S. dollars and were rounded to the nearest million U.S. dollars; may not add to totals shown. Probability-weighted net decrease values are gradationally shaded between the 5th and 95th percentiles of the values in the table to visually highlight positive (orange) to negative (blue) values. mfg., manufacturing] Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP by industry (millions of U.S. dollars) Mineral commodity

Semiconductor and related device mfg. [334413]

Light truck and utility vehicle mfg. [336112]

Guided missile and space vehicle mfg. [336414]

Search, detection, and navigation instruments mfg. [334511]

Audio and video equipment mfg. [334300]

Electromedical Electric lamp

Petroleum

bulb and part

refineries

and electrotherapeutic

mfg. [335110]

[324110]

apparatus mfg. [334510]

Samarium

−1

2,184

1,497

−3

−1

Rhodium

2,084

−1

Lutetium

608

−0

−1

778

163

Terbium

245

366

384

−0

638

−1

−0

200

Dysprosium Gallium

1,346

−0

Germanium

293

−0

127

−0

−1

Gadolinium

301

Tungsten

−0

Niobium

−0

Magnesium metal

−0

Yttrium

−0

181

−0

Potash

−0

Hafnium

−0

Aluminum

−0

Thulium

146

−0

Neodymium

−0

Silicon ferroalloys

−0

Antimony

−0

Barite

−0

Synthetic graphite

−0

Indium

−0

Vanadium

−0

Palladium

−0

Manganese alloys

−0

Lanthanum

−0

Praseodymium

Titanium ferroalloys

−0

Copper, refined

−0

Platinum

−0

Ruthenium

−0

Zinc, smelted

−0

Iridium

−0

Cobalt chemicals

−0

Erbium

−0

Results and Discussion 19 Table 2. Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) by industry across all scenarios, and industry contributing most to probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for each mineral commodity.—Continued [Mineral commodities are listed in order of overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP. Only the 10 industries that contributed the most (in descending order from left to right) to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP across all mineral commodities are displayed. The probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for the remaining 392 industries are aggregated under the “all other industries” category. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets. Results are in current (2023) U.S. dollars and were rounded to the nearest million U.S. dollars; may not add to totals shown. Probability-weighted net decrease values are gradationally shaded between the 5th and 95th percentiles of the values in the table to visually highlight positive (orange) to negative (blue) values. mfg., manufacturing] Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP by industry (millions of U.S. dollars) Mineral commodity

Industry contributing most to probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP

Other electronic

Automobile

All other

component

mfg. [336111]

industries

Total

mfg. [33441A] Samarium

−1

697

4,498

Guided missile and space vehicle mfg. [336414]

Rhodium

327

320

2,752

Light truck and utility vehicle mfg. [336112]

Lutetium

−1

510

2,059

Petroleum refineries [324110]

Terbium

148

462

1,809

Electric lamp bulb and part mfg. [335110]

Dysprosium

578

1,624

Audio and video equipment mfg. [334300]

Gallium

−0

1,419

Semiconductor and related device mfg. [334413]

Germanium

−0

296

814

Semiconductor and related device mfg. [334413]

Gadolinium

270

758

Electric lamp bulb and part mfg. [335110]

Tungsten

−0

412

544

Cutting and machine tool accessory, rolling mill, and other metalworking

Niobium

−0

322

394

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy mfg. [331110]

Magnesium metal

−0

301

303

Nonferrous metal foundries [331520]

Yttrium

−0

103

295

Electric lamp bulb and part mfg. [335110]

Potash

−0

287

Fertilizer mfg. [325310]

Hafnium

−0

199

206

Electric power generation, transmission, and distribution [221100]

Aluminum

−0

201

Aluminum product mfg. from purchased aluminum [33131B]

Thulium

−0

180

Semiconductor and related device mfg. [334413]

Neodymium

154

Audio and video equipment mfg. [334300]

Silicon ferroalloys

139

140

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy mfg. [331110]

Antimony

−0

131

Plastics material and resin mfg. [325211]

Barite

−0

103

104

Drilling oil and gas wells [213111]

Synthetic graphite

−0

100

Carbon and graphite product mfg. [335991]

Indium

−0

Other electronic component mfg. [33441A]

Vanadium

−0

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy mfg. [331110]

Palladium

Light truck and utility vehicle mfg. [336112]

Manganese alloys

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy mfg. [331110]

Lanthanum

−0

Storage battery mfg. [335911]

Praseodymium

Synthetic dye and pigment mfg. [325130]

Titanium ferroalloys

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy mfg. [331110]

Copper, refined

Copper rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331420]

Platinum

Jewelry and silverware mfg. [339910]

Ruthenium

−0

Other basic organic chemical mfg. [325190]

Zinc, smelted

−0

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy mfg. [331110]

Iridium

−0

Other electronic component mfg. [33441A]

Cobalt chemicals

−0

Storage battery mfg. [335911]

Erbium

−0

Communication and energy wire and cable mfg. [335920]

machinery mfg. [33351B]

20 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 2. Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) by industry across all scenarios, and industry contributing most to probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for each mineral commodity.—Continued [Mineral commodities are listed in order of overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP. Only the 10 industries that contributed the most (in descending order from left to right) to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP across all mineral commodities are displayed. The probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for the remaining 392 industries are aggregated under the “all other industries” category. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets. Results are in current (2023) U.S. dollars and were rounded to the nearest million U.S. dollars; may not add to totals shown. Probability-weighted net decrease values are gradationally shaded between the 5th and 95th percentiles of the values in the table to visually highlight positive (orange) to negative (blue) values. mfg., manufacturing] Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP by industry (millions of U.S. dollars) Mineral commodity

Semiconductor and related device mfg. [334413]

Light truck and utility vehicle mfg. [336112]

Guided missile and space vehicle mfg. [336414]

Search, detection, and navigation instruments mfg. [334511]

Audio and video equipment mfg. [334300]

Electromedical Electric lamp

Petroleum

bulb and part

refineries

and electrotherapeutic

mfg. [335110]

[324110]

apparatus mfg. [334510]

Chromium metal

−0

Silver

−0

Natural graphite

−0

Tin

−0

Bismuth

−0

Manganese sulfate (high purity)

−0

Magnesium compounds

−0

Titanium sponge

−0

Nickel, primary refined

−0

Tantalum

−0

Holmium

−0

Fluorspar, acidspar

−0

Lithium

−0

Titanium pigment

−0

Rhenium

−0

Titanium mineral concentrates

−0

Cerium

Manganese metal

−0

Lead

−0

Titanium metal

−0

Chromium ferroalloys

−0

Beryllium

−0

Europium

−0

Ytterbium

−0

Chromium chemicals

−0

Arsenic

−0

Phosphates

−0

Selenium

−0

Zirconium

−0

Cobalt metal

−0

Mica

−0

Manganese dioxide

−0

Alumina

−0

Chromite

−0

Results and Discussion 21 Table 2. Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) by industry across all scenarios, and industry contributing most to probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for each mineral commodity.—Continued [Mineral commodities are listed in order of overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP. Only the 10 industries that contributed the most (in descending order from left to right) to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP across all mineral commodities are displayed. The probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for the remaining 392 industries are aggregated under the “all other industries” category. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets. Results are in current (2023) U.S. dollars and were rounded to the nearest million U.S. dollars; may not add to totals shown. Probability-weighted net decrease values are gradationally shaded between the 5th and 95th percentiles of the values in the table to visually highlight positive (orange) to negative (blue) values. mfg., manufacturing] Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP by industry (millions of U.S. dollars) Mineral commodity

Industry contributing most to probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP

Other electronic

Automobile

All other

component

mfg. [336111]

industries

Total

mfg. [33441A] Chromium metal

−0

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and

Silver

−0

Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities [332800]

Natural graphite

−0

Carbon and graphite product mfg. [335991]

Tin

−0

Fabricated pipe and pipe fitting mfg. [332996]

Bismuth

−0

Pharmaceutical preparation mfg. [325412]

Manganese sulfate (high purity)

−0

Storage battery mfg. [335911]

Magnesium compounds

−0

All other chemical product and preparation mfg. [3259A0]

Titanium sponge

−0

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and

Nickel, primary refined

−0

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy mfg. [331110]

Tantalum

−0

Semiconductor and related device mfg. [334413]

Holmium

−0

Other electronic component mfg. [33441A]

Fluorspar, acidspar

−0

Industrial gas mfg. [325120]

Lithium

−0

Storage battery mfg. [335911]

Titanium pigment

Paint and coating mfg. [325510]

Rhenium

−0

Semiconductor and related device mfg. [334413]

Titanium mineral concentrates

−0

Synthetic dye and pigment mfg. [325130]

alloying [331490]

Cerium

All other chemical product and preparation mfg. [3259A0]

Manganese metal

−0

Secondary smelting and alloying of aluminum [331314]

Lead

−0

Storage battery mfg. [335911]

Titanium metal

−0

Aircraft mfg. [336411]

Chromium ferroalloys

−0

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy mfg. [331110]

Beryllium

−0

Other electronic component mfg. [33441A]

Europium

−0

Medical and diagnostic laboratories [621500]

Ytterbium

−0

Communication and energy wire and cable mfg. [335920]

Chromium chemicals

−0

Synthetic dye and pigment mfg. [325130]

Arsenic

−0

Sawmills and wood preservation [321100]

Phosphates

Fertilizer mfg. [325310]

Selenium

−0

Other animal food mfg. [311119]

Zirconium

−0

Paper mills [322120]

Cobalt metal

−0

Aircraft engine and engine parts mfg. [336412]

Mica

−0

Paint and coating mfg. [325510]

Manganese dioxide

−0

Primary battery mfg. [335912]

Alumina

−0

Abrasive product mfg. [327910]

Chromite

−0

Other basic inorganic chemical mfg. [325180]

22 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 2. Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) by industry across all scenarios, and industry contributing most to probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for each mineral commodity.—Continued [Mineral commodities are listed in order of overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP. Only the 10 industries that contributed the most (in descending order from left to right) to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP across all mineral commodities are displayed. The probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for the remaining 392 industries are aggregated under the “all other industries” category. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets. Results are in current (2023) U.S. dollars and were rounded to the nearest million U.S. dollars; may not add to totals shown. Probability-weighted net decrease values are gradationally shaded between the 5th and 95th percentiles of the values in the table to visually highlight positive (orange) to negative (blue) values. mfg., manufacturing] Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP by industry (millions of U.S. dollars) Mineral commodity

Semiconductor and related device mfg. [334413]

Light truck and utility vehicle mfg. [336112]

Guided missile and space vehicle mfg. [336414]

Search, detection, and navigation instruments mfg. [334511]

Audio and video equipment mfg. [334300]

Electromedical and electro-

Electric lamp

Petroleum

bulb and part

refineries

therapeutic

mfg. [335110]

[324110]

apparatus mfg. [334510]

Bauxite

−0

Feldspar

−0

Manganese ore

−0

Strontium

−0

Fluorspar, metspar

−0

Cadmium

−0

Tellurium

−0

Nickel, mined

−0

Copper, mined

−0

Zinc, mined

−0

Iron ore

−0

Helium

−0

−0 −0

Silicon metal

−0

Molybdenum

−0

Gold

−0

however, elect to use a different minimum risk category (for example, “elevated”) or a specific monetary cutoff value (for example, $100 million) that corresponds to a specific risk tolerance or meets the definition of “significant consequences” outlined in the Energy Act of 2020. The second criterion was if the mineral commodity had a SPOF. Although several mineral commodities currently have a SPOF, it was only necessary to apply this criterion to zirconium given that the other mineral commodities had risk ratings categorized as being “moderate” or higher. Although there were two firms that recovered zircon—the primary source of zirconium—from heavy-mineral sands and two firms that produced zirconium metal (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a), there was only one domestic producer of fused zircon and no domestic producer of zirconium oxychloride, both of which were necessary precursors for zirconium metal (Nassar and Fortier, 2021; U.S. Trade Representative, 2019). In comparison to the previous LCM from 2022, several additional mineral commodities are now recommended for inclusion (in descending order of risk as determined in this assessment): potash, silicon (in particular, silicon ferroalloys), copper (in particular, refined copper), silver, rhenium, and

lead. Although global potash production was not as highly concentrated as some other mineral commodities, the vast majority (approximately 90 percent) of U.S. net imports of potash were obtained from a single country, Canada, in 2023. Potash’s relatively large probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP is thus principally a reflection of the high degree of U.S. dependency on Canada (refer to table 1 and fig. 2). In contrast to the low disruption probabilities for Russia and South Africa, Canada’s disruption probability for several mineral commodities is relatively high (for example, just under 11 percent for potash). This comparatively elevated probability can be attributed to Canada’s relatively high rate of historical trade barrier implementation. Between 1989 and 2023, Canada implemented prohibition, quota, or licensing requirements on mineral commodities in 8 different years, whereas other key mineral commodity-producing countries such as Russia and South Africa have implemented such barriers in only 6 and 4 different years, respectively (Ryter and Nassar, 2025). Even if the probability of a Canadian potash trade disruption scenario occurring was an order magnitude lower than estimated (for example, 1.1 percent instead of 11 percent), the overall probability-weighted net

Results and Discussion 23 Table 2. Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) by industry across all scenarios, and industry contributing most to probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for each mineral commodity.—Continued [Mineral commodities are listed in order of overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP. Only the 10 industries that contributed the most (in descending order from left to right) to the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP across all mineral commodities are displayed. The probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP for the remaining 392 industries are aggregated under the “all other industries” category. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets. Results are in current (2023) U.S. dollars and were rounded to the nearest million U.S. dollars; may not add to totals shown. Probability-weighted net decrease values are gradationally shaded between the 5th and 95th percentiles of the values in the table to visually highlight positive (orange) to negative (blue) values. mfg., manufacturing] Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP by industry (millions of U.S. dollars) Mineral commodity

Industry contributing most to probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP

Other electronic

Automobile

All other

component

mfg. [336111]

industries

Total

mfg. [33441A] Bauxite

−0

Alumina refining and primary aluminum production [331313]

Feldspar

−0

Paint and coating mfg. [325510]

Manganese ore

−0

Other basic inorganic chemical mfg. [325180]

Strontium

−0

Drilling oil and gas wells [213111]

Fluorspar, metspar

−0

Clay product and refractory mfg. [327100]

Cadmium

−0

Storage battery mfg. [335911]

Tellurium

−0

Semiconductor and related device mfg. [334413]

Nickel, mined

−0

Nonferrous metal (except aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Copper, mined

−0

Nonferrous metal (except aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Zinc, mined

−0

Nonferrous metal (except aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Iron ore

−0

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy mfg. [331110]

Helium

−0

−1

Sporting and athletic goods mfg. [339920]

Silicon metal

−0

−2

Synthetic rubber and artificial and synthetic fibers and filaments mfg. [3252A0]

Molybdenum

−0

−9

−3

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy mfg. [331110]

Gold

−0

−66

−33

Jewelry and silverware mfg. [339910]

decrease in U.S. GDP for potash would still be considerably higher (around $41 million after accounting for not only the assumed lower probability for the Canadian scenario but also all the other scenarios at the estimated probabilities) than the minimum value required to meet the “moderate” risk category of greater than $2 million. Silver’s probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP is largely due to a scenario in which Mexico stops silver exports to the United States—a high impact ($435 million), low probability (4 percent) event (refer to table 1 and fig. 2). In the previous LCM assessment (Nassar and Fortier, 2021), lead and rhenium were both just below the cutoff threshold for recommendation to the LCM, whereas the risk for refined copper was trending upward. The evaluation of lead and rhenium just above the minimum threshold of this assessment underscores the idea that risk assessments operate on a continuum. Evaluating a mineral commodity just above and subsequently just below a threshold in consecutive assessments may also warrant the retention of the mineral commodity on the LCM for additional time to allow for stability in policymaking. Silicon metal and mined copper have negative probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP but are still recommended for inclusion because of

the risks associated with other stages of their supply chains, namely silicon ferroalloys and refined copper. Their negative probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP were due to the United States being a net exporter of copper ores and concentrates and exporting higher value (and higher grades of) silicon metal (polysilicon) than it imports. Arsenic and tellurium, both of which were included on the previous LCM in 2022, do not qualify under either criterion of this assessment. With the recent installation of copper telluride recovery capability by a major copper operation in Utah (Rio Tinto plc, 2022), the United States has moved from being over 95 percent net import reliant in 2021 to being a net exporter of tellurium in 2023 (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a). Although the domestically produced copper telluride was not refined in the United States, the notable reduction of U.S. imports of tellurium since 2022 (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a) has resulted in a decrease in tellurium’s supply risk from foreign trade disruptions. However, that risk may return if one or both current domestic producers stop recovering copper telluride or if world tellurium production becomes even more geopolitically concentrated despite the notable enrichment

24 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 3. Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) by economic effects component (net decrease in U.S. GDP owing to changes in industry outputs or higher mineral commodity prices). [Mineral commodities are listed in order of overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP. Results are in current (2023) U.S. dollars and were rounded to the nearest million U.S. dollars; may not add to totals shown. Probability-weighted net decrease values are gradationally shaded between the 5th and 95th percentiles of the values in the table to visually highlight positive (orange) to negative (blue) values. —, no domestic producers of the mineral commodity]

Probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP by economic effect component (millions of U.S. dollars) Consuming industries reducing output

Consuming industries paying higher prices

Producing industries increasing output

Producing industries receiving higher prices

All other industries reducing output

Total

2,003

2,266

—

229

4,498

Rhodium

727

2,151

−7

−580

460

2,752

Lutetium

1,413

486

—

160

2,059

Terbium

1,422

403

−0

−30

1,809

Dysprosium

1,260

353

−0

−32

1,624

Gallium

Mineral commodity

Samarium

1,231

116

—

1,419

Germanium

744

—

814

Gadolinium

688

−0

−1

758

Tungsten

191

569

−4

−216

544

Niobium

237

—

142

394

Magnesium metal

177

−3

−24

303

Yttrium

203

—

295

Potash

229

−2

−29

287

Hafnium

185

−2

−49

206

Aluminum

234

−3

−88

201

Thulium

141

—

−1

180

Neodymium

112

−1

−16

154

Silicon ferroalloys

−0

−1

116

140

Antimony

−0

−4

131

Barite

−1

−2

104

Synthetic graphite

−15

−51

100

Indium

—

Vanadium

−1

−16

Palladium

−3

−28

Manganese alloys

−0

Lanthanum

−0

Praseodymium

−0

−3

Titanium ferroalloys

−0

Copper, refined

114

−1

−68

Platinum

−1

−12

−1

Ruthenium

−0

−1

Zinc, smelted

−1

−0

−18

−4

Iridium

−0

−2

Cobalt chemicals

—

Erbium

—

Chromium metal

—

Silver

−3

−24

−0

Results and Discussion 25 Table 3. Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) by economic effects component (net decrease in U.S. GDP owing to changes in industry outputs or higher mineral commodity prices).—Continued [Mineral commodities are listed in order of overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP. Results are in current (2023) U.S. dollars and were rounded to the nearest million U.S. dollars; may not add to totals shown. Probability-weighted net decrease values are gradationally shaded between the 5th and 95th percentiles of the values in the table to visually highlight positive (orange) to negative (blue) values. —, no domestic producers of the mineral commodity]

Probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP by economic effect component (millions of U.S. dollars) Consuming industries reducing output

Consuming industries paying higher prices

Producing industries increasing output

Producing industries receiving higher prices

All other industries reducing output

Total

Natural graphite

—

Tin

−1

−12

−1

Bismuth

—

Manganese sulfate (high purity)

—

Magnesium compounds

−0

−3

Titanium sponge

−0

Nickel, primary refined

—

Tantalum

—

Holmium

—

−0

Fluorspar, acidspar

—

Lithium

−1

−8

−1

Titanium pigment

−1

−13

Rhenium

−0

Titanium mineral concentrates

−0

Cerium

−0

Manganese metal

—

Lead

−5

−1

−43

−2

Titanium metal

−1

−7

Chromium ferroalloys

—

Beryllium

−0

−2

Europium

—

Ytterbium

—

Chromium chemicals

−0

−1

Arsenic

−0

—

−0

Phosphates

−1

−0

−11

−0

Selenium

−0

Zirconium

−0

Cobalt metal

−0

−2

Mica

−0

Manganese dioxide

−0

Alumina

−0

Chromite

—

Bauxite

−0

Feldspar

−0

Manganese ore

—

Strontium

—

−0

Fluorspar, metspar

—

Mineral commodity

26 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 3. Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) by economic effects component (net decrease in U.S. GDP owing to changes in industry outputs or higher mineral commodity prices).—Continued [Mineral commodities are listed in order of overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP. Results are in current (2023) U.S. dollars and were rounded to the nearest million U.S. dollars; may not add to totals shown. Probability-weighted net decrease values are gradationally shaded between the 5th and 95th percentiles of the values in the table to visually highlight positive (orange) to negative (blue) values. —, no domestic producers of the mineral commodity]

Probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP by economic effect component (millions of U.S. dollars) Mineral commodity

Consuming industries reducing output

Consuming industries paying higher prices

Producing industries increasing output

Producing industries receiving higher prices

All other industries reducing output 0

Total

Cadmium

−0

Tellurium

−0

Nickel, mined

−0

Copper, mined

−0

Zinc, mined

−0

Iron ore

−0

−1

−0

Helium

−0

−1

Silicon metal

−0

−3

−0

−2

Molybdenum

−2

−30

−1

−3

Gold

−3

196

−0

−222

−3

−33

(but lack of recovery) of tellurium within the copper anode slimes of copper electrolytic refineries (Nassar and others, 2022). Although the United States obtains most of its arsenic from China, revised data from the USGS (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025b) indicates that Peru (not China) was the leading producer of arsenic. Even though arsenic remains important for its use in gallium arsenide wafers, a greater concern in that supply chain is China’s dominance in primary gallium production (Nassar and others, 2024). As with the previous LCM assessment, there were insufficient data to quantitatively evaluate the risks for cesium, rubidium, and scandium. Although they have limited commercial applications, the United States has continued to be completely import reliant for all three mineral commodities (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a). Moreover, scandium is specifically called out for export restriction by China’s MOFCOM (Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China, 2025b). There was insufficient justification for changing their status on the LCM, but future assessments could strive to quantitively assess their risk.

Conclusions The results of the economic effects assessment and the SPOF criteria recommend the addition of six mineral commodities (in descending risk order, potash, silicon, copper, silver, rhenium, and lead) to the LCM and the removal of two mineral commodities (arsenic and tellurium) from the LCM.

These recommendations are based on a statistical approach that classifies the probability-weighted economic effects into specific quantitative intervals. In determining the final LCM or in using the results of this methodology, decision makers may wish to consider other thresholds based on a specific risk tolerance, examine other risks (for example, the potential for supply disruptions from natural hazards [Jaiswal and others, 2024]), or address other considerations (for example, future demand expectations or the strategic importance of certain industries beyond economic valuation). Moreover, although defense-related industries are captured in the IO tables, consequences to the national security of the United States beyond economic effects are not directly factored into this analysis but may be addressed in the final LCM through consultation with the heads of other relevant executive departments and agencies as indicated by the Energy Act of 2020. Additionally, postponing the removal of mineral commodities may provide sufficient time for current policies to achieve their intended effects. For example, the Secretary of the Interior may decide to remove a mineral commodity now or wait to see if it is again recommended for removal in the next cycle. The assessment of risk exists on a continuum and this may influence decisions for mineral commodities near thresholds of evaluation. Mineral commodities with the highest probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP may warrant closer evaluation and prompt greater attention from policymakers and other users of this information than those with low or negative probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP. Several of the mineral commodities with the highest estimated risk have not only received attention but

Conclusions 27 Table 4. Overview of mineral commodity assessment, ranking, and categorization for inclusion on the draft List of Critical Minerals (LCM) in 2025. [Mineral commodities are listed in order of overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP). Mineral commodities that were not evaluated using the quantitative assessment were not ranked (ranking represented by a dash, —) and are ordered alphabetically after those ranked. Results are in current (2023) U.S. dollars and were rounded to the nearest million U.S. dollars; may not add to totals shown. Statistical risk categories were determined based on the probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP (in millions of U.S. dollars) in rounded intervals, as follows: high, >206; elevated, >22 to 206; moderate, >2 to 22; limited, >0.06 to 2; negligible, 0 to 0.06; negative, <0. A mineral commodity was recommended for inclusion on the updated LCM if the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP decline was determined to be at or above the “moderate” risk category in any process of the supply chain (or chemical form) or if the mineral commodity had a single point of failure (SPOF) in the domestic supply chain. Probability-weighted net decrease values and their corresponding risk categories are shaded according to their risk category classification: high to limited are shaded in progressively lighter shades of orange; negligible are white; and negative are blue. Mineral commodity forms and supply chain processes not previously assessed separately are marked with an asterisk in the final column]

Risk ranking

Mineral commodity

Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP (millions of U.S. dollars)

Statistical risk category

Recommended for inclusion?

Basis for recommendation

On previous LCM (and basis for previous recommendation)?

Samarium

4,498

High

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Rhodium

2,752

High

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Lutetium

2,059

High

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (qualitative evaluation)

Terbium

1,809

High

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (qualitative evaluation)

Dysprosium

1,624

High

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Gallium

1,419

High

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Germanium

814

High

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Gadolinium

758

High

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (qualitative evaluation)

Tungsten

544

High

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Niobium

394

High

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Magnesium metal

303

High

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Yttrium

295

High

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Potash

287

High

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Hafnium

206

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Aluminum

201

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Thulium

180

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (qualitative evaluation)

Neodymium

154

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Silicon ferroalloys

140

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Not previously assessed

Antimony

131

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Barite

104

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Synthetic graphite

100

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Indium

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Vanadium

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Palladium

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Manganese alloys

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Lanthanum

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Praseodymium

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Titanium ferroalloys

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Copper, refined

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Platinum

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Ruthenium

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Zinc, smelted

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes

Iridium

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Cobalt chemicals

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Erbium

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (qualitative evaluation)

Chromium metal

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

28 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4. Overview of mineral commodity assessment, ranking, and categorization for inclusion on the draft List of Critical Minerals (LCM) in 2025.—Continued [Mineral commodities are listed in order of overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP). Mineral commodities that were not evaluated using the quantitative assessment were not ranked (ranking represented by a dash, —) and are ordered alphabetically after those ranked. Results are in current (2023) U.S. dollars and were rounded to the nearest million U.S. dollars; may not add to totals shown. Statistical risk categories were determined based on the probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP (in millions of U.S. dollars) in rounded intervals, as follows: high, >206; elevated, >22 to 206; moderate, >2 to 22; limited, >0.06 to 2; negligible, 0 to 0.06; negative, <0. A mineral commodity was recommended for inclusion on the updated LCM if the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP decline was determined to be at or above the “moderate” risk category in any process of the supply chain (or chemical form) or if the mineral commodity had a single point of failure (SPOF) in the domestic supply chain. Probability-weighted net decrease values and their corresponding risk categories are shaded according to their risk category classification: high to limited are shaded in progressively lighter shades of orange; negligible are white; and negative are blue. Mineral commodity forms and supply chain processes not previously assessed separately are marked with an asterisk in the final column]

Risk ranking

Mineral commodity

Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP (millions of U.S. dollars)

Statistical risk category

Recommended for inclusion?

Basis for recommendation

On previous LCM (and basis for previous recommendation)?

Silver

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Natural graphite

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Tin

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Bismuth

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Manganese sulfate (high purity)

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Magnesium compounds

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Titanium sponge

Elevated

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Nickel, primary refined

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (SPOF)

Tantalum

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Holmium

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (qualitative evaluation)

Fluorspar, acidspar

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Lithium

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Titanium pigment

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Rhenium

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Titanium mineral concentrates

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Cerium

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Manganese metal

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Lead

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Titanium metal

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Chromium ferroalloys

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Beryllium

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (SPOF)

Europium

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (qualitative evaluation)

Ytterbium

Moderate

Yes

Quantitative assessment

Yes (qualitative evaluation)

Chromium chemicals

Limited

Yes

Assessment of other supply chain process or form

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Arsenic

Limited

Not applicable

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Phosphates

Limited

Not applicable

Selenium

Limited

Not applicable

Zirconium

Limited

Yes

SPOF

Yes (SPOF)

Cobalt metal

Limited

Yes

Assessment of other supply chain process or form

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Mica

Limited

Not applicable

Manganese dioxide

Limited

Yes

Assessment of other supply chain process or form

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Conclusions 29 Table 4. Overview of mineral commodity assessment, ranking, and categorization for inclusion on the draft List of Critical Minerals (LCM) in 2025.—Continued [Mineral commodities are listed in order of overall probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP). Mineral commodities that were not evaluated using the quantitative assessment were not ranked (ranking represented by a dash, —) and are ordered alphabetically after those ranked. Results are in current (2023) U.S. dollars and were rounded to the nearest million U.S. dollars; may not add to totals shown. Statistical risk categories were determined based on the probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP (in millions of U.S. dollars) in rounded intervals, as follows: high, >206; elevated, >22 to 206; moderate, >2 to 22; limited, >0.06 to 2; negligible, 0 to 0.06; negative, <0. A mineral commodity was recommended for inclusion on the updated LCM if the probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP decline was determined to be at or above the “moderate” risk category in any process of the supply chain (or chemical form) or if the mineral commodity had a single point of failure (SPOF) in the domestic supply chain. Probability-weighted net decrease values and their corresponding risk categories are shaded according to their risk category classification: high to limited are shaded in progressively lighter shades of orange; negligible are white; and negative are blue. Mineral commodity forms and supply chain processes not previously assessed separately are marked with an asterisk in the final column]

Risk ranking

Mineral commodity

Probability-weighted net decrease in U.S. GDP (millions of U.S. dollars)

Statistical risk category

Recommended for inclusion?

Basis for recommendation

On previous LCM (and basis for previous recommendation)?

Alumina

Limited

Yes

Assessment of other supply chain process or form

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Chromite

Limited

Yes

Assessment of other supply chain process or form

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Bauxite

Negligible

Yes

Assessment of other supply chain process or form

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Feldspar

Negligible

Not applicable

Manganese ore

Negligible

Yes

Assessment of other supply chain process or form

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Strontium

Negligible

Not applicable

Fluorspar, metspar

Negligible

Yes

Assessment of other supply chain process or form

Yes (quantitative assessment)*

Cadmium

Negligible

Not applicable

Tellurium

Negligible

Not applicable

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Nickel, mined

−0

Negative

Yes

Assessment of other supply chain process or form

Yes (SPOF)

Copper, mined

−0

Negative

Yes

Assessment of other supply chain process or form

Zinc, mined

−0

Negative

Yes

Assessment of other supply chain process or form

Yes (quantitative assessment)

Iron ore

−0

Negative

Not applicable

Helium

−1

Negative

Not applicable

Silicon metal

−2

Negative

Yes

Assessment of other supply chain process or form

Not previously assessed

Molybdenum

−3

Negative

Not applicable

Gold

−33

Negative

Not applicable

—

Cesium

Not evaluated quantitatively

Not applicable

Yes

Qualitative evaluation

Yes (qualitative evaluation)

—

Rubidium

Not evaluated quantitatively

Not applicable

Yes

Qualitative evaluation

Yes (qualitative evaluation)

—

Scandium

Not evaluated quantitatively

Not applicable

Yes

Qualitative evaluation

Yes (qualitative evaluation)

30 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals also action by the U.S. Government and others. For example, earlier this year, an Australian company’s facility in Malaysia announced plans to expand its heavy rare earth separation circuit to produce dysprosium, holmium, and terbium concentrate (Govind, 2025) and has plans to build a plant with similar capabilities in the United States through Presidential directive under Defense Production Act Title III (U.S. Department of Defense, 2021). Additionally, a U.S. producer recently announced that it has entered a partnership with the U.S. Department of Defense to accelerate its U.S. rare earth mine-to-magnet supply chain (MP Materials Corp., 2025). These recent announcements are part of a years-long effort on the part of the U.S. Government and other governments around the world aimed at reducing the risks associated with rare earths and other critical mineral commodities (International Energy Agency, 2025). By performing an economic effects assessment, the results of this analysis can be used to provide a direct quantitative comparison of mineral commodities against each other and also to other risks and priorities. These results also allow for the performance of cost-benefit analyses of various risk mitigation strategies (for example, maintaining a stockpile, securing trade agreements, developing substitute materials, or increasing domestic primary or secondary production [Nassar and others, 2020]). Policymakers may, for example, consider whether the annualized costs of a specific risk mitigation strategy are determined to be greater or less than the expected risks noted here as part of their decision-making process. Moreover, it might not be cost-effective to address all the mineral commodities that are on the LCM. For example, europium and ytterbium are both just above the selected statistical threshold with probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP of $3.5 million and $2.6 million, respectively. Neither europium nor ytterbium were evaluated quantitatively in the last LCM assessment. Instead, their assessment was based on a qualitative evaluation. Although supply chains of both rare earth elements are still dominated by China, their limited use in the United States reduces the potential economic impact of any expected trade disruption. Europium’s use in phosphors for lighting and displays, for example, has decreased notably over the past decade (Wang and others, 2020). It may therefore not be cost-effective to focus risk mitigation efforts on these mineral commodities given that the expected economic effects are not very high. In interpreting the results, note that the probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. GDP are not the same as what the effects would be if a specific event were to occur. Moreover, the effects of prolonged mineral commodity trade restrictions are not captured in the 1-year-long scenarios of this analysis. As noted in the previous LCM assessment (Nassar and Fortier, 2021), no single analysis can alone capture all the intricacies and nuances of the complex global supply chains of these mineral commodities. Moreover, data limitations, especially on the consumption of certain mineral commodities by application and industry, introduce uncertainty to the

analysis that is difficult to quantify. Additionally, the results reflect the assumptions and simplifications made in both the scenarios and the models—some of which may not hold. For example, the extraterritorial enforcement of export restrictions is already reportedly being circumvented for some mineral commodities, like antimony, on which China has placed export restrictions (Parodi and others, 2025). Furthermore, scenario probabilities were estimated using machine-learning classifiers with data on prior official Government policies associated with export restrictions that cannot perfectly predict future actions (Ryter and Nassar, 2025). Other simplifications (for example, the streamlined IO table expansion approach) and assumptions (for example, the use of constant price elasticities) may affect the results in ways that would be difficult to anticipate. Nevertheless, the results presented in this report provide several notable improvements in terms of both methods (for example, the use of economic models) and scope (for example, the inclusion of several additional mineral commodity forms) compared with previous assessments. Moreover, although the analysis presented here shares a similar conceptual framework with the previous LCM assessment (Nassar and Fortier, 2021), it did not directly use any of the same indicators or methods. For example, neither the world production concentration nor the U.S. net import reliance indicators of the previous assessment were direct inputs in this analysis. Despite the methodological differences, the results of the two assessments largely overlap, which may provide a certain level of reassurance in the conclusions. While retaining the same conceptual framework, future work could continue to improve the analysis by collecting more comprehensive data, addressing model simplifications and assumptions, and expanding the scope to include other mineral commodities and scenarios.

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Appendixes 33

Appendixes The appendixes were initially published as a preprint (Nassar and others, 2025) before being edited and formatted for release in this version of this publication. The appendixes contain the following information: • Appendix 1. World production and production capacity data • Appendix 2. U.S. trade data of mineral commodities • Appendix 3. Prices and price elasticities of supply and demand • Appendix 4. Mineral commodity consumption by application and associated industry • Appendix 5. Python implementation of the economic impacts model • Appendix 6. Natural breaks classification

Reference Cited Nassar, N.T., Pineault, D., Allen, S.M., McCaffrey, D.M., Padilla, A.J., Brainard, J.L., Bayani, M., Shojaeddini, E., Ryter, J.W., Lincoln, S., Alonso, E., 2025, Appendices for “Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals—Assessing the Potential Effects of Mineral Commodity Supply Chain Disruptions on the U.S. Economy”: Zenodo, preprint posted August 25, 2025, 233 p., accessed August 25, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.5281/ zenodo.16538520.

34 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data Data sources, assumptions, and other information for world primary and secondary production and production capacity are provided in the following tables for each mineral commodity examined. Because of the complexity of their production data, rare-earth elements are addressed separately at the end of this appendix. Additionally, the industries, as defined in the input-output tables of the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), associated with each production stage are identified (if applicable). World primary production capacities by country for the mineral commodities listed in table 1.2 were based on the sources or assumptions noted in that table. For secondary production capacities, the primary production capacities of the

mineral commodities not listed in table 1.2, and the primary production capacities for mineral commodities listed in table 1.2 but for which there were no data sources, production capacities were estimated based on historical production. Specifically, production capacity for each currently producing country was assumed to equal the maximum annual production that was reported during the preceding 5-year period inclusive of the analysis year (for example, 2019–2023 for an analysis year of 2023) divided by 80 percent (to simulate an assumed capacity utilization rate of 80 percent), unless noted in the following table. A rampup time of 6 months was also assumed to be required to increase production from current (2023) levels to the estimated capacities.

Table 1.1. Data sources for world mineral commodity primary production and secondary production. [~, approximately; —, not applicable or not available; BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; Al2O3, aluminum oxide; K2O, potassium oxide; MgO, magnesium oxide; P2O5, phosphorus pentoxide; SrSO4, strontium sulfate; TiO2, titanium dioxide; ZrO2, zirconium oxide] Primary production Mineral commodity

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Secondary production Comments

U.S. Geological Alumina refining Quantities were converted to Survey and primary aluminum content based on (2025a, b) aluminum the standard stoichiometric production ratio (~52.9‑percent [331313] aluminum).

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

—

Comments

Refinery production

Aluminum

Smelter production U.S. Geological Alumina refining Quantities were reported Survey and primary in aluminum content by (2025a, b) aluminum U.S. Geological Survey production (2025a, b). [331313]

Secondary aluminum production, old scrap only

World Bureau of Metal Statistics (2022); U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Secondary U.S. secondary production smelting data were obtained from and the Mineral Commodity alloying of Summaries 2025 (U.S. aluminum Geological Survey, 2025a). [331314] Data for all other countries were obtained from the World Bureau of Metal Statistics (2022), which pertained to 2021 but were assumed to be similar in 2023.

Antimony

Refinery production of metal (salable ingot) and antimony trioxide

—

Project Blue (2024a)

Nonferrous metal (except aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Quantities were reported in antimony content by Project Blue (2024a).

—

Although antimonial lead was recovered from spent lead-acid batteries, this secondary source was largely performed in a closed-loop fashion (Project Blue, 2024a) and was thus excluded from the analysis. Antimony oxide may also have been recovered at the end-of-life, but those quantities were estimated to be small relative to the total quantity of world production and thus assumed to be negligible (Project Blue, 2024a).

Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data 35

Alumina

[~, approximately; —, not applicable or not available; BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; Al2O3, aluminum oxide; K2O, potassium oxide; MgO, magnesium oxide; P2O5, phosphorus pentoxide; SrSO4, strontium sulfate; TiO2, titanium dioxide; ZrO2, zirconium oxide] Primary production Mineral commodity

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Secondary production Comments

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Comments

Arsenic

Arsenic compound production

U.S. Geological Other Survey nonmetallic (2025b) mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]

Quantities, which were reported in arsenic trioxide equivalent, were converted to arsenic content based on the standard stoichiometric ratio (75.7‑percent arsenic).

—

Barite

Mine production

U.S. Geological Other Survey nonmetallic (2025a, b) mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]

Quantities were converted to — barium content based on the standard stoichiometric ratio (58.8‑percent barium).

—

Bauxite

Mine production

U.S. Geological Iron, gold, Survey silver, and (2025a, b) other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Quantities were converted to — aluminum content based on Al2O3 content of bauxite ore grades reported in Liu and Müller (2013) and the standard stoichiometric ratio (~52.9‑percent aluminum). For countries not included in Liu and Müller (2013), the Al2O3 content of bauxite was assumed to be 41 percent. U.S. production was withheld by U.S. Geological Survey (2025a, b) to avoid disclosing proprietary information but was included in the analysis.

—

36 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Table 1.1. Data sources for world mineral commodity primary production and secondary production.—Continued

Table 1.1. Data sources for world mineral commodity primary production and secondary production.—Continued [~, approximately; —, not applicable or not available; BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; Al2O3, aluminum oxide; K2O, potassium oxide; MgO, magnesium oxide; P2O5, phosphorus pentoxide; SrSO4, strontium sulfate; TiO2, titanium dioxide; ZrO2, zirconium oxide] Primary production Mineral commodity

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Secondary production Comments

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Comments

Mine production

U.S. Geological Other Survey nonmetallic (2025a) mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]

In addition to the countries listed by U.S. Geological Survey (2025a), Kazakhstan was believed to have produced beryllium metallurgical products from stockpiles of concentrates (Beryllium Science & Technology Association, 2024). Kazakhstan’s production was thus estimated assuming its beryllium metallurgical product production (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025b) was 4‑percent beryllium content. Production from all other countries was reported in beryllium content.

—

Bismuth

Refinery production

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Survey metal (except (2025a) aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Quantities were reported in bismuth content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025a).

—

The minor quantities (approximately 40 metric tons) of bismuth that were recycled were thought to be new scrap and thus excluded from the analysis (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a).

Cadmium

Refinery production

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Survey metal (except (2025a) aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Quantities were reported in cadmium content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025a).

—

Although cadmium was recovered from spent consumer and industrial batteries and other sources, no reliable country-level information was available, except for the United States, which was included in the analysis.

Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data 37

Beryllium

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Secondary production Comments Quantities were converted to chromium content based on values reported by Nassar and others (2020).

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

—

Comments

Chromite

Mine production

U.S. Geological Iron, gold, Survey silver, and (2025b) other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Chromium chemicals

Production of chromium chemicals

Project Blue (2024a)

Other basic Quantities were converted — inorganic from sodium dichromate chemical equivalent to chromium manufacturing content based on the [325180] standard stoichiometric ratio (~34.9‑percent chromium).

—

Chromium ferroalloys

Ferrochromium production (high-, medium- and low-carbon alloys)

Project Blue (2024a)

Nonferrous metal (except aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Quantities were reported in chromium content by Project Blue (2024a).

—

Chromium is mainly recycled in the form of stainless-steel scrap, which was excluded from this analysis.

Chromium metal

Production of chromium metals

Project Blue (2024a)

Nonferrous metal (except aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Quantities were reported in chromium content by Project Blue (2024a).

—

No reliable estimates of chromium metal recycled by country were available.

Cobalt chemicals

Refinery production of cobalt chemicals and fine powders

Darton Other basic Quantities were reported in Commodities inorganic cobalt content by Darton Ltd. (2025) chemical Commodities Ltd. (2025). manufacturing [325180]

—

38 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Table 1.1. Data sources for world mineral commodity primary production and secondary production.—Continued

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Secondary production Comments

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Comments

Refinery Darton Nonferrous production of Commodities metal (except cobalt metal and Ltd. (2025) aluminum) coarse powder smelting and refining [331410]

Quantities were reported in cobalt content by Darton Commodities Ltd. (2025).

Secondary production

Darton Nonferrous U.S. secondary production Commodities metal of cobalt was obtained Ltd. (2025); (except from the U.S. Geological U.S. copper and Survey (2025a). The rest Geological aluminum) of the world’s secondary Survey rolling, production was estimated (2025a) drawing, based on the difference extruding between the total secondary and cobalt production obtained alloying from Darton Commodities [331490] Ltd. (2025) and the quantity of U.S. secondary cobalt production. Owing to a lack of better information, this remaining quantity was allocated to several countries (Belgium, Canada, China, Finland, France, Japan, Norway, South Korea, and the United Kingdom) based on their reported cobalt refinery capacity.

Copper, mined

Mine production

U.S. Geological Copper, nickel, Survey lead, and (2025a, b) zinc mining [212230]

Quantities were reported in copper content by the reference.

—

Copper, refined

Primary refinery production

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Survey metal (except (2025a, b) aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Quantities were reported in copper content by the reference.

Secondary refinery production

U.S. Geological Copper Survey Rolling, (2025a, b) Drawing, Extruding, and Alloying [331420]

—

Quantities were reported in copper content by the reference. For the United States, secondary production was set equal to the quantity of copper recovered from old (post-consumer) scrap.

Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data 39

Cobalt metal

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Secondary production Comments

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Comments

Feldspar

Feldspar mine production

U.S. Geological Other Survey nonmetallic (2025b) mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]

Quantities were not adjusted for any feldspar content. Nepheline syenite mine production was excluded if readily identifiable in the reported data.

—

Fluorspar, acidspar

Acid-grade fluorspar (acidspar) production

Project Blue (2025b)

Other nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]

Quantities were assumed to be 47.7‑percent fluorine content.

—

Fluorspar, metspar

Metallurgical- grade fluorspar (metspar) production

Project Blue (2025b)

Other nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]

Quantities were assumed to be 45.7‑percent fluorine content.

—

Gallium

Low-purity refinery production

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Survey metal (except (2025b) aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Quantities were reported in gallium content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

—

End-of-life recycling was assumed to be negligible. New scrap recycling was excluded from the analysis.

Germanium

Refinery production

Nassar and Nonferrous others (2024) metal (except aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Quantities were updated to reflect production quantities in 2023 based on the same sources and methods used by Nassar and others (2024). Quantities were reported in germanium content by Nassar and others (2024).

—

End-of-life recycling was assumed to be negligible. New scrap recycling was excluded from the analysis.

40 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Table 1.1. Data sources for world mineral commodity primary production and secondary production.—Continued

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Secondary production Comments

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Comments

Mine production

U.S. Geological Iron, gold, Survey silver, and (2025b) other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Quantities were reported in gold content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

Old scrap gold recycling

World Gold Council (2024)

Nonferrous Quantities, which were only metal reported by the World (except Gold Council (2024) as a copper and total for the world, were aluminum) disaggregated by country, rolling, assuming the same relative drawing, contribution of each country extruding as reported by Alexander and and others (2019) for 2018. alloying Quantities were reported in [331490] gold content by the World Gold Council (2024).

Graphite, natural

Natural graphite production

U.S. Geological Other Survey nonmetallic (2025b) mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]

All quantities were assumed to be reported in graphite content.

—

Graphite, synthetic

Synthetic graphite production

Benchmark Mineral Intelligence Ltd. (2023)

Other petroleum All quantities were assumed and coal to be reported in graphite products content. manufacturing [324190]

—

Hafnium

Refinery production

Mordor Intelligence (2024)

Nonferrous metal (except aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

All quantities were reported in hafnium content.

—

Helium

Grade-A and gaseous helium

U.S. Geological Industrial gas Quantities were assumed to be Survey manufacturing reported in helium content. (2025a) [325120] U.S. quantities included those extracted from natural gas, as well as those withdrawn from storage.

—

Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data 41

Gold

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Secondary production Comments

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

—

Comments

Indium

Refinery production

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Survey metal (except (2025b) aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Quantities were reported in indium content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

Iridium

Mine production

U.S. Geological Iron, gold, Survey silver, and (2025b) other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Quantities were reported in End-of-life iridium content by U.S. recycling Geological Survey (2025b). Additionally, U.S. mine production was estimated separately based on palladium mine production multiplied by the iridium-to- palladium ratio reported by Naldrett (2011).

Refer to the comment

Nonferrous Closed-loop recycling metal of iridium from (except industrial applications copper and (chemical catalysts aluminum) and electrochemical rolling, applications) was excluded. drawing, Non-closed loop end-of-life extruding recycling was estimated and using the method described alloying by Nassar (2015) and data [331490] from Johnson Matthey plc (2024). The quantity that was estimated to be recycled at the end-of-life was allocated to individual countries based on the same proportions as platinum recycling.

Iron ore

Mine production, as well as alternative iron ore sources including nickeliferous iron ore and titaniferous magnetite beach sands

U.S. Geological Iron, gold, Survey silver, and (2025b) other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Quantities were reported in iron content byU.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

—

Although there were notable quantities of new scrap recycling of indium (especially of indium-tin- oxide), end-of-life recycling of indium was assumed to be negligible.

—

42 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Table 1.1. Data sources for world mineral commodity primary production and secondary production.—Continued

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Secondary production Comments Quantities were reported in lead content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

Associated BEA industry [code]

Description

Data sources

Comments

Secondary refined production

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Quantities were reported Survey metal in lead content by (2025b) (except U.S. Geological Survey copper and (2025b). aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

Primary refined production

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Survey metal (except (2025b) aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Lithium

Refined lithium production

Project Blue (2025c)

Other basic Quantities were converted inorganic from lithium-carbonate chemical equivalent to lithium manufacturing content based on the [325180] standard stochiometric ratio (18.8‑percent lithium).

—

The minor quantities of lithium recycled at the end- of-life (Project Blue, 2025c) were excluded owing to a lack of country-level data.

Magnesium compounds

Magnesite and U.S. Geological Other basic Quantities, which were seawater and Survey inorganic reported in MgO equivalent, brine production (2025b) chemical were converted to manufacturing magnesium content using [325180] the standard stochiometric ratio (60.35‑percent magnesium). Magnesium compounds from seawater and brines were estimated from production capacity quantities, as reported by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b), multiplied by an assumed 80‑percent capacity utilization rate.

—

Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data 43

Lead

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Survey metal (except (2025b) aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Secondary production Comments Quantities were reported in magnesium content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

Associated BEA industry [code]

Description

Data sources

Comments

Secondary production

Project Blue (2025d); U.S. Geological Survey (2025b)

Nonferrous Secondary magnesium metal production for the United (except States was based on copper and quantity recovered from aluminum) old scrap only as reported rolling, by the U.S. Geological drawing, Survey (2025b). Secondary extruding production for all other and countries was obtained from alloying Project Blue (2025d). [331490]

Magnesium metal

Primary production

Manganese alloys

Refinery Project Blue production of (2025e) high-carbon ferromanganese, medium- and low-carbon ferromanganese, and silicomanganese

Iron and steel Quantities were reported in mills and manganese content by ferroalloy Project Blue (2025e). manufacturing [331110]

—

Manganese dioxide

Refinery production

Project Blue (2024b)

Other basic Quantities were reported in inorganic manganese content by chemical Project Blue (2024b). manufacturing [325180]

—

Manganese metal

Electrolytic or aluminothermic manganese metal production

Project Blue (2025e)

Iron and steel Quantities were reported in mills and manganese content by ferroalloy Project Blue (2025e). manufacturing [331110]

—

Manganese ore Mine production

International Manganese Institute (2024)

Other nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]

—

Quantities were reported in manganese content by International Manganese Institute (2024).

44 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Table 1.1. Data sources for world mineral commodity primary production and secondary production.—Continued

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Secondary production Comments

Other basic Quantities were reported in inorganic manganese content by chemical Project Blue (2025e). manufacturing [325180]

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

—

Comments

Project Blue (2025e)

Mica

Mine (scrap and flake) production

U.S. Geological Other Survey nonmetallic (2025b) mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]

Quantities were not adjusted for any elemental content. Production excludes sheet mica where it is distinguishable in the data.

—

Molybdenum

Mine production

U.S. Geological Iron, gold, Survey silver, and (2025b) other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Quantities were reported in molybdenum content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

—

Molybdenum is recycled in notable quantities in the form of spent catalysts, ferrous scrap, and superalloy revert. No recent production quantities were available, and thus secondary production was excluded from the analysis.

Nickel, mined

Mine production

U.S. Geological Copper, nickel, Survey lead, and (2025b) zinc mining [212230]

Quantities were reported in nickel content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

—

Nickel, primary refined

Primary refinery production

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Survey metal (except (2025b) aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Quantities were reported in nickel content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

—

Nickel is extensively recycled, especially in the form of stainless-steel scrap. Because of this, the focus of this analysis is on primary refined nickel only.

Niobium

Mine production

U.S. Geological Iron, gold, Survey silver, and (2025b) other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Quantities were reported in niobium content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

—

Niobium recycling does take place, but specific recycling quantities were not available.

Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data 45

Manganese Refinery sulfate (high production of purity) battery-grade manganese sulfate

Description Mine production

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

U.S. Geological Iron, gold, Survey silver, and (2025b) other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Secondary production Comments

Description

Data sources

Quantities were reported in palladium content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

Automotive catalytic converter, jewelry, and electronics recycling

SFA (Oxford) Ltd. (2024)

Associated BEA industry [code]

Comments

Nonferrous Quantities were reported in metal palladium content by SFA (except (Oxford) Ltd. (2024). North copper and American production data aluminum) reported by the reference rolling, were allocated between drawing, the United States (two- extruding thirds) and Canada (one- and third). Western European alloying production was allocated [331490] among relevant countries based on their reported refinery production minus any mine production (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025b). Production in all other countries was allocated based on refinery production for India and the production capacity of South Korea (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025b), and the remainder was allocated to South Africa. Closed-loop recycling of palladium used in industrial applications (for example, catalysts) was excluded.

46 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Table 1.1. Data sources for world mineral commodity primary production and secondary production.—Continued

Description Marketable phosphate rock production

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

U.S. Geological Other Survey nonmetallic (2025b) mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]

Secondary production Comments

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

—

Comments —

Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data 47

Quantities were converted from P2O5 to elemental phosphorus using the standard stochiometric ratio (43.6 percent). Chile’s production, which was reported only in gross weight, was assumed to be 20‑percent P2O5 content. Although the production stage is focused on phosphate rock, trade data included processed phosphates.

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Secondary production Associated BEA industry [code]

Comments

Description

Data sources

Automotive catalytic converter, jewelry, and electronics recycling

SFA (Oxford) Ltd. (2024)

Nonferrous Quantities were reported in metal platinum content by SFA (except (Oxford) Ltd. (2024). North copper and American production data aluminum) reported by the reference rolling, were allocated between drawing, the United States (two- extruding thirds) and Canada (one- and third). Western European alloying production was allocated [331490] among relevant countries based on their reported refinery production minus any mine production (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025b). Production in all other countries was allocated based on refinery production for India and the production capacity of South Korea (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025b), and the remainder was allocated to South Africa. Closed-loop recycling of platinum used in industrial applications (for example, catalysts) was excluded.

—

Platinum

Mine production

U.S. Geological Iron, gold, Survey silver, and (2025b) other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Quantities were reported in platinum content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

Potash

Marketable potash production

U.S. Geological Other Survey nonmetallic (2025b) mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]

Quantities, which were — reported in K2O equivalent, were converted to potassium content based on the standard stochiometric ratio (83.0 percent).

Comments

—

48 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Table 1.1. Data sources for world mineral commodity primary production and secondary production.—Continued

Description Refinery production

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Survey metal (except (2025b) aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Secondary production Associated BEA industry [code]

Comments

Description

Data sources

Comments

Quantities were reported in rhenium content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

Secondary production (spent catalyst recycling and superalloy revert)

Roskill Nonferrous Total secondary production Information metal reported by the U.S. Services Ltd. (except Geological Survey (2024) (2019a); U.S. copper and was allocated to individual Geological aluminum) countries based on their Survey rolling, reported capacities (Roskill (2024) drawing, Information Services Ltd., extruding 2019a). and alloying [331490]

Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data 49

Description Mine production

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

U.S. Geological Iron, gold, Survey silver, and (2025b) other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Secondary production Comments

Description

Data sources

Quantities were reported in rhodium content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b). Additionally, U.S. mine production was estimated separately based on previously (2014–16) reported mining production in the mining company’s annual report and an estimated rhodium-to-platinum- and-palladium production ratio of approximately 155:1 (Stillwater Mining Company, 2017).

Automotive catalytic converter recycling

SFA (Oxford) Ltd. (2024)

Associated BEA industry [code]

Comments

Nonferrous Quantities were reported in metal rhodium content by SFA (except (Oxford) Ltd. (2024). copper and North American production aluminum) data reported by the rolling, reference were allocated drawing, between the United States extruding (two-thirds) and Canada and (one-third). Western alloying European production was [331490] allocated among relevant countries based on their reported platinum refinery production minus any mine production (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025b). Production in all other countries was allocated based on rhodium refinery production for India, and the remainder was allocated between South Africa and South Korea based on the secondary platinum production of these two countries estimated in this analysis. Closed-loop recycling of rhodium used in industrial applications (for example, catalysts) was excluded.

50 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Table 1.1. Data sources for world mineral commodity primary production and secondary production.—Continued

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Secondary production Comments

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Comments

Mine production

U.S. Geological Iron, gold, Survey silver, and (2025b) other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Quantities were reported in ruthenium content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b). Additionally, U.S. mine production was estimated separately based on palladium mine production multiplied by the ruthenium-to-palladium ratio reported by Naldrett (2011).

End-of-life recycling

Refer to the comment

Nonferrous Closed-loop recycling metal of ruthenium from (except industrial applications copper and (chemical catalysts aluminum) and electrochemical rolling, applications) was excluded. drawing, Non-closed loop end-of-life extruding recycling was estimated and using the method described alloying by Nassar (2015) and data [331490] from Johnson Matthey plc (2024). The quantity that was estimated to be recycled at the end of life was allocated to individual countries based on the same proportions as platinum recycling.

Selenium

Refinery production

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Survey metal (except (2025b) aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Quantities were reported in selenium content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b). U.S. production data were withheld by the reference but used in this analysis.

—

Silicon ferroalloys

Ferrosilicon production

U.S. Geological Iron and steel Quantities were assumed to be Survey mills and 65‑percent silicon content (2025b) ferroalloy on average. manufacturing [331110]

—

Silicon metal

Metal production

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Survey metal (except (2025b) aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Quantities were assumed to be — 98‑percent silicon content. U.S. production data were withheld by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b) but used in this analysis.

—

Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data 51

Ruthenium

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Secondary production Comments

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Comments

Silver

Mine production

U.S. Geological Iron, gold, Survey silver, and (2025b) other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Quantities were reported in silver content.

Silver recycling (excludes new scrap)

The Silver Nonferrous Secondary production reported Institute and metal by The Silver Institute Metals Focus (except and Metals Focus (2025) (2025) copper and by world regions was not aluminum) disaggregated to individual rolling, country-level production drawing, owing to the lack of data. extruding and alloying [331490]

Strontium

Celestite production

U.S. Geological Other Survey nonmetallic (2025b) mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]

Quantities were converted from celestite production to strontium content assuming 87‑percent SrSO4 content for Iran’s production and 92‑percent SrSO4 content for all countries and the standard stochiometric ratio (47.7‑percent strontium).

—

Tantalum

Mine production

U.S. Geological Iron, gold, Survey silver, and (2025a) other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Quantities were reported in tantalum content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025a). Owing to unusually low U.S. imports in 2023, data for tantalum were based on imports in 2022 instead.

Secondary production

Project Blue (2025i)

Nonferrous Secondary production metal provided by Project Blue (except (2025i) was for the world copper and total. It was not possible to aluminum) disaggregate by country. rolling, Data for tantalum were based drawing, on 2022 instead of 2023. extruding and alloying [331490]

—

52 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Table 1.1. Data sources for world mineral commodity primary production and secondary production.—Continued

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Secondary production Comments

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code] —

Comments

Refinery production

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Survey metal (except (2025b) aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Owing to changes in the — domestic market, data for 2024 were used instead of 2023. U.S. production was withheld by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b) but was estimated based on reported tellurium content in anode slimes (Moats and others, 2019; Nassar and others, 2022).

—

Tin

Primary smelter production

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Survey metal (except (2025b) aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Quantities were reported in tin content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

Secondary smelter production

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Quantities were reported in tin Survey metal content by U.S. Geological (2025b) (except Survey (2025b). copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

Titanium ferroalloys

Ferrotitanium production

Project Blue (2025j)

Iron and steel Quantities were reported in mills and titanium content by Project ferroalloy Blue (2025j). manufacturing [331110]

—

Titanium metal Titanium melt supply

Project Blue (2025j)

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

—

Quantities were reported in titanium content by Project Blue (2025j).

It was assumed that end-of-life recycling of tellurium was negligible in 2024.

Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data 53

Tellurium

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Secondary production Comments Quantities were converted from TiO2 content to titanium content using the standard stochiometric ratio (59.9‑percent titanium).

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Comments

Titanium Ilmenite, rutile, mineral and titaniferous concentrates magnetite mine production

U.S. Geological Other Survey nonmetallic (2025a, b) mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]

—

Titanium pigment

Titanium dioxide pigment production

U.S. Geological Synthetic dye Aside from the United States, — Survey and pigment for which production (2024, manufacturing data were reported by the 2025a) [325130] reference, production by country was estimated based on the reported production capacity multiplied by 80 percent. Quantities were converted from TiO2 content to titanium content using the standard stochiometric ratio (59.9‑percent titanium).

—

Titanium sponge

Titanium sponge production

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Survey metal (except (2025a) aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Most titanium — recycling is of revert scrap. End-of-life recycling was limited, and country- specific data were not available. Recycling was thus excluded from the analysis.

—

Quantities were reported in titanium content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025a). U.S. production data were withheld by the reference to avoid disclosing company proprietary data but used in this analysis.

54 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Table 1.1. Data sources for world mineral commodity primary production and secondary production.—Continued

Description

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Mine production

U.S. Geological Iron, gold, Survey silver, and (2025a, b) other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Vanadium

Feedstock production

Project Blue (2025l)

Zinc, mined

Mine production

U.S. Geological Copper, nickel, Survey lead, and (2025b) zinc mining [212230]

Comments Quantities were reported in tungsten content by the reference.

Other basic Feedstock production includes inorganic ores and concentrates, chemical vanadium recovered from manufacturing steel slags of vanadiferous [325180] iron ores, as well as vanadium recovered from ash, petroleum residues, and spent catalysts. Quantities were reported in vanadium content by Project Blue (2025l). Quantities were reported in zinc content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

Associated BEA industry [code]

Description

Data sources

Comments

Secondary tungsten production

Project Blue (2025k)

Nonferrous Quantities, which were only metal reported by Project Blue (except (2025k) as a total for the copper and world, were disaggregated aluminum) by country based on data on rolling, scrap production capacity drawing, and scrap consumption extruding (Roskill Information and Services Ltd., 2020) and alloying trade of tungsten scrap (Zen [331490] Innovations AG, 2025).

—

Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data 55

Tungsten

Secondary production

Mineral commodity

Description

Zinc, smelted

Primary smelter

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Survey metal (except (2025b) aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Quantities were assumed to be reported in zinc content by U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

Zirconium

Mine production

U.S. Geological Iron, gold, Survey silver, and (2025a, b) other metal ore mining [2122A0]

Quantities, which were Zirconium — reported in gross weight, was were converted to zirconium recycled content assuming an overall but no content of 48.1 percent country- based on 65‑percent ZrO2 specific content for all countries’ information production, except for was Russian production, available. which was assumed to have an overall zirconium content of 72.6 percent based on 98‑percent ZrO2 content, and the standard stochiometric ratio (74‑percent zirconium).

Data sources

Associated BEA industry [code]

Comments

Associated BEA industry [code]

Description

Data sources

Secondary smelter

U.S. Geological Nonferrous Quantities were assumed to Survey metal be reported in zinc content (2025b) (except by U.S. Geological Survey copper and (2025b). aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490] —

Comments

—

56 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Table 1.1. Data sources for world mineral commodity primary production and secondary production.—Continued

Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data 57 Table 1.2. Data sources and assumptions for world primary production capacities for select mineral commodities. [Not all mineral commodities examined are listed in this table, because for some commodities, there were no data sources for world primary production capacities. —, not applicable; USGS, U.S. Geological Survey]

Mineral commodity

Data sources for primary production capacity data

Comments

Alumina

U.S. Geological Survey (2025b)

Reference pertains to U.S. production capacity. Production capacities for all other countries were estimated using historical production

Aluminum

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

—

Arsenic

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

—

Copper, mined

International Copper Study Group (2024)

Production capacity for Tajikistan, which was not listed by the reference, was estimated using historical production.

Copper, refined

International Copper Study Group (2024)

Production capacity for Laos, which was not listed by the reference, was estimated using historical production.

Gallium

Alonso and others (2025)

—

Germanium

Nassar and others (2024)

—

Helium

Alonso and others (2025)

Production capacity for China, which was not listed by the reference, was assumed to equal to its 2023 production (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a) divided by 80 percent to simulate a capacity utilization rate of 80 percent.

Indium

U.S. Geological Survey (2025b)

Production capacity for Uzbekistan, which was not listed by the reference, was estimated using historical production. Production capacities were likely underestimated owing to the lack of information on several refineries located in China, Japan, and Russia.

Iridium

Estimated

Production capacities, in metric tons per year, were estimated by the USGS platinum-group-metal commodity specialists as follows: Canada, 0.5; Russia, 1.8; South Africa, 8; United States, 0.7; and Zimbabwe, 1.

Iron ore

U.S. Geological Survey (2025b)

Reference pertains to U.S. production capacity. Production capacities for all other countries were estimated using historical production.

Lead

International Lead and Zinc Study Group (2025a)

Refinery capacity reported by the reference was used in this analysis.

Magnesium compounds

U.S. Geological Survey (2025b)

—

Magnesium metal

U.S. Geological Survey (2025b)

—

Manganese alloys

International Manganese Institute (2024)

—

Manganese dioxide

International Manganese Institute (2024)

The capacity utilization rate reported by the reference was used along with 2023 production quantities to estimate the total capacity for each producing country.

Manganese metal

International Manganese Institute (2024)

The capacity utilization rate reported by the reference was used along with 2023 production quantities to estimate the total capacity for each producing country.

Manganese ore

International Manganese Institute (2024)

—

Manganese sulfate, Project Blue (2025e) high purity

—

Niobium

Project Blue (2025f)

Reference pertains to production capacity for Brazil and Canada. Production capacity for all other countries was estimated using historical production.

Palladium

Alonso and others (2025)

—

Platinum

Alonso and others (2025)

—

Potash

Chtioui and Cross (2023)

—

Rhenium

Roskill Information Services Ltd. (2019a)

—

58 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 1.2. Data sources and assumptions for world primary production capacities for select mineral commodities.—Continued [Not all mineral commodities examined are listed in this table, because for some commodities, there were no data sources for world primary production capacities. —, not applicable; USGS, U.S. Geological Survey]

Mineral commodity

Data sources for primary production capacity data

Rhodium

Estimated

Production capacities, in metric tons per year, were estimated by the USGS platinum-group metal commodity specialists as follows: Canada, 0.8; Russia, 3; South Africa, 25; United States, 0.4; and Zimbabwe, 1.9.

Ruthenium

Estimated

Production capacities, in metric tons per year, were estimated by the USGS platinum-group metal commodity specialists as follows: Canada, 0.8; Russia, 3.8; South Africa, 35; United States, 0.4; and Zimbabwe, 1.5.

Silver

Kirilenko (2023)

Production capacities were based on mine production potential by country. Owing to the lack of data in the reference, China’s production capacity was estimated using historical production.

Tin

Roskill Information Services Ltd. (2019b)

—

Titanium sponge

U.S. Geological Survey (2024)

Production capacity refers to sponge production for yearend operating capacity.

Titanium pigment

U.S. Geological Survey (2024)

Production capacity refers to titanium pigment production for yearend operating capacity.

Zinc, smelter

International Lead and Zinc Study Group (2025b)

—

Comments

Rare-Earth Production and Production Capacity Estimation Total separated rare-earth production by country was obtained from Project Blue (2025g). The quantity by individual rare-earth element was estimated using the rare-earth distributions noted by Nassar and others (2023). Specifically, rare-earth-element production by country was estimated using the following assumptions: • China’s separated rare-earth production was assumed to be sourced from both domestic and foreign feedstock. China’s domestically sourced feedstock production was delineated by company or source by Project Blue (2025g). Production by various Chinese companies was assumed to have the rare-earth distribution of the Chinese deposits mined by each company as noted by Nassar and others (2023). Production by China Northern Rare Earths Group was assumed to have the rare-earth distribution of the Bayan Obo deposit. The production by China Rare Earths Group (light rare earths) was assumed to have the rare-earth distribution mix of the Maoniuping, Weishanhu, and Dalucao deposits in a combined mixture that was proportional to each of their production noted by Nassar and others (2023). Production by China Rare Earths Group (heavy rare earths) was assumed to have the rare-earth distribution of the Jianghua deposit. Production by Xiamen Tungsten was assumed to have the rare-earth distribution of the Huangfang and Jiazhuang deposits. Production by Guangdong Rare Earth Group was

assumed to have the rare-earth distribution of the Wufeng and Pingyuang deposits. Production in excess of China’s authorized production quotas, referred to as “illegal” mining by Project Blue (2025g), was assumed to have the rare-earth distributions of the “undocumented” bastnaesite, monazite, and ion- adsorption clays in a combined mixture that was proportional to each of their production noted by Nassar and others (2023). China’s foreign-sourced separated rare-earth production was estimated as the difference between total separated production and domestic feedstock production. Foreign-sourced production was assumed to have been predominately obtained from Burma (Myanmar) and the Mountain Pass deposit in the United States in proportions equal to their reported annual production, and the rare-earth distribution for these locations were also obtained from Nassar and others (2023). • Malaysia’s separated rare-earth production was assumed to be sourced entirely from the Lynas Advanced Materials Plant. Two production quantities were reported on a quarterly fiscal-year basis: ready-for-sale production quantities of neodymium- praseodymium and of total rare-earth oxide (Lynas Rare Earths Ltd., 2024). Although neodymium and praseodymium were produced as separated and combined materials, their production was allocated to these two elements based on the rare-earth distribution for the Mount Weld deposit noted by Nassar and others (2023). Lanthanum and cerium production was

Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data 59 assumed to be 95 percent of the difference between the total rare-earth oxide production quantity and the neodymium-praseodymium production quantity based on the rare-earth distribution for the Mount Weld deposit noted by Nassar and others (2023). The remainder was not allocated because no other rare earths were separated in Malaysia. Dysprosium and terbium separation was planned for 2025 (Lynas Rare Earths Ltd., 2025) but was excluded in this model, which has a reference year of 2023. • Estonia’s separated rare-earth production was assumed to be sourced entirely from loparite from Russia and was thus assumed to have the rare-earth distribution of the Lovozero deposit as noted by Nassar and others (2023). • Japan’s and Vietnam’s separated rare-earth production was assumed to be from heavy-mineral sands and was thus allocated to individual elements based on the rare-earth distribution for typical monazite concentrate noted by Nassar and others (2023). • The United States separated rare-earth production was assumed to be entirely from the Mountain Pass deposit. This production was reported to be entirely neodymium-praseodymium (MP Materials Corp., 2025). Although neodymium and praseodymium were produced as a combined material, their production was allocated to these two elements based on the rare-earth distribution for the Mountain Pass deposit noted by Nassar and others (2023). Total separated rare-earth production capacities were obtained mainly from Roskill Information Services Ltd. (2021), with updated capacities for China Northern Rare Earths Group (Project Blue, 2025h) and Vietnam (Guarascio and Vu, 2023). China’s production capacities for “undocumented” production and production from foreign- sourced ores were based on the 5-year (2019–2023) maximum production divided by 80 percent. Production capacities were allocated to the individual rare-earth elements using the same distributions noted above, except for the United States. United States rare-earth distribution was assumed to be that of the Mountain Pass deposit but restricted to only the light rare earths lanthanum, neodymium, and praseodymium, excluding cerium (MP Materials Corp., 2025). In addition to countries with reported production, France, India, and Thailand were also assumed to have production capacities despite not having reported production in 2023. France’s rare-earth distribution was assumed to be the same as the weight-averaged of China. India’s rare-earth distribution was assumed to be a distribution from India’s heavy-mineral sands as noted by Nassar and others (2023) but renormalized to only include the light rare earths: lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, and praseodymium. Thailand’s rare-earth distribution was assumed to be the same as that for Vietnam.

Secondary production, which was solely based on end-of- life recycling of neodymium-iron-boron permanent magnets, was obtained from information from Roskill Information Services Ltd. (2021) and Wood Mackenzie (2021). All rare-earth production and production capacity quantities were converted to elemental content based on standard stochiometric ratios (Blue Line Corporation, 2025). Domestic separated rare-earth oxide production was assumed to be associated with the “Basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]” industry. Domestic end-of-life recycling of permanent magnets was assumed to be associated with the “All other miscellaneous fabricated metal product manufacturing [332999]” industry.

References Cited Alexander, C., Litosh, S., Alway, B., Wiebe, J., Li, S., Saha, D., Scott-Gray, N., Gay, F., and Goenka, S., 2019, GFMS gold survey 2019: London, Refinitiv. Alonso, E., Brioche, A.S., Schulte, R., Trimmer, L.M., Kim, J.-E., Gulley, A.L., and Pineault, D.G., 2025, World minerals outlook—Cobalt, gallium, helium, lithium, magnesium, palladium, platinum, and titanium through 2029: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2025–5021, 19 p., accessed April 30, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20255021. Benchmark Mineral Intelligence Ltd., 2023, Synthetic graphite forecast Q4 2023: London, Benchmark Mineral Intelligence Ltd. Beryllium Science & Technology Association, 2024, Beryllium in industry: Beryllium Science & Technology Association website, accessed June 20, 2025, at https://www.beryllium.eu/industry-profile. Blue Line Corporation, 2025, Metal calculator: Blue Line Corporation, accessed April 30, 2024, at https://www.bluelinecorp.com/re-calculator. Chtioui, H., and Cross, L., 2023, World potash capacities 2023 summary report: International Fertilizer Association. Darton Commodities Ltd., 2025, Cobalt market review 2025: Guildford, United Kingdom, Darton Commodities Ltd. Guarascio, F., and Vu, K., 2023, Inside Vietnam’s plans to dent China’s rare earths dominance: Thomson Reuters, accessed April 28, 2025, at https://www.reuters.com/markets/ commodities/inside-vietnams-plans-dent-chinas-rare-earths- dominance-2023-09-25. International Copper Study Group, 2024, Directory of copper mines and plants (September 2024): Lisbon, Portugal, International Copper Study Group.

60 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals International Lead and Zinc Study Group, 2025a, World directory—Primary and secondary lead plants: Lisbon, Portugal, International Lead and Zinc Study Group. International Lead and Zinc Study Group, 2025b, World directory—Primary and secondary zinc plants: Lisbon, Portugal, International Lead and Zinc Study Group. International Manganese Institute, 2024, 2024 manganese statistical report: Paris, International Manganese Institute. Johnson Matthey plc, 2024, PGM market report May 2024: Johnson Matthey plc, accessed October 21, 2024, at https://matthey.com/documents/161599/509413/ PGM+supply+demand+history+May+2024.xlsx/62e21127- 2498-637e-2486-3d941ffe5650?t=1715245967285. Kirilenko, K., 2023, Precious metals market outlook—Silver data: London, CRU International Ltd. Liu, G., and Müller, D.B., 2013, Mapping the global journey of anthropogenic aluminum—A trade-linked multilevel material flow analysis: Environmental Science & Technology, v. 47, no. 20, p. 11873–11881, accessed June 3, 2019, at https://doi.org/10.1021/es4024404. Lynas Rare Earths Ltd., 2024, Quarterly report for the period ended 31 December 2023: Lynas Rare Earths Ltd., accessed April 28, 2025, at https://wcsecure.weblink.com.au/pdf/ LYC/02764178.pdf. Lynas Rare Earths Ltd., 2025, 2024 annual report: Lynas Rare Earths Ltd., 113 p., accessed April 28, 2025, at http://wcsecure.weblink.com.au/pdf/LYC/02865113.pdf. Moats, M.S., Filzwieser, A., Wang, S., Davenport, W.G., Siegmund, A., and Robinson, T., 2019, Global survey of copper electrorefining—2019 world tankhouse operating data, in Proceedings of the 58th Annual Conference of Metallurgists (COM) hosting the 10th International Copper Conference – Copper 2019: Vancouver, Canada, Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, p. 18–21. Mordor Intelligence, 2024, Global hafnium market: Hyderabad, India, Mordor Intelligence. MP Materials Corp., 2025, Form 10–K: MP Materials Corp., accessed April 28, 2025, at https://d18rn0p25nwr6d.cloudfront.net/CIK-0001801368/ b509cf22-ee5a-4602-bdb9-d57d80e5522e.pdf.

Nassar, N.T., Brainard, J., Gulley, A., Manley, R., Matos, G., Lederer, G., Bird, L.R., Pineault, D., Alonso, E., Gambogi, J., and Fortier, S.M., 2020, Evaluating the mineral commodity supply risk of the U.S. manufacturing sector: Science Advances, v. 6, no. 8, accessed February 21, 2020, at https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aay8647. Nassar, N.T., Kim, H., Frenzel, M., Moats, M.S., and Hayes, S.M., 2022, Global tellurium supply potential from electrolytic copper refining: Resources, Conservation and Recycling, v. 184, article 106434, accessed June 5, 2022, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106434. Nassar, N.T., Lederer, G.W., Padilla, A.J., Gambogi, J., Cordier, D.J., Brainard, J.L., Lessard, J.D., and Charab, R., 2023, Rock-to-metal ratios of the rare earth elements: Journal of Cleaner Production, v. 405, article 136958, accessed April 30, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j .jclepro.2023.136958. Nassar, N.T., Shojaeddini, E., Alonso, E., Jaskula, B., and Tolcin, A., 2024, Quantifying potential effects of China’s gallium and germanium export restrictions on the U.S. economy: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2024–1057, 66 p., accessed October 15, 2024, at https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20241057. Project Blue, 2024a, Antimony market service—Interactive data Q3 2024: London, Project Blue Group Limited. Project Blue, 2024b, Manganese analysis -102: London, Project Blue Group Limited. Project Blue, 2025a, Chromium market service—Interactive data Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited. Project Blue, 2025b, Fluorine market service—Interactive data Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited. Project Blue, 2025c, Lithium market service—Interactive data Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited. Project Blue, 2025d, Magnesium market service—Interactive data Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited. Project Blue, 2025e, Manganese research service—Interactive data Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited. Project Blue, 2025f, Niobium market service—Interactive data Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited.

Naldrett, A.J., 2011, Fundamentals of magmatic sulfide deposits, chap. 1 of Li, C., and Ripley, E.M., eds., Magmatic Ni-Cu and PGE deposits—Geology, geochemistry, and genesis: Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 17, p. 1–50.

Project Blue, 2025g, Rare earth research service—Interactive data Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited.

Nassar, N.T., 2015, Global stocks and flows, losses, and recoveries of platinum-group elements: New Haven, Conn., Yale University, Ph.D. dissertation, 302 p.

Project Blue, 2025i, Tantalum market service—Interactive data Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited.

Project Blue, 2025h, Rare earths—Medium-term outlook Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited.

Appendix 1. World Production and Production Capacity Data 61 Project Blue, 2025j, Titanium market service—Interactive data Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited. Project Blue, 2025k, Tungsten market service: Interactive data Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited. Project Blue, 2025l, Vanadium market service—Interactive data Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited. Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2019a, Rhenium—Outlook to 2029: London, Roskill Information Services Ltd. Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2019b, Tin—Outlook to 2029, 11th ed.: London, Roskill Information Services Ltd. Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2020, Tungsten— Outlook to 2029, 14th ed.: London, Roskill Information Services Ltd. Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2021, Rare earths— Outlook to 2030, 20th ed.: London, Roskill Information Services Ltd. SFA (Oxford) Ltd., 2024, The platinum standard 2024: SFA (Oxford) Ltd., May 2024, 50 p., accessed September 24, 2024, at https://www.heraeus.com/media/media/hpm/ doc_hpm/precious_metal_update/platinum_standard/The_ Platinum_Standard_2024.pdf. Stillwater Mining Company, 2017, Form 10–K: Stillwater Mining Company, accessed September 24, 2024, at https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/931948/ 000093194817000012/swc-12312016x10k.htm.

The Silver Institute and Metals Focus, 2025, World silver survey 2025: The Silver Institute, 88 p., accessed May 23, 2025, at https://silverinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/ 04/World_Silver_Survey-2025.pdf. U.S. Geological Survey, 2024, Mineral commodity summaries 2024: U.S. Geological Survey, 212 p., https://doi.org/ 10.3133/mcs2024. U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a, Mineral commodity summaries 2025 (ver. 1.2, March 2025): U.S. Geological Survey, 212 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2025. U.S. Geological Survey, 2025b, U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook data for select mineral commodities referenced in U.S. Geological Survey “Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals—Assessing the Potential Effects of Mineral Commodity Supply Chain Disruptions on the U.S. Economy”: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P14BRF29. Wood Mackenzie, 2021, Rare earth market 2021 outlook to 2050: Edinburgh, Wood Mackenzie. World Bureau of Metal Statistics, 2022, World metal statistics yearbook: Ware, United Kingdom, World Bureau of Metal Statistics. World Gold Council, 2024, Historical demand and supply: World Gold Council, accessed February 11, 2025, at https://www.gold.org/goldhub/data/gold-demand- by-country. Zen Innovations AG, 2025, Global trade tracker: Zen Innovations AG, accessed January 2, 2025, at https://www.globaltradetracker.com/.

62 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

Appendix 2. U.S. Trade Data for Mineral Commodities U.S. net import sources for each mineral commodity were determined using trade data obtained from Global Trade Tracker (Zen Innovations AG, 2025) using the Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States (HTS) (for imports) or Schedule B (for exports) trade codes, as noted in table 2.1. Trade data were obtained from the U.S. perspective (meaning, as reported by the United States) for both imports and exports. Imports and exports were both calculated net of reimports and reexports, respectively. Table 2.1 also includes the estimated or assumed elemental or mineral commodity content (to correspond with the production data) for each trade code, which allowed for summation across trade codes for each mineral commodity. For scrap materials, any trade transaction with an average unit value equal to or greater than the reported price of the mineral commodity was assumed to be 100 percent content, and any trade transaction with an average unit value lower

than that of the reported price was assumed to have a content that was proportionally lower. For example, if the unit value was one-half the price of mineral commodity, then it was assumed to be 50‑percent content. Similarly, trade codes that contain more than one mineral commodity were apportioned to the individual mineral commodities proportionally based on their unit value. This approach was used wherever the content was described as determined “based on the unit value of each trade transaction” in table 2.1. Quantities were estimated for trade transactions where only the monetary values were provided by assuming the transactions had the same value-weighted average unit value for the trade code (or the nearest trade code if no other trade transactions were reported). Because of the complexity regarding their trade, rare- earth elements are addressed separately in the “Trade Data for Rare-Earth Elements” section of this appendix.

Appendix 2. U.S. Trade Data for Mineral Commodities 63 Table 2.1. Trade codes used for each mineral commodity examined, except for the rare-earth elements. [Trade codes that contain more than one mineral commodity were apportioned to the individual mineral commodities proportionally based on their unit value. This approach was used wherever the content was described as determined “based on the unit value of each trade transaction” in this table. HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; —, not applicable; Al2O3, aluminum oxide]

Mineral commodity Alumina Aluminum

Antimony

Arsenic

Barite

Imports HTS code

Exports Comments

Assumed content Assumed content Schedule B code (percent) (percent)

281820

52.9

281820

52.9

281830

34.6

281830

34.6

760110

100

760110

100

760120

100

760120

100

760310

100

760310

100

760320

100

760320

100

282580

83.5

282580

83.5

811010

100

811010

100

811020

100

811020

100

811090

100

811090

100

2804800000

100

2804800000

100

2811191000

51.8

2853909010

51.8

2811291000

51.8

28539030009

51.8

2853909010

75.7

38180010308

51.8

3818000010

52.8

38180010709

60.8

2511105000

58.8

2511100000

58.8

Variable by country

260600

Variable by country

— Trade codes of aluminum products (for example, bars, plates, rods, and wires) were excluded because these products were outputs of the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis industry that aluminum was connected to in the model. Trade of aluminum scrap (trade code 760200) was excluded because domestic secondary production was included in the analysis and net imports of aluminum scrap was negative. Trade of antimony ores and concentrates (trade code 261710) was excluded because the primary production process used in this analysis was that of the smelters, downstream of the mining of ores and concentrates. Trade of antimonial lead under trade code 780191 was also excluded as that use of antimony was largely sufficient through closed-loop recycling. Sufficiently disaggregated export data for arsenic contained in wafers were not available for the United States. Instead, the exports used in this analysis were those of U.S. trade partners. Because the trade of gallium arsenide wafers (trade codes 2853909010, 3818000010, 28539030009, 38180010308) and gallium aluminum arsenide wafers (38180010709) may include low-value scrap materials, their respective trade codes were split from scrap based on the unit value of each trade transaction. —

2511101000 Bauxite

260600

Content was assumed to vary by country. Quantities were converted to aluminum content based on Al2O3 content of bauxite ore grades reported in (Liu and Müller, 2013) and the standard stoichiometric ratio (~52.9 percent). For countries not included by the reference, the Al2O3 content of bauxite was assumed to be 41 percent.

64 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 2.1. Trade codes used for each mineral commodity examined, except for the rare-earth elements.—Continued [Trade codes that contain more than one mineral commodity were apportioned to the individual mineral commodities proportionally based on their unit value. This approach was used wherever the content was described as determined “based on the unit value of each trade transaction” in this table. HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; —, not applicable; Al2O3, aluminum oxide]

Mineral commodity Beryllium

Bismuth

Cadmium

Chromite

Chromium chemicals

Chromium ferroalloys

Chromium metal

Imports HTS code

Exports Comments

Assumed content Assumed content Schedule B code (percent) (percent)

2825901000

36.0

8112120000

100

7405006030

4.0

8112130000

100

7409901030

4.0

8112190000

100

7409905030

4.0

7409909030

4.0

11.9

8112120000

100

8112130000

100

8112190000

100

28259021

89.7

2834290500

43.1

2836992000

77.8

2836992000

77.8

8106100000

100

3824993100

100

8106900000

100

8106100000

100

8106900000

100

2825907500

87.5

2830902000

77.8

8112610000

100

8112610000

100

8112691000

100

8112691000

100

No trade data were reported under the trade code for beryllium ores and concentrates (2617900030) since 2021.

United States imports of bismuth trioxide (trade code 2825902) were based on China’s net exports to the United States (mirror trade). Based on their unit values, U.S. exports of bismuth nitrates were assumed to be sold in a concentration solution with a 22.5‑percent bismuth nitrate content (Shepherd Chemical, 2024). The cadmium content of traded scrap (trade code 811261000) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction.

8112699000

100

8112699000

100

2610000020

100

2610000000

29.0

2610000040

100

2610000060

100

Chromite ore imports were reported in chromium content under the secondary units.

2841501000

28.4

2833294000

16.8

—

2841300000

34.9

2841501000

28.4

2841509100

31.1

2841509100

31.1

2819900000

68.4

2841904500

19.5

2819100000

52.0

2833294000

16.8

7202410000

100

7202410000

100

7202491000

100

7202490000

100

7202495010

100

7202500000

100

7202495090

100

7202500000

100

8112210000

100

8112210000

100

8112220000

100

8112220000

100

8112290000

100

8112290000

100

Trade of ferrochromium was reported in chromium content. Notable quantities of chromium were also traded within embedded stainless steel but excluded from this analysis. The chromium content of traded scrap (trade code 8112220000) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction.

Appendix 2. U.S. Trade Data for Mineral Commodities 65 Table 2.1. Trade codes used for each mineral commodity examined, except for the rare-earth elements.—Continued [Trade codes that contain more than one mineral commodity were apportioned to the individual mineral commodities proportionally based on their unit value. This approach was used wherever the content was described as determined “based on the unit value of each trade transaction” in this table. HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; —, not applicable; Al2O3, aluminum oxide]

Mineral commodity Cobalt chemicals

Cobalt metal

Imports HTS code 28429030

9.7

28429030

9.7

28429060

6.4

28429060

6.4

28539030

9.2

28539030

9.2

28539050

13.6

2822000000

75.3

2822000000

72.0

2827396000

75.0

2827396000

25.0

2841909020

9.7

2833291000

27.0

2841909030

6.4

2836991000

46.0

2841909040

5.9

2841909010

60.0

2915293000

24.0

2841909020

9.7

2841909040

5.9

2915293000

24.0

8105203000

100

8105200000

100

8105206000

100

8105300000

100

8105209000

100

8105900000

100

8105300000

100

8505110070

8105900000

100

8505110050

68.0

8505110070 Copper, mined Copper, refined

Exports Comments

Assumed content Assumed content Schedule B code (percent) (percent)

1.8

Trade of cobalt containing lithium-ion battery cathode materials was obtained from the mirror trade as reported by China under trade codes 28429030, 28429060, 28539030, and 28539050, and South Korea under trade codes 2841909010, 2841909020, 2841909030, and 2841909040.

The cobalt content of traded scrap (trade code 8105300000) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction.

1.8

2603000010

100

2603000010

100

—

740311

100

740311

100

—

740312

100

740312

100

740313

100

740313

100

740319

100

740319

100

Feldspar

2529100000

100

2529100000

100

—

Fluorspar, acidspar

2529220000

47.7

2529220000

47.7

—

2530901000

54.3

2530901000

54.3

2811110000

98.3

2811110000

98.3

2826120000

67.9

2826120000

67.9

2826300000

54.3

2826300000

54.3

2529210000

45.7

2529210000

45.7

Fluorspar, metspar

—

66 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 2.1. Trade codes used for each mineral commodity examined, except for the rare-earth elements.—Continued [Trade codes that contain more than one mineral commodity were apportioned to the individual mineral commodities proportionally based on their unit value. This approach was used wherever the content was described as determined “based on the unit value of each trade transaction” in this table. HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; —, not applicable; Al2O3, aluminum oxide]

Mineral commodity Gallium

Germanium

Gold

Imports HTS code

Exports

2853909010

48.2

81129990

100

3818000010

48.2

2853909010

48.2

8112921000

100

28539030009

48.2

38180010308

48.2

38180010709

28.3

69.4

2825600000

69.4

2827399000

34.5

8112926100

100

8112926000

100

8112991000

100

8112926100

100

8112926500

100

8112991000

100

2603000050

100

2603000050

100

2608000050

100

2608000050

100

2616100080

100

2616100080

100

2616900040

100

2616900040

100

2825600000

Comments

Assumed content Assumed content Schedule B code (percent) (percent)

7108110000

100

7108110000

100

7108121010

100

7108121010

100

7108121013

100

7108121013

100

7108121017

100

7108121017

100

7108121020

100

7108121020

100

7108125000

100

7108125000

100

7108125010

100

7108125010

100

7108125050

100

7108125050

100

7108135000

100

7108135000

100

7108135500

100

7108135500

100

7108137000

100

7108137000

100

Graphite, natural

250410

100

250410

100

250490

100

250490

100

Graphite, synthetic

380110

100

380110

100

380120

100

380120

100

380190

100

380190

100

Sufficiently disaggregated export data for gallium were not available for the United States. Instead, the exports used in this analysis were those of U.S. trade partners. Because the trade of gallium arsenide wafers (trade codes 2853909010, 28539030009, 3818000010, and 38180010308) and gallium aluminum arsenide wafers (trade code 38180010709) may include low-value scrap materials, their respective trade codes were split from scrap based on the unit value of each trade transaction. Trade of germanium oxide (trade code 2825600000), germanium chloride (trade code 2827399000), and germanium scrap (trade code 8112991000) were split from zirconium, other chlorides, and scrap material codes based on the unit value of each trade transaction. The price of the other chlorides was assumed to be $300 per kilogram (Nassar and others, 2024). —

— —

Appendix 2. U.S. Trade Data for Mineral Commodities 67 Table 2.1. Trade codes used for each mineral commodity examined, except for the rare-earth elements.—Continued [Trade codes that contain more than one mineral commodity were apportioned to the individual mineral commodities proportionally based on their unit value. This approach was used wherever the content was described as determined “based on the unit value of each trade transaction” in this table. HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; —, not applicable; Al2O3, aluminum oxide]

Mineral commodity Hafnium

Imports HTS code

Exports Comments

Assumed content Assumed content Schedule B code (percent) (percent)

8112310000

100

8112310000

100

8112390000

100

8112390000

100

Helium

2804290010

100

2804290010

100

—

Indium

8112923000

100

81129281

100

81129930

100

8112923000

100

Sufficiently disaggregated export data for indium were not available for the United States. Instead, export codes and the export data used in this analysis were those of U.S. trade partners.

Iridium

Iron ore

Lead

Lithium

8112925000

100

38180010601

60.5

7110410010

100

7110410000

100

7110410050

100

7110490000

100

7110490010

100

260111

66.2

260111

66.2

260112 260120

63.6

260112

63.6

77.7

260120

77.7

7801100000

100

7801100000

100

7801999030

100

7801993000

100

7801999050

100

7801999030

100

7802000030

100

7801999050

100

7802000060

100

7802000030

100

7802000060

100

28429030

7.1

28429030

7.1

28429060

7.2

28429060

7.2

2825200000

17.0

2825200000

17.0

2836910010

18.8

2836910010

18.8

2836910050

18.8

2836910050

18.8

2841909010

7.1

2841909020

7.1

2841909020

7.1

2841909030

7.2

2841909040

6.9

2841909040

6.9

Hafnium traded under trade code 8112310000 may have included low- value scrap materials. The trade was split from scrap based on the unit value of each trade transaction.

For trade codes 7110410000, 7110410050, and 7110490000, elemental content was allocated between ruthenium and iridium based on the unit value of each trade transaction. Osmium content was assumed to be negligible. —

Trade of lead ores and concentrates was excluded because the analysis starts with refined lead. Moreover, there was no primary lead production in the United States in 2023. The lead content of lead waste and scrap (trade codes 7802000030 and 7802000060) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction. Trade of lithium-containing lithium-ion battery cathode materials were obtained from the mirror trade as reported by China under trade codes 28429030 and 28429060 and South Korea under trade codes 2841909010, 2841909020, 2841909030, and 2841909040.

68 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 2.1. Trade codes used for each mineral commodity examined, except for the rare-earth elements.—Continued [Trade codes that contain more than one mineral commodity were apportioned to the individual mineral commodities proportionally based on their unit value. This approach was used wherever the content was described as determined “based on the unit value of each trade transaction” in this table. HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; —, not applicable; Al2O3, aluminum oxide]

Mineral commodity Magnesium compounds

Magnesium metal

Manganese alloys

Imports HTS code

Exports Comments

Assumed content Assumed content Schedule B code (percent) (percent)

2519100000

28.8

2519100000

28.8

2519901000

60.3

2519901000

60.3

2519902000

60.3

2519902000

60.3

2519905000

60.3

2519905000

60.3

2530201000

17.6

2530200000

9.9

2530202000

9.9

2816100000

41.7

2816100000

41.7

2827310000

25.5

2827310000

25.5

2833210000

20.2

2833210000

20.2

8104110000

100

8104110000

100

8104190000

100

8104190000

100

8104200000

100

8104200000

100

8104300000

100

8104300000

100

8104900000

100

8104900000

100

—

The magnesium content of magnesium waste and scrap (trade code 8104200000) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction. Owing to data being withheld, trade data from Turkey (trade code 8104110000) were obtained as reported by Turkey.

7202111000

100

7202110000

100

7202115000

100

7202190000

100

7202191000

100

7202300000

100

7202195000

100

7202300000

100

Manganese dioxide

2820100000

100

2820100000

100

Quantities were reported in manganese content. Trade of other manganese oxides (excluding dioxides) under trade code 2820900000 were excluded from the analysis.

Manganese metal

8111003000

100

8111000000

100

8111004700

100

8111004910

100

8111004990

100

The manganese content of manganese waste and scrap (trade codes 8111003000 and 8111000000) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction.

2602000000

35.0

Manganese ore imports were reported in manganese content under the secondary quantity units reported in the trade data.

28429030

7.4

Trade of manganese sulfate under trade code 2833295110 only began to be reported in 2025 and includes standard- grade manganese sulfate. It was therefore excluded from the analysis. Trade of manganese-containing lithium-ion battery cathode materials was obtained from the mirror trade as reported by China under trade codes 28429030 and 28539030 and South Korea under trade codes 2841909020 and 2841909040.

Manganese ore

Manganese sulfate (high purity)

8111006000

100

2602000040

100

2602000060

100

28429030

7.4

28539030

5.9

28539030

5.9

2841909020

7.4

2841909020

7.4

2841909040

5.5

2841909040

5.5

Quantities were reported in manganese content.

Appendix 2. U.S. Trade Data for Mineral Commodities 69 Table 2.1. Trade codes used for each mineral commodity examined, except for the rare-earth elements.—Continued [Trade codes that contain more than one mineral commodity were apportioned to the individual mineral commodities proportionally based on their unit value. This approach was used wherever the content was described as determined “based on the unit value of each trade transaction” in this table. HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; —, not applicable; Al2O3, aluminum oxide]

Mineral commodity Mica

Molybdenum

Imports HTS code 2525100050

100

2525200000

100

2525200000

100

2525300000

100

2525300000

100

2613100000

100

2613100000

100

2613900000

100

2613900000

100

2825700000

66.7

2825700000

67.0

2841701000

100

2841700000

100

2841705000

100

7202700000

100

8102100000

100

3206200020

Nickel, mined Nickel, primary refined

Exports Comments

Assumed content Assumed content Schedule B code (percent) (percent)

2.7

Mica, except split block, splittings, powder and waste (trade code 252510050), was split between scrap and flake and sheet mica based on the unit value of each trade transaction. The molybdenum content of molybdenum waste and scrap (trade code 810297000) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction. Similarly, the molybdenum content of the roasted concentrate (trade code 2613100000) and unroasted concentrate (trade code 2613900000), although presumably reported in molybdenum content, was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction.

3824993400

100

8102940000

100

7202700000

100

8102950000

100

8102100000

100

8102960000

100

8102940000

100

8102970000

100

8102953000

100

8102990000

100

8102956000

100

8102960000

100

8102970000

100

8102990000

100

2604000040

100

2604000040

100

—

28429030

42.8

28429030

42.8

28429060

50.8

28429060

50.8

28539030

48.9

28539030

48.9

28539050

40.8

2604000040

100

2604000040

100

2833240000

22.9

2833240000

22.9

2841909020

42.8

2841909020

42.8

2841909030

48.9

2841909030

48.9

2841909040

47.0

2841909040

47.0

7202600000

100

7202600000

100

7501100000

100

Trade of nickel-containing lithium-ion battery cathode materials was obtained from the mirror trade as reported by China under trade codes 28429030, 28429060, 28539030, and 28539050 and South Korea under trade codes 2841909020, 2841909030, and 2841909040. The nickel content of nickel waste and scrap (trade code 7503000000) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction.

7501100000

100

7501200000

100

7501200000

100

7502100000

100

7502100000

100

7502200000

100

7502200000

100

7503000000

100

7503000000

100

70 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 2.1. Trade codes used for each mineral commodity examined, except for the rare-earth elements.—Continued [Trade codes that contain more than one mineral commodity were apportioned to the individual mineral commodities proportionally based on their unit value. This approach was used wherever the content was described as determined “based on the unit value of each trade transaction” in this table. HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; —, not applicable; Al2O3, aluminum oxide]

Mineral commodity Niobium

Palladium Phosphates

Platinum

Potash

Rhenium

Rhodium Ruthenium

Imports HTS code

Exports Comments

Assumed content Assumed content Schedule B code (percent) (percent)

2615903000

19.6

2615903000

19.6

2615906030

7.0

2615906030

7.0

2615906060

7.0

2615906060

7.0

2825901500

69.9

7202930000

63.0

7202934000

63.0

Niobium content of niobium ores and concentrates (trade code 2615906030), tantalum ores and concentrates (trade code 2615906030), and synthetic concentrate (trade code 261590300) was split between niobium and tantalum based on the unit value of each trade transaction. —

7202938000

63.0

8112924000

100

711021

100

711021

100

711029

100

711029

100

2510100000

12.2

2510100000

12.2

2510200000

12.2

2510200000

12.2

2835250000

19.5

2835250000

19.5

2835260000

17.5

2835260000

17.5

3103110000

19.9

3103110000

19.9

3103190000

7.9

3103190000

7.9

3105300000

20.1

3105300000

20.1

3105400010

26.6

3105400000

26.6

3105400050

711011

100

711011

100

711019

100

711019

100

711292

100

711292

100

2834210000

37.4

2834210000

37.4

3104200010

50.6

3104200000

51.5

3104200050

52.3

3104300000

42.3

3104300000

42.3

3104900100

11.6

3104900100

11.6

—

The platinum content of platinum waste and scrap (trade code 711292) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction. —

2841902000

69.4

8112410000

100

8112415000

100

8112490000

100

8112490000

100

The rhenium content of rhenium waste and scrap (trade code 8112410000) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction.

711031

100

711031

100

—

711039

100

711039

100

7110410030

100

7110410000

100

7110410050

100

7110490000

100

7110490050

100

For the applicable trade codes 7110410000, 7110410050, 7110490000, the ruthenium content was allocated between ruthenium and iridium based on the unit value of each trade transaction. For trade code 7110490050, the ruthenium content was allocated between ruthenium and osmium based on the unit value of each trade transaction.

Appendix 2. U.S. Trade Data for Mineral Commodities 71 Table 2.1. Trade codes used for each mineral commodity examined, except for the rare-earth elements.—Continued [Trade codes that contain more than one mineral commodity were apportioned to the individual mineral commodities proportionally based on their unit value. This approach was used wherever the content was described as determined “based on the unit value of each trade transaction” in this table. HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; —, not applicable; Al2O3, aluminum oxide]

Mineral commodity Selenium Silicon ferroalloys

Silicon metal

Silver

Strontium

Imports HTS code

Exports Comments

Assumed content Assumed content Schedule B code (percent) (percent)

2804900000

100

2811292000

69.5

2804900000

100

—

7202211000

100

7202210000

100

7202215000

100

7202290000

100

7202219000

100

Quantities were reported in silicon content under the secondary quantity units reported in the trade data.

7202290010

100

7202290050

100

2804610000

100

2804610000

100

—

2804691000

99.5

2804691000

99.5

2804695000

98.0

2804695000

98.0

2603000040

100

2616100040

100

2607000040

100

2843210000

63.5

2608000040

100

2843290100

57.4

2616100040

100

7106100000

100

2620300040

100

7106911010

100

2843210000

63.5

7106911020

100

2843290100

57.4

7106915000

100

7106100000

100

7106920000

100

7106911010

100

7112990100

100

7106911020

100

7106915000

100

7106921000

100

7106925000

100

7112990100

100

2530908010

43.9

2816401000

70.0

2805191000

100

2836920000

59.4

2816401000

70.0

8505110030

5.9

2834292000

41.4

2836920000

59.4

8505110030

5.9

The silver content of silver waste and scrap (trade code 7112990100) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction.

Trade of ceramic ferrite permanent magnets (trade code 8505110030) was determined to be entirely strontium (rather than barium) ferrite permanent magnets based on the unit value of each trade transaction. Ferrite permanent magnet composition was assumed to be 10‑percent strontium carbonate (Magnet Applications, 2024)

72 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 2.1. Trade codes used for each mineral commodity examined, except for the rare-earth elements.—Continued [Trade codes that contain more than one mineral commodity were apportioned to the individual mineral commodities proportionally based on their unit value. This approach was used wherever the content was described as determined “based on the unit value of each trade transaction” in this table. HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; —, not applicable; Al2O3, aluminum oxide]

Mineral commodity Tantalum

Imports HTS code

Exports Comments

Assumed content Assumed content Schedule B code (percent) (percent)

2615903000

40.9

2615903000

40.9

2615906030

22.9

2615906030

22.9

2615906060

26.2

2615906060

26.2

8103200030

100

8103200030

100

8103200090

100

8103200090

100

8103300000

100

8103300000

100

8103910000

100

8103910000

100

8103990000

100

8103990000

100

Tellurium

2804500020

100

2804500020

100

—

Tin

8001100000

100

8001100000

100

8001200010

90.0

8001200000

90.0

8001200050

100

8002000000

100

8001200090

100

The tin content of tin waste and scrap (trade code 8002000000) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction.

8002000000

100

Titanium ferroalloys

7202910000

70.0

7202910000

70.0

—

Titanium metal

8108200015

100

8108200030

100

—

8108200030

100

8108200090

100

8108200095

100

8108906020

100

8108903030

100

8108906031

100

8108903060

100

8108908000

100

8108906020

100

8108906031

100

8108906045

100

8108906060

100

8108906075

100

2614003000

56.3

2614000000

36.0

—

2614006020

36.0

2614006040

36.0

2620995000

50.9

2823000000

59.9

2823000000

59.9

—

Titanium mineral concentrates

Titanium pigment Titanium sponge

3206110000

50.9

3206110000

50.9

3206190000

47.9

3206190000

47.9

8108200010

100

8108200010

100

8108300000

100

8108300000

100

The tantalum content of tantalum waste and scrap (trade codes 8103300000 and 2615903000) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction. The tantalum l content of niobium ores and concentrates (trade code 2615906030), tantalum ores and concentrates (trade code 2615906030), and synthetic concentrate (trade code 261590300) was split between niobium and tantalum based on the unit value of each trade transaction.

The titanium content of titanium waste and scrap (trade code 8108300000) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction.

Appendix 2. U.S. Trade Data for Mineral Commodities 73 Table 2.1. Trade codes used for each mineral commodity examined, except for the rare-earth elements.—Continued [Trade codes that contain more than one mineral commodity were apportioned to the individual mineral commodities proportionally based on their unit value. This approach was used wherever the content was described as determined “based on the unit value of each trade transaction” in this table. HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; —, not applicable; Al2O3, aluminum oxide]

Mineral commodity Tungsten

Imports HTS code 2611003000

100

2611000000

51.5

2611006000

100

2841800010

100

2620992000

100

2841800040

100

2825903000

100

2849903000

100

2827394000

46.4

7202800000

77.0

2841800010

100

810110

100

2841800050

100

810194

100

2849903000

100

810196

100

3824993500

100

810197

100

77.0

810199

100

7202800000

Vanadium

Zinc, mined Zinc, smelted

Exports

810110

100

810194

100

810196

100

810197

100

810199

100

2615906090

Comments

Assumed content Assumed content Schedule B code (percent) (percent)

The tungsten content of tungsten waste and scrap (trade code 810197) and slag, ash, and residues (trade code 2620992000) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction.

56.0

2615906090

56.0

2620400030

56.0

2620991000

100

2825300010

100

2825300010

100

2825300050

100

2825300050

100

2827391000

100

7202920000

100

2827491000

100

7601209030

10.0

2833293000

100

8112927000

100

2841901000

100

8112992000

100

2850002000

100

7202920000

100

2608000030

100

— The zinc content of zinc waste and scrap (trade code 7902000000) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction.

7601209030

10.0

8112927000

100

8112992000

100

2607000030

100

2608000030

100

2817000000

80.3

2817000000

80.3

2833294500

40.5

2833294500

40.5

7901110000

100

7901110000

100

7901121000

100

7901120000

100

7901125000

100

7901200000

70.0

7901200000

70.0

7902000000

100

7902000000

100

—

74 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 2.1. Trade codes used for each mineral commodity examined, except for the rare-earth elements.—Continued [Trade codes that contain more than one mineral commodity were apportioned to the individual mineral commodities proportionally based on their unit value. This approach was used wherever the content was described as determined “based on the unit value of each trade transaction” in this table. HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; —, not applicable; Al2O3, aluminum oxide]

Mineral commodity Zirconium

Imports HTS code

Exports

Assumed content Assumed content Schedule B code (percent) (percent)

2615100000

48.1

2615100000

48.1

2825600000

74.0

2825600000

74.0

7202991000

36.7

7202991000

36.7

8109210000

100

8109210000

100

8109290000

100

8109290000

100

8109310000

100

8109310000

100

8109390000

100

8109390000

100

8109910000

100

8109910000

100

8109990000

100

8109990000

100

Comments The zirconium content of zirconium ores and concentrates (trade code 2615100000) was assumed to be 48.1 percent for trade with all countries except Russia, for which the content was assumed to be 72.6 percent. Trade of zirconium oxide (trade code 2825600000) was split from germanium based on the unit value of each trade transaction. The zirconium content of the trade of zirconium waste and scrap (trade codes 8109310000 and 8109390000) was determined based on the unit value of each trade transaction. The zirconium content of ferrozirconium was estimated based on the geometric mean of the minimum and maximum reported contents.

Appendix 2. U.S. Trade Data for Mineral Commodities 75

Trade Data for Rare-Earth Elements Trade data for rare-earth elements were obtained from Global Trade Tracker (Zen Innovations AG, 2025). These trade data were reported under various trade codes, many of which contain several rare-earth elements in a single code. For example, trade code 2846902084 “mixtures of rare-earth, except cerium chlorides, not elsewhere specified or included” likely contains several rare-earth-element compounds. Because the analysis requires that each rare-earth element be treated as a separate mineral commodity, the following estimation procedures were used to disaggregate the trade flows for trade codes that contain multiple rare-earth elements: • United States imports of rare-earth elements from China were obtained based on China’s reported exports to the United States because China has several trade codes that report trade of individually named rare-earth elements. For United States imports from China under Chinese trade codes that do not identify an individual rare-earth element by name, the trade data were disaggregated by matching a rare-earth element with the closest reported price to the unit value of each trade transaction. These trade codes are noted in table 2.2 along with their assumed elemental contents, which were based on standard stoichiometric ratios for the different compounds. • United States imports from countries other than China and all U.S. exports were obtained as reported by the United States using United States trade codes. Trade codes with individually named rare-earth elements, metals, or compounds were allocated to their named elements. For trade codes without individually named rare-earth elements (such as mixtures), the allocation to individual rare-earth elements was based on the

rare-earth element distribution typical of monazite concentrates as noted by Nassar and others (2023), except for the imports from Malaysia and Estonia under trade code 2846908090 “compounds, organic or inorganic, of rare-earth metals, of yttrium or of scandium, or mixtures of these metals, not elsewhere specified or indicated,” for which the rare-earth distributions of these countries’ respective productions (as noted in appendix 1) were used instead. The specific allocations and elemental content conversions based on standard stoichiometric ratios for the different compounds are noted in table 2.3. • The trade of sintered rare-earth permanent magnets (trade codes 8505110050 “sintered samarium- cobalt permanent magnets and articles intended to become permanent magnets after magnetization” and 8505110070 “sintered neodymium-iron-boron permanent magnets and articles intended to become permanent magnets after magnetization”) was included in this analysis. The specific allocations of individual rare-earth elements are also noted in table 2.3. Trade data for samarium-cobalt magnets were obtained for 2024 instead of 2023 because the quantity of U.S. imports of these magnets has notably declined since first reported in 2022. • U.S. exports of rare-earth ores and concentrates from both the Mountain Pass mine and from heavy-mineral sands operations under trade codes 2846909000 “compounds, organic or inorganic, of rare-earth metals, of yttrium or of scandium, or mixtures of these metals, excluding cerium, not elsewhere specified or indicated” and 2612200000 “thorium ores and concentrates” were excluded because the system boundaries for the analysis began at the refining stage.

76 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 2.2. China’s trade codes and their assumed rare-earth elemental content used to quantify United States imports of rare-earth elements from China. [Rare-earth-element fractions and elemental content for each Chinese trade code were assumed or estimated based on standard stoichiometric ratios for the different alloys, compounds, metals, and mixtures. Overall elemental contents are the product of the rare-earth-element fractions and the elemental contents]

Mineral commodity Cerium

Dysprosium

China’s trade code

Rare-earth-element fraction (percent)

Elemental content (percent)

Overall elemental content (percent)

28053015

100

28461030

100

46.4

28461020

100

67.3

28461010

100

81.4

36069011

88.8

51.4

45.7

36069019

88.8

51.4

45.7

28469029

100

37.6

28469028

100

37.6

28469032

100

28469015

100

87.1

28053012

100

28469094

100

42.1

Erbium

28469019

16.8

87.5

14.7

Europium

28469014

100

86.4

28469099

22.3

40.5

28469019

34.0

86.8

29.5

28469039

93.5

73.4

68.7

28469019

4.0

87.3

3.5

28469049

50.4

10.1

28469099

0.1

43.5

0.05

Gadolinium Holmium

Lanthanum

Lutetium

28469041

100

46.2

28469023

100

37.4

28469012

100

85.3

28053014

100

28469091

100

37.4

36069011

88.8

26.7

23.7

36069019

88.8

26.7

23.7

28469018

100

87.9

48.4

1.7

28469099 Neodymium

3.5

28469044

100

47.1

28469024

100

40.2

28469034

100

71.7

28469013

100

85.7

28053011

100

28469019

4.9

85.7

4.2

36069011

88.8

16.5

14.6

36069019

88.8

16.5

14.6

Appendix 2. U.S. Trade Data for Mineral Commodities 77 Table 2.2. China’s trade codes and their assumed rare-earth elemental content used to quantify United States imports of rare-earth elements from China.—Continued [Rare-earth-element fractions and elemental content for each Chinese trade code were assumed or estimated based on standard stoichiometric ratios for the different alloys, compounds, metals, and mixtures. Overall elemental contents are the product of the rare-earth-element fractions and the elemental contents]

Mineral commodity Praseodymium

Samarium

Terbium Thulium Ytterbium

Yttrium

China’s trade code

Rare-earth-element fraction (percent)

Elemental content (percent)

Overall elemental content (percent)

28469035

100

71.2

28053016

100

28469017

100

82.8

28469019

1.6

82.8

1.4

36069011

88.8

5.1

4.6

36069019

88.8

5.1

4.6

28469019

16.1

86.2

13.9

28469039

6.5

72.5

4.7

36069011

88.8

0.2

36069019

88.8

0.2

28469016

100

28053013

100

28469019

13.9

87.6

12.2

28469099

0.5

47.6

0.2

28469019

5.9

87.8

5.2

28469049

51.6

41.3

28469099

73.6

26.3

19.4

28469046

100

35.4

28469026

100

29.3

28053017

100

28469011

100

78.7

28469096

100

26.3

78 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 2.3. United States trade codes and their assumed rare-earth-element content used to quantify United States exports and imports of rare-earth elements to and from countries other than China. [Rare-earth-element fractions and elemental content for each U.S. trade code were assumed or estimated based on standard stoichiometric ratios for the different alloys, compounds, metals, and mixtures. Overall elemental contents are the product of the rare-earth-element fractions and the elemental contents. Values less than 0.1 are expressed in exponential notation]

Mineral commodity

U.S. trade code

Rare-earth-element fraction (percent)

Elemental content (percent)

Overall elemental content (percent)

Cerium

2805300000

100

2805300010

100

2846100000

100

46.4

2846100010

100

81.4

2846100050

100

46.4

2846908090

100

3606900000

88.8

51.4

3606903000

88.8

51.4

6.3

Dysprosium

Erbium

Europium

8505110070

2805300000

0.4

100

0.4

2805300050

4.3

100

4.3

2805300090

4.3

100

4.3

2846902040

0.67

87.1

0.58

2846902060

0.67

43.1

0.29

2846902084

0.67

49.6

0.33

2846908075

1.2

50.1

0.63

2846908090

0.4

100

0.4

8505110070

2805300000

0.1

100

2.9

0.93 0.1

2805300050

1.1

100

1.1

2805300090

1.1

100

1.1

2846902040

0.17

87.5

0.15

2846902060

0.17

43.8

0.07

2846902084

0.17

50.3

0.08

2846908075

0.31

50.8

0.16

2846908090

0.1

100

0.1

2805300000

0.6

100

0.6

2805300050

6.5

100

6.5

2805300090

6.5

100

6.5

2846902040

1.0

86.4

0.86

2846902060

1.0

41.5

0.41

2846902084

1.0

48.1

0.48

2846908075

1.9

48.4

0.91

2846908090

0.6

100

0.6

Appendix 2. U.S. Trade Data for Mineral Commodities 79 Table 2.3. United States trade codes and their assumed rare-earth-element content used to quantify United States exports and imports of rare-earth elements to and from countries other than China.—Continued [Rare-earth-element fractions and elemental content for each U.S. trade code were assumed or estimated based on standard stoichiometric ratios for the different alloys, compounds, metals, and mixtures. Overall elemental contents are the product of the rare-earth-element fractions and the elemental contents. Values less than 0.1 are expressed in exponential notation]

Mineral commodity

U.S. trade code

Rare-earth-element fraction (percent)

Elemental content (percent)

Overall elemental content (percent)

Gadolinium

2805300000

2.2

100

2.2

2805300050

100

2805300090

100

2846902040

3.7

86.8

3.2

2846902060

3.7

42.3

1.5

2846902084

3.7

48.9

1.8

2846908075

6.9

49.2

3.4

2846908090

2.2

100

2.2

8505110050

8505110070

1.9

0.61

2805300000

0.1

100

0.1

2805300050

1.1

100

1.1

2805300090

1.1

100

1.1

2846902040

0.17

87.3

0.15

2846902060

0.17

43.5

0.07

2846902084

0.17

60.4

0.1

2846908075

0.31

50.4

0.16

2846908090

0.1

100

0.1

2805300000

100

2805300005

100

2846902005

100

85.3

2846902040

85.3

2846902060

37.4

2846902084

46.8

2846908070

100

46.2

2846908090

100

3606900000

88.8

26.7

3606903000

88.8

26.7

1.7

0.54

Holmium

Lanthanum

Lutetium

8505110070

2805300000

0.01

100

0.0

2805300050

0.11

100

0.11

2805300090

0.11

100

0.11

2846902040

0.02

87.9

0.01

2846902060

0.02

44.9

0.007

2846902084

0.02

61.6

0.01

2846908075

0.03

51.9

0.02

2846908090

0.01

100

0.01

80 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 2.3. United States trade codes and their assumed rare-earth-element content used to quantify United States exports and imports of rare-earth elements to and from countries other than China.—Continued [Rare-earth-element fractions and elemental content for each U.S. trade code were assumed or estimated based on standard stoichiometric ratios for the different alloys, compounds, metals, and mixtures. Overall elemental contents are the product of the rare-earth-element fractions and the elemental contents. Values less than 0.1 are expressed in exponential notation]

Mineral commodity

U.S. trade code

Rare-earth-element fraction (percent)

Elemental content (percent)

Overall elemental content (percent)

Neodymium

2805300000

100

2805300020

100

2846902040

85.7

2846902060

40.2

2846902084

48.0

2846908075

47.1

2846908090

100

3606900000

88.8

16.5

3606903000

88.8

16.5

8505110070

6.8

100

Praseodymium

Samarium

Terbium

2805300000

6.8

2805300015

100

2846902040

82.8

9.4

2846902060

39.7

4.5

2846902084

47.0

5.3

2846908075

46.5

9.9

2846908090

6.8

100

6.8

3606900000

88.8

5.1

4.6

3606903000

88.8

5.1

4.6

8505110070

5.0

2805300000

2.9

100

2.9

2805300050

100

2805300090

100

2846902040

4.8

86.2

4.2

2846902060

4.8

41.2

2.0

2846902084

4.8

47.9

2.3

2846908075

9.1

48.1

4.4

2846908090

2.9

100

2.9

3606900000

88.8

0.2

3606903000

88.8

0.2

8505110050

2805300000

0.1

100

0.1

2805300050

1.1

100

1.1

2805300090

1.1

100

1.1

2846902040

0.17

85.0

0.14

2846902060

0.17

42.6

0.07

2846902084

0.17

48.8

0.08

2846908075

0.31

49.5

0.15

2846908090

0.1

100

0.1

8505110070

0.5

0.16

Appendix 2. U.S. Trade Data for Mineral Commodities 81 Table 2.3. United States trade codes and their assumed rare-earth-element content used to quantify United States exports and imports of rare-earth elements to and from countries other than China.—Continued [Rare-earth-element fractions and elemental content for each U.S. trade code were assumed or estimated based on standard stoichiometric ratios for the different alloys, compounds, metals, and mixtures. Overall elemental contents are the product of the rare-earth-element fractions and the elemental contents. Values less than 0.1 are expressed in exponential notation]

Mineral commodity

U.S. trade code

Rare-earth-element fraction (percent)

Elemental content (percent)

Overall elemental content (percent)

Thulium

2805300000

0.03

100

0.03

2805300050

0.32

100

0.32

2805300090

0.32

100

0.32

2846902040

0.05

87.6

0.04

2846902060

0.05

44.1

0.02

2846902084

0.05

60.9

0.03

2846908075

0.09

51.0

0.05

2846908090

0.03

100

0.03

2805300000

0.7

100

0.7

2805300050

7.6

100

7.6

2805300090

7.6

100

7.6

2846902040

1.2

87.8

1.0

2846902060

1.2

44.7

0.52

2846902084

1.2

56.3

0.66

2846908075

2.2

51.6

1.1

2846908090

0.7

100

0.7

2805300000

2.1

100

2.1

2805300050

100

2805300090

100

2846902015

100

Ytterbium

Yttrium

78.7

2846902040

3.5

78.7

2.8

2846902060

3.5

29.3

1.0

2846902082

29.3

2846902084

100 3.5

37.1

1.3

2846904000

78.7

2846908075

6.6

35.4

2.3

2846908090

2.1

100

2.1

82 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals

References Cited Liu, G., and Müller, D.B., 2013, Mapping the global journey of anthropogenic aluminum—A trade-linked multilevel material flow analysis: Environmental Science & Technology, v. 47, no. 20, p. 11873–11881, accessed June 3, 2019, at https://doi.org/10.1021/es4024404. Magnet Applications, 2024, Ferrite magnet price trends: Magnet Applications, accessed June 13, 2025, at https://www.magnetapplications.com/blog/ferrite-magnet- price-concerns. Nassar, N.T., Lederer, G.W., Padilla, A.J., Gambogi, J., Cordier, D.J., Brainard, J.L., Lessard, J.D., and Charab, R., 2023, Rock-to-metal ratios of the rare earth elements: Journal of Cleaner Production, v. 405, article 136958, accessed April 30, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j .jclepro.2023.136958.

Nassar, N.T., Shojaeddini, E., Alonso, E., Jaskula, B., and Tolcin, A., 2024, Quantifying potential effects of China’s gallium and germanium export restrictions on the U.S. economy: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2024–1057, 66 p., accessed October 15, 2024, at https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20241057. Shepherd Chemical, 2024, Bismuth nitrate solution, 22.5%: Shepherd Chemical, accessed May 21, 2025, at https://www.shepchem.com/chemistry/bismuth-nitrate- solution-22-5/. Zen Innovations AG, 2025, Global trade tracker: Zen Innovations AG, accessed January 2, 2025, at https://www.globaltradetracker.com/.

Appendix 3. Prices and Price Elasticities of Supply and Demand 83

Appendix 3. Prices and Price Elasticities of Supply and Demand Sources and assumptions for the prices for domestic production are noted below in table 3.1. Prices for domestic consumption were based on the combined value (quantity multiplied by price) of domestic production, the value of domestic net imports (as reported in the trade data) and, if applicable, the value of domestic releases from inventories, which was assumed to have the same unit value as that of domestic production. Where multiple prices are listed in the table below (table 3.1), the simple average was used unless otherwise specified. Where necessary, elemental contents,

as reported in the table, were used to convert reported prices into their elemental content equivalents. All prices were the average for 2023. Weighted average unit values were estimated based on total trade value of the noted trade codes divided by total trade quantity (after being adjusted for elemental content) for the year unless otherwise noted. Price elasticity estimates were obtained from Shojaeddini and others (2025). These price elasticities represent the short-run (1-year) price elasticities unless otherwise noted (table 3.2).

84 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 3.1. Data sources for assumed prices for U.S. mineral commodity production in 2023. [Prices are annual averages for 2023 unless otherwise noted. Where multiple prices are listed for a mineral commodity in the table below, the simple average of the prices was used unless otherwise specified. Weighted average unit values were estimated based on total trade value of the noted trade code divided by total trade quantity (after being adjusted for elemental content) for 2023 unless otherwise noted. K2O, potassium oxide; Nb2O5, niobium oxide; REEs, rare-earth elements; Ta2O5, tantalum oxide]

Prices Mineral commodity

Description

Assumed elemental content (percent)

Data sources

Alumina

Weighted annual average U.S. import unit value of alumina (trade code 281820)

52.9

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Aluminum

Annual average U.S. market (spot) price of aluminum ingot

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Antimony

Annual average price of antimony metal, minimum 99.65‑percent antimony

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Annual average price of antimony trioxide, minimum 99.8‑percent antimony

83.5

Argus Media Group (2024)

Arsenic

Annual average price of arsenic metal, minimum 99‑percent arsenic, at U.S. warehouses

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Barite

Annual average unit value of ground barite

58.8

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Bauxite

Weighted annual average U.S. import unit value of bauxite (trade code 260600)

Beryllium

Weighted annual average U.S. import unit value of beryllium copper master alloy (trade code 7405006030)

Bismuth

Annual average price of 99.99‑percent-purity bismuth metal at warehouse (Rotterdam) in minimum lots of 1 metric ton

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Cadmium

Annual average free market price of 99.95‑percent‑pure cadmium metal in 10-metric-ton lots, including cost, insurance, and freight at global ports

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Chromite

Annual average price of chromite ore (gross weight)

2.9

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Chromium chemicals

Weighted annual average U.S. import unit value of sodium dichromate (trade code 2841509100)

34.9

Zen Innovations AG (2025)

Chromium ferroalloys Annual average price of ferrochromium (reported in chromium content)

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Chromium metal

Annual average price of chromium metal

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Cobalt

Annual average U.S. spot price of cobalt cathode. Price was used for both cobalt metal and cobalt chemicals.

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Copper, mined

Weighted annual average U.S. export unit value of copper ores and concentrates (trade code 2603000010)

100

Zen Innovations AG (2025)

Copper, refined

Annual average U.S. producer price (Commodity Exchange plus premium) of copper cathode

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Feldspar

Annual average unit value of marketable feldspar

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Fluorspar, acidspar

Annual average U.S. import unit value, including cost, insurance, and freight of acid-grade fluorspar (trade code 2529220000)

47.7

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Fluorspar, metspar

Annual average U.S. import unit value, including cost, insurance, and freight of metallurgical-grade fluorspar (trade code 2529210000)

45.7

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Gallium

Annual average U.S. import unit value of high-purity refined gallium

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Annual average U.S. import unit value of low-purity primary gallium

100

Variable by country

Zen Innovations AG (2025) Zen Innovations AG (2025)

Appendix 3. Prices and Price Elasticities of Supply and Demand 85 Table 3.1. Data sources for assumed prices for U.S. mineral commodity production in 2023.—Continued [Prices are annual averages for 2023 unless otherwise noted. Where multiple prices are listed for a mineral commodity in the table below, the simple average of the prices was used unless otherwise specified. Weighted average unit values were estimated based on total trade value of the noted trade code divided by total trade quantity (after being adjusted for elemental content) for 2023 unless otherwise noted. K2O, potassium oxide; Nb2O5, niobium oxide; REEs, rare-earth elements; Ta2O5, tantalum oxide]

Prices Assumed elemental content (percent)

Data sources

Annual average European price of minimum 99.999‑percent‑purity germanium metal

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Annual average European price of minimum 99.999‑percent‑purity germanium oxide

69.4

Gold

Annual average Engelhard gold price quotation

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Graphite, natural

Weighted annual average U.S. import unit value of flake graphite (trade code 250410)

100

Zen Innovations AG (2025)

Graphite, synthetic

Annual average unit value of synthetic graphite production

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Hafnium

Annual average price of unwrought hafnium metal

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Helium

Weighted annual average U.S. export unit value of helium (trade code 2804290010)

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Indium

Annual average price of indium, U.S. warehouses, free on board

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Iridium

Annual average Engelhard price of unfabricated iridium metal

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Iron ore

Annual average unit value of iron ore reported at mines

63.1

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Lead

Annual average North American price of lead

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Lithium

Annual average spot price of battery-grade lithium carbonate

18.8

Project Blue (2025a)

Magnesium compounds

Annual average U.S. export unit value for caustic calcined magnesite (trade code 2519902000) and fused and dead- burned magnesia (trade code 2519901000) weighted by the reported U.S. production capacity.

60.3

Zen Innovations AG (2025)

Magnesium metal

Annual average U.S. spot Western price of magnesium metal

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Manganese alloys

Annual average price of high carbon ferromanganese, free- on-board, North American warehouse

8.0

Annual average price of medium-and low-carbon ferromanganese, free-on-board, North American warehouse

8.4

Annual average price of silicomanganese, free-on-board, North American warehouse

6.6

Manganese dioxide

Annual average price of manganese dioxide, minimum 91‑percent alkaline battery grade, ex works, China

9.1

Argus Media Group (2024)

Manganese metal

Annual average price of manganese briquette, minimum 97‑percent manganese, free-on-board, China

9.7

Argus Media Group (2024)

Manganese ore

Annual average price of metallurgical grade manganese ore (adjusted for manganese content) including cost, insurance, and freight

Manganese sulfate (high purity)

Annual average price of manganese sulfate, minimum 32‑percent manganese battery grade, ex works, China

Mica

Annual average price of scrap and flake mica

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Molybdenum

Annual average price of U.S. molybdic oxide, reported in molybdenum content

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Mineral commodity Germanium

Description

100

3.2

Argus Media Group (2024)

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Argus Media Group (2024)

86 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 3.1. Data sources for assumed prices for U.S. mineral commodity production in 2023.—Continued [Prices are annual averages for 2023 unless otherwise noted. Where multiple prices are listed for a mineral commodity in the table below, the simple average of the prices was used unless otherwise specified. Weighted average unit values were estimated based on total trade value of the noted trade code divided by total trade quantity (after being adjusted for elemental content) for 2023 unless otherwise noted. K2O, potassium oxide; Nb2O5, niobium oxide; REEs, rare-earth elements; Ta2O5, tantalum oxide]

Prices Mineral commodity

Description

Assumed elemental content (percent)

Data sources

Nickel, mined

Weighted annual average U.S. export unit value of nickel ores and concentrates (trade code 2604000040)

100

Zen Innovations AG (2025)

Nickel, primary refined

Annual average London Metal Exchange cash price of primary refined nickel

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Niobium

Annual average price of niobium (columbite) concentrate, minimum 50‑percent Nb2O5 content, including cost, insurance, and freight at main ports

69.9

Argus Media Group (2024)

Palladium

Annual average Engelhard price of unfabricated palladium metal

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Phosphates

Weighted annual average unit value of marketable phosphate rock, all grades

12.2

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Platinum

Annual average Engelhard price of unfabricated platinum metal

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Potash

Annual average free-on-board price of all potash products (muriate of potash, sulfate of potash, and potassium magnesium sulfate), reported in dollars per metric ton of K2O

83.0

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

REEs—Cerium

Annual average price of cerium oxide

81.4

Project Blue (2025b)

REEs—Dysprosium

Annual average price of dysprosium oxide

87.1

Project Blue (2025b)

REEs—Erbium

Annual average price of erbium oxide

87.5

Project Blue (2025b)

REEs—Europium

Annual average price of europium oxide

86.4

Project Blue (2025b)

REEs—Gadolinium

Annual average price of gadolinium oxide

86.8

Project Blue (2025b)

REEs—Holmium

Annual average price of holmium oxide

87.3

Project Blue (2025b)

REEs—Lanthanum

Annual average price of lanthanum oxide

85.3

Project Blue (2025b)

REEs—Lutetium

Annual average price of lutetium oxide

87.9

Project Blue (2025b)

REEs—Neodymium

Annual average price of neodymium oxide

85.7

Project Blue (2025b)

REEs— Praseodymium

Annual average price of praseodymium oxide

82.5

Project Blue (2025b)

REEs—Samarium

Annual average price of samarium oxide

86.2

Project Blue (2025b)

REEs—Terbium

Annual average price of terbium oxide

85.0

Project Blue (2025b)

REEs—Thulium

Annual average price of thulium oxide, minimum purity of 99 percent

87.6

Ginger International Trade & Investment Pte. Ltd. (2025)

REEs—Ytterbium

Annual average price of ytterbium oxide

78.7

Project Blue (2025b)

REEs—Yttrium

Annual average price of yttrium oxide

87.8

Project Blue (2025b)

Rhenium

Annual average price of 99.99‑percent‑pure rhenium metal pellets

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Rhodium

Annual average Engelhard price of unfabricated rhodium metal

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Ruthenium

Annual average Engelhard price of unfabricated ruthenium metal

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Selenium

Annual average price, minimum purity of 99.95 percent selenium, free on board, at U.S. warehouse

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Appendix 3. Prices and Price Elasticities of Supply and Demand 87 Table 3.1. Data sources for assumed prices for U.S. mineral commodity production in 2023.—Continued [Prices are annual averages for 2023 unless otherwise noted. Where multiple prices are listed for a mineral commodity in the table below, the simple average of the prices was used unless otherwise specified. Weighted average unit values were estimated based on total trade value of the noted trade code divided by total trade quantity (after being adjusted for elemental content) for 2023 unless otherwise noted. K2O, potassium oxide; Nb2O5, niobium oxide; REEs, rare-earth elements; Ta2O5, tantalum oxide]

Prices Mineral commodity

Description

Assumed elemental content (percent)

Data sources

Silicon ferroalloys

Mean U.S. import unit value of ferrosilicon, 75‑percent silicon, adjusted for silicon content based on monthly averages

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Silicon metal

Annual average price of polysilicon (9N purity), based on quarterly averages and annual average price of metallurgical-grade silicon metal, weighted by production of each product in the United States

100

Project Blue (2025c)

Silver

Annual average Engelhard price of industrial bullion metal

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Strontium

Weighted annual average U.S. import unit value of strontium carbonate (trade code 2836920000)

43.9

Zen Innovations AG (2025)

Tantalum

Annual average price of tantalite, basis 25 percent Ta2O5 content, including cost, insurance, and freight at main ports

81.9

Argus Media Group (2024)

Tellurium

Weighted annual average U.S. export unit value of tellurium (trade code 2804500020)

100

Zen Innovations AG (2025)

Tin

Annual average New York dealer price of tin

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Titanium ferroalloys

Weighted annual average U.S. export unit value of ferrotitanium (trade code 7202910000)

Titanium metal

Weighted annual average U.S. export unit value of wrought titanium (trade code 8108908000)

100

Zen Innovations AG (2025)

Titanium mineral concentrates

Annual average landed duty-paid unit value of U.S. imports for consumption of ilmenite

59.9

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Titanium pigment

Annual average landed duty-paid unit value of U.S. imports for consumption of titanium pigment

59.9

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Titanium sponge

Annual average price of titanium sponge, ex works, China

100

Project Blue (2025d)

Tungsten

Annual average price of tungsten trioxide concentrates at Rotterdam warehouse

79.3

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Vanadium

Average annual price of ferrovanadium, 78‑ to 82‑percent vanadium content, Rotterdam

80.0

Argus Media Group (2024)

Average annual price of vanadium pentoxide fused flake, minimum 98‑percent vanadium content, Rotterdam

54.9

Zinc, mined

Weighted annual average U.S. export unit value of zinc ores and concentrates (trade code 2608000030)

100

Zen Innovations AG (2025)

Zinc, smelted

Annual average price of North American special high-grade zinc ingot based on London Metal Exchange price plus premium

100

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

Zirconium

Annual average unit value of landed-duty-paid U.S. imports for consumption of zircon from Australia, Senegal, and South Africa

48.1

U.S. Geological Survey (2025a)

7.0

Zen Innovations AG (2025)

88 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 3.2. Summary of short-run (1-year) price elasticity estimates used in the analysis. [Data from Shojaeddini and others (2025). —, not applicable; REEs, rare-earth elements]

Short-run price elasticity of supply (PES)

Short-run price elasticity of demand (PED)

Alumina

0.66

−0.12

—

Aluminum

0.14

−0.17

—

Antimony

0.27

−0.12

—

Arsenic

0.26

−0.03

—

Barite

0.55

−0.38

—

Bauxite

0.71

−0.23

—

Beryllium

0.41

−0.39

—

Bismuth

0.15

−0.14

—

Cadmium

0.03

−0.07

—

Chromite; Chromium chemicals; Chromium ferroalloys; Chromium metal

0.24

−0.40

The PED was based on U.S. demand. The same elasticities were used for chromite and all chromium forms.

Cobalt

0.22

−0.17

The PES for refined cobalt was estimated based on the PES for mined cobalt multiplied by the ratio of the PES for refined copper to the PES for mined copper.

Copper, mined

0.08

−0.07

—

Copper, refined

0.11

−0.07

—

Feldspar

0.63

−0.31

—

Fluorspar

0.49

−0.30

Price elasticities were applied to both fluorspar grades.

Gallium

0.40

−0.50

—

Germanium

0.50

−0.29

—

Gold

0.04

−0.19

—

Graphite, natural

0.31

−0.38

—

Graphite, synthetic

0.59

−0.45

Price elasticities were based on a static framework using panel data rather than short-run elasticities based on time-series data.

Hafnium

0.18

−0.26

—

Helium

0.58

−0.23

—

Indium

0.30

−0.18

—

Iridium

0.09

−0.24

—

Iron ore

0.30

−0.11

—

Lead

0.096

−0.05

The PES was estimated based on the reported PES for mined lead multiplied by the ratio of the PES for refined copper to the PES for mined copper.

Lithium

0.33

−0.11

The PED was based on a static framework using panel data rather than short-run elasticities based on time-series data.

Magnesium compounds

0.3

−0.31

—

Magnesium metal

0.38

−0.23

—

Manganese

0.46

−0.30

Price elasticities were assumed to apply to all manganese forms.

Mica

0.28

−0.14

Price elasticities were based on those of mica scrap and flake.

Molybdenum

0.14

−0.10

The PED was based on a static framework using panel data rather than short-run elasticities based on time series data..

Mineral commodity

Comments

Appendix 3. Prices and Price Elasticities of Supply and Demand 89 Table 3.2. Summary of short-run (1-year) price elasticity estimates used in the analysis.—Continued [Data from Shojaeddini and others (2025). —, not applicable; REEs, rare-earth elements]

Short-run price elasticity of supply (PES)

Short-run price elasticity of demand (PED)

Nickel, mined

0.31

−0.09

The PED was based on a static framework using panel data rather than short-run elasticities based on time-series data.

Nickel, primary refined

0.43

−0.09

The PES for refined nickel was estimated based on the PES for mined nickel multiplied by the ratio the PES for refined copper to the PES for mined copper.

Niobium

0.48

−0.48

—

Palladium

0.28

−0.25

—

Phosphates

0.07

−0.13

—

Platinum

0.29

−0.47

—

Potash

0.11

−0.35

—

REEs—Cerium

0.14

−0.08

PES was based on refined production.

REEs—Dysprosium

0.13

−0.11

PES was based on refined production.

REEs—Erbium

0.37

−0.12

PES was based on refined production.

REEs—Europium

0.06

−0.29

PES was based on refined production.

REEs—Gadolinium

0.15

−0.21

PES was based on refined production.

REEs—Holmium

0.09

−0.06

PES was based on refined production.

REEs—Lanthanum

0.21

−0.06

PES was based on refined production.

REEs—Lutetium

0.07

−0.08

PES was based on mined production.

REEs—Neodymium

0.18

−0.07

PES was based on refined production.

REEs—Praseodymium

0.15

−0.14

PES was based on refined production.

REEs—Samarium

0.06

−0.29

PES was based on refined production.

REEs—Terbium

0.09

−0.18

PES was based on mined production.

REEs—Thulium

0.53

−0.30

PES was based on refined production.

REEs—Ytterbium

0.06

−0.04

PES was based on refined production.

REEs—Yttrium

0.14

−0.06

PES was based on refined production.

Rhenium

0.35

−0.45

—

Rhodium

0.04

−0.09

—

Ruthenium

0.11

−0.27

—

Selenium

0.04

−0.06

—

Silicon ferroalloys

0.28

−0.24

—

Silicon metal

0.28

−0.18

—

Silver

0.36

−0.40

Price elasticities were based on a static framework using panel data rather than short-run elasticities based on time-series data.

Strontium

0.29

−0.38

—

Tantalum

0.45

−0.31

—

Tellurium

0.18

−0.09

Price elasticities were based on a static framework using panel data rather than short-run elasticities based on time-series data.

Tin

0.25

−0.07

—

Titanium ferroalloys; Titanium metal; Titanium sponge

0.27

−0.60

Price elasticities were based on a static framework using panel data rather than short-run elasticities based on time-series data. Titanium ferroalloys, metal, and sponge were assume to have the same elasticities.

Mineral commodity

Comments

90 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 3.2. Summary of short-run (1-year) price elasticity estimates used in the analysis.—Continued [Data from Shojaeddini and others (2025). —, not applicable; REEs, rare-earth elements]

Short-run price elasticity of supply (PES)

Short-run price elasticity of demand (PED)

Titanium mineral concentrates; Titanium pigment

0.16

−0.19

Price elasticities were based on U.S. production and apparent consumption time-series data. Titanium mineral concentrates and titanium pigment were assumed to have the same elasticities.

Tungsten

0.08

−0.08

—

Vanadium

0.12

−0.17

—

Zinc

0.06

−0.12

Price elasticities were based on zinc mine production but assumed to be applicable to both mined and smelted zinc.

Zirconium

0.24

−0.16

—

Mineral commodity

References Cited Argus Media Group, 2024, Argus direct price data: Argus Media Group, accessed December 12, 2024, at https://direct.argusmedia.com/price/pricedata. Ginger International Trade & Investment Pte. Ltd., 2025, Thulium oxide: Ginger International Trade & Investment Pte. Ltd., accessed April 30, 2025, at https://giti.sg/products/ rare-earths/TmO/. Project Blue, 2025a, Lithium market service—Interactive data Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited. Project Blue, 2025b, Rare earth research service—Interactive data Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited. Project Blue, 2025c, Silicon market service—Interactive data Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited. Project Blue, 2025d, Titanium market service—Interactive data Q1 2025: London, Project Blue Group Limited.

Comments

Shojaeddini, E., Alonso, E., Nassar, N.T., Pineault, D.G., Allen, S.M., Brainard, J.L., McCaffrey, D.M., O’Brien, T.M., Padilla, A.J., and Ryter, J.W., 2025, Understanding market sensitivity—Estimation of supply and demand elasticities for non-fuel minerals: Mineral Economics, accessed September 11, 2025, at https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s13563-025-00537-3. U.S. Geological Survey, 2024, Mineral commodity summaries 2024: U.S. Geological Survey, 212 p., https://doi.org/ 10.3133/mcs2024. U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a, Mineral commodity summaries 2025 (ver. 1.2, March 2025): U.S. Geological Survey, 212 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2025. U.S. Geological Survey, 2025b, U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook data for select mineral commodities referenced in U.S. Geological Survey “Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals—Assessing the Potential Effects of Mineral Commodity Supply Chain Disruptions on the U.S. Economy”: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P14BRF29. Zen Innovations AG, 2025, Global trade tracker: Zen Innovations AG, accessed January 2, 2025, at https://www.globaltradetracker.com/.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 91

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry For each mineral commodity analyzed, the quantity of the mineral commodity consumed in the United States was disaggregated by major application category. The data sources used and any assumptions made to determine the quantity of each mineral commodity’s use by application category are noted in tables 4.1 and 4.2. Each application category was linked to a U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) industry, which is also noted in table 4.2 along with the percentage of each BEA industry’s output that was estimated to have used the mineral commodity. The determination of how much of an industry’s output was associated with a mineral

commodity was predominantly determined based on data on the revenues generated from the sales of specific product(s) as defined by the North American Product Classification System (NAPCS) produced by the industry. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022). However, other sources and methods were used where necessary. The rare-earth elements are reported in the following tables as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities.

92 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.1. Data sources and notes regarding applications for mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry. [Details of the applications and the estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used each mineral commodity are found in table 4.2. The rare- earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System]

Mineral commodity

Data sources and notes regarding applications

Alumina

The percentage of alumina used for aluminum production was obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (2024). The remainder was split equally among the other applications.

Aluminum

All aluminum consumption was connected to the “Aluminum production manufacturing from purchased aluminum [33131B]” industry, which includes the production of aluminum sheet, plate, foil, and other aluminum products made from rolling, drawing, and extruding. In turn, this industry was connected to downstream industries through the economic input-output tables.

Antimony

Data on U.S. consumption of antimony by application were obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (Klochko, 2024; U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a), some of which were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary information but used in this analysis. Reported consumption quantities were extrapolated to apparent consumption quantities based on imports of antimony oxide and metal and secondary antimonial lead production for each application that consumed antimony in this form. Antimony’s use (as antimonial lead) in lead-acid batteries was excluded because that use is largely self- sufficient from closed-loop recycling.

Arsenic

The use of arsenic in the United States was split into applications based on data from the U.S. Geological Survey (2024). Arsenic’s use for the “herbicides and insecticides” and the “wood preservation” applications was separated based on data from the Chemical Data Reporting database (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2022). The use for the undifferentiated “other” application was split equally into subcategories of the application owing to a lack of data. Arsenic’s use in other applications, such as ammunition and pigments, was assumed to be negligible.

Barite

The proportions of barite’s use by application in the United States were obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b), which were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary information but used in this analysis.

Bauxite

The percentage of bauxite used for alumina production was obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b). The use of bauxite in other applications, which was aggregated by the reference to avoid disclosing company proprietary information but used in this analysis.

Beryllium

The proportions of beryllium’s use by application were obtained from Mordor Intelligence (2024a). The healthcare and “other” application categories were combined and listed under the “lasers” application owing to overlapping uses. Beryllium’s use in the reported application categories was disaggregated into subcategories of each application based on the value of each associated industry’s output that used beryllium as a percentage of the output of all industries associated with beryllium within the application category. This approach was taken for all application categories except for the oil and gas and other energy application category, which was split equally between the subcategories.

Bismuth

The percentage of bismuth used by application was obtained from Mordor Intelligence (2025a). Bismuth consumed in the metallurgical application was disaggregated based on data provided to the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b), which were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary information but used in this analysis. Bismuth consumed in the electronics and semiconductors application was disaggregated based on the value of the industry’s output that was estimated to have used bismuth.

Cadmium

The proportions of cadmium’s use by application in the United States were obtained from Mordor Intelligence (2025b). The undifferentiated “other” application was assumed to be for solar photovoltaics.

Chromite

All domestic consumption of chromite ores and concentrates was assumed to be used to produce chromium chemicals.

Chromium chemicals

Chromium chemicals’ uses were split equally among these applications.

Chromium ferroalloys

The proportions of ferrochromium’s use by application in the United States were estimated based on the trade data and data from the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b).

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 93 Table 4.1. Data sources and notes regarding applications for mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.— Continued [Details of the applications and the estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used each mineral commodity are found in table 4.2. The rare- earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System]

Mineral commodity

Data sources and notes regarding applications

Chromium metal

The proportions of chromium metal’s use by application in the United States were estimated based on the trade data and data from the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b). Chromium metal’s use in superalloys was disaggregated among the various subcategories of the application based on data from Eckard (2017).

Cobalt chemicals

Domestic cobalt use in batteries was separated from the reported chemicals and ceramics application category based on information from Benchmark Mineral Intelligence Ltd. (2023b) regarding U.S. lithium-ion battery cathode active material production. Cobalt’s use in all other applications was split based on global data for cobalt uses (Project Blue, 2025a).

Cobalt metal

The use of cobalt by application was obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b). Steels and other alloys were disaggregated among steels, magnetic alloys, and other alloys based on data reported to the U.S. Geological Survey that were aggregated to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. Cobalt’s use in cemented carbides was split between two industries based on the reported consumption of tungsten carbide by those two industries in the 2012 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012b). Cobalt’s use in superalloys was split into two applications based on data on nickel-and cobalt-based superalloys reported by Eckard (2017), excluding superalloys used in nuclear reactor, industrial process, oil and gas, and automotive applications. In addition to the consumption of cobalt to manufacture permanent magnets, the United States also imported rare-earth permanent magnets that contain cobalt. The consumption was allocated using the same approach described for rare-earth elements in this table.

Copper, mined

All mined copper consumed domestically was connected to the “Nonferrous metal (except aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]” industry, which was connected to downstream industries through the input-output tables.

Copper, refined

All refined copper consumed domestically was connected to the “Copper rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331420]” industry, which was connected to downstream industries through the input-output tables.

Feldspar

The proportions of feldspar use by application were obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (2025a). Feldspar’s use in ceramics was split from its use as a filler in paints and coatings based on information from SCRREEN (2023).

Fluorspar, acidspar

The proportions of acid-grade fluorspar use by application in the United States were estimated based on global consumption fractions (Project Blue, 2025b). The “other chemicals” application category was split equally into various downstream applications.

Fluorspar, metspar

The proportions of metallurgical-grade fluorspar’s use by application in the United States were estimated based on global consumption fractions (Project Blue, 2025b), with the glass and ceramics category being split into equal proportions.

Gallium

All domestic gallium consumption was connected to the “Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]” industry, which was connected to downstream industries through the input-output tables.

Germanium

Application fractions were based on the analysis conducted by Nassar and others (2024), with the exception that use in the fiber optics application was merged into a single BEA industry.

Gold

U.S. gold consumption was first disaggregated into major application categories based on data for North American gold consumption in 2022 (Kirilenko, 2023). The proportion of gold’s use in the electrical & electronics application was split based the expenditure of the associated BEA industries on gold and other precious metals (material code 33141911) reported in the 2012 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012a). The proportion of gold’s use in the dental application was split proportionally based on the value of shipments of the Manufacturing of dental metals, artificial teeth not customized for individual application, and other dental laboratory supplies [2045975000] NAPCS code reported by the two dental-associated BEA industries. The proportion of gold’s use in the “other” application was split equally owing to a lack of additional information. Gold’s use in official coins and other investment instruments was not connected to any BEA industry.

94 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.1. Data sources and notes regarding applications for mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.— Continued [Details of the applications and the estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used each mineral commodity are found in table 4.2. The rare- earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System]

Mineral commodity

Data sources and notes regarding applications

Graphite, natural

All domestic natural graphite consumption was connected to the “Carbon and graphite product manufacturing [335991]” industry, which was connected to downstream industries through the input-output tables.

Graphite, synthetic

All domestic synthetic graphite consumption was connected to the “Carbon and graphite product manufacturing [335991]” industry, which was connected to downstream industries through the input-output tables.

Hafnium

Hafnium’s use in the United States by application was based on data reported by Mordor Intelligence (2024b). Hafnium’s use in superalloys was split based on the split for cobalt in superalloys, with the “other superalloy use” being allocated to space applications. Hafnium’s use in the undifferentiated “other” applications was split equally between the catalysts and semiconductors subcategories (Alkane Resources Ltd., 2017).

Helium

The proportions of helium’s use in the United States in 2023 by application were obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (2024). The share of helium’s use in analytical, engineering, lab, science, and specialty gases was split between the analytical and science laboratory applications category and the engineering applications category based on data reported by the U.S. Geological Survey (2020a). Helium’s use in semiconductor applications was split from its use in fiber-optic applications based on data reported by the U.S. Geological Survey (2020a) for semiconductor applications, with the remainder being allocated to the fiber-optic application. Helium’s use in welding, which was assumed to be mainly for aerospace and automotive applications, was split equally between these two uses. Helium’s use in lifting gas applications was split between the weather services and the party-balloons subcategories based on data from the National Research Council (2010), which provides an estimate for helium’s use in weather balloons per year. Helium’s use in party-balloons was assumed to constitute the remainder of the lifting gas application fraction. Helium’s use in the undifferentiated “other” applications was assumed to be for pharmaceutics, automobile airbags, and hard disk drives, and was split equally among these three subcategories.

Indium

Application fractions were based on data for indium’s forecasted consumption by application for 2021 for all countries except China (Beijing Antaike Information Development Co., Ltd., 2020). Indium tin oxide use was split between the electronic displays and the coated glass subcategories based on information reported by the U.S. Geological Survey (Jorgenson and George, 2005). Solders and alloys were split equally between the electronics and fusible alloys subcategories. The undifferentiated “other” application was assumed to be for dental alloys.

Iridium

The proportions of iridium’s use by application were obtained from Johnson Matthey plc (2024). These data pertain to global application fractions but were assumed applicable to the United States. The proportion of iridium’s use in the chemical application was split equally among the associated BEA industries. The proportion of iridium’s use in the electrochemical application was split among the associated BEA industries based on additional information noted by Johnson Matthey plc (2024). The proportion of iridium’s use in the undifferentiated “other” application was split among the associated BEA industries based on additional information presented by Heraeus Precious Metals and SFA (Oxford) Ltd. (2021).

Iron ore

Domestic consumption of iron ore for steel production represented 98 percent of total domestic iron ore consumption (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a). The remaining 2 percent was divided equally among the remaining non-steel applications.

Lead

The proportions of lead’s use by application in the United States were obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b), some of which were aggregated to avoid releasing company proprietary information but used in this analysis at the most disaggregated level available. The undifferentiated “other” application category was assumed to be lead’s use as a polyvinyl chloride stabilizer.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 95 Table 4.1. Data sources and notes regarding applications for mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.— Continued [Details of the applications and the estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used each mineral commodity are found in table 4.2. The rare- earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System]

Mineral commodity

Data sources and notes regarding applications

Lithium

The quantity of lithium consumed in the United States for rechargeable batteries was based on the quantity of lithium that would have been required for U.S. cathode production (with an assumed lithium content of ranging from 7.1 to 7.2 percent depending on cathode type) and the U.S. battery cell production by cathode type (with lithium content varying by cathode type; Olivetti and others, 2017) as reported by Benchmark Mineral Intelligence Ltd. (2023b, c). The remaining proportions of lithium’s use in the United States were estimated based on data provided by Project Blue (2025c) and Miatto and others (2020). The undifferentiated “other” application was split evenly among the paints, electronics, and other inorganic chemicals subcategories.

Magnesium compounds

The proportions of magnesium compounds’ use by application in the United States were estimated based on reported production of the downstream chemicals (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025b) and their net imports, as calculated in this analysis. Some production quantities were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary information but included in this analysis. Because magnesium hydroxide production is downstream of magnesium chloride production, its production was subtracted from magnesium chloride production to avoid double counting. Similarly, net imports of magnesium carbonate and magnesium oxide were not assigned to a downstream chemical because the production of the downstream chemical was already included. For each magnesium compound use, the applications were assigned based on to individual industries based on the data from Roskill Information Services Ltd. (2018a). Caustic calcined magnesium’s use in agriculture was split 80–20 percent between animal feed and fertilizer, and in construction, its use was split 90–10 percent between ready-mix concrete and mineral wood manufacturing. Consumption of magnesium compounds under different applications for the same BEA industry were merged.

Magnesium metal

The proportions of magnesium metal’s use by application in the United States were obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (2024, 2025b), some of which were aggregated to avoid releasing company proprietary information but used in this analysis at the most disaggregated level available. The undifferentiated “other” application category was split equally among the various subcategories.

Manganese alloys

All domestic manganese alloy consumption was assumed to be for steel production.

Manganese dioxide

Because the United States did not manufacture lithium-manganese oxide rechargeable batteries in 2023, all manganese dioxide consumption was assumed to be for primary batteries.

Manganese metal

The proportions of manganese metal use by application were obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b), which were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary information but used in this analysis.

Manganese ore

The proportions of manganese ore use in the United States were determined based on the reported production of ferromanganese and silicomanganese and manganese dioxide (Project Blue, 2024, 2025e).

Manganese sulfate (high purity)

High-purity manganese sulfate consumption was assumed to be entirely for lithium-ion batteries.

Mica

The proportions of mica’s use by application in the United States were obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b) for ground mica sold or used. The uses of mica in well drilling, welding rods, brick and ceramic tile, roofing, and undifferentiated “other” applications were aggregated by the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b) to protect company proprietary information but were disaggregated in the analysis. The undifferentiated “other” category within the withheld data was assumed to be entirely for cosmetics.

96 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.1. Data sources and notes regarding applications for mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.— Continued [Details of the applications and the estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used each mineral commodity are found in table 4.2. The rare- earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System]

Mineral commodity

Data sources and notes regarding applications

Molybdenum

The proportions of molybdenum’s used by application in the United States were obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b), some of which were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary information but used in this analysis. Molybdenum’s use in superalloys was split 80–20 percent into two subcategories, aerospace and industrial turbines, respectively. Molybdenum’s use in undifferentiated mill products (meaning those excluding electric lamp bulbs), were disaggregated into different industries based on data reported by the International Molybdenum Association (Walser and Shields, 2007), and the undifferentiated “other” category was allocated to BEA industries identified by the U.S. Census Bureau (2024) as having imported a molybdenum-containing product (based on the HTS codes 284170, 261390, 282570, 284170, 720270, 810210, 810296, 810297, and 810299) in 2022 and allocated based on each industry’s monetary output in 2023. The U.S. Geological Survey’s undifferentiated “other” uses of molybdenum were assumed to be minor quantities of molybdenum for fertilizer and micronutrients and were split based on the quantities reported for ammonia molybdenum and sodium molybdate, respectively.

Nickel, mined

Most mined nickel was exported for processing outside of the United States. Nickel produced as a byproduct of platinum-group-metal mining was processed into crystalline nickel sulfate (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a).

Nickel, primary refined

The proportions of primary refined nickel consumed in the United States by application were obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b). Primary refined nickel’s use in superalloys was split 80–20 percent between the aerospace and industrial turbines subcategories, respectively. Additionally, the net imports of nickel sulfate and nickel contained in lithium-ion battery cathodes were assumed to be consumed for the production of lithium-ion batteries.

Niobium

The use of niobium by application was determined based on trade data. Specifically, niobium’s use in steel was based on net imports of two HTS codes for ferroniobium (7202930000 and 7202938000). Niobium’s use in superalloys was based on the net imports of HTS code 7202934000 along with the net imports of HTS code 8112924000 that had a trade transaction unit value between $30 and $55 per kilogram, which was done to determine the subset of trades that involved nickel-niobium alloys. Superalloys were then subdivided into subcategories of the application based on data from Eckard (2017). Niobium’s use in high-performance alloys and superconductors was based on the net imports of HTS code 8112924000 with unit values greater than $55 per kilogram, which were then split equally between the two subcategories. Additionally, net imports of niobium pentoxide were allocated into specific applications based on data from Mordor Intelligence (2022b). Specifically, niobium pentoxide used to produce niobium metal was equally allocated to superconductors and high-performance alloys. Niobium pentoxide used to produce ceramics, optical glass, superalloys, supercapacitors, and other applications was allocated to ceramic capacitors, crystals and filters, superalloys, supercapacitors, and catalysts, respectively.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 97 Table 4.1. Data sources and notes regarding applications for mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.— Continued [Details of the applications and the estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used each mineral commodity are found in table 4.2. The rare- earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System]

Mineral commodity

Data sources and notes regarding applications

Palladium

The proportions of palladium’s use by application were obtained from Johnson Matthey plc (2024). These data pertain to the application fractions of North America (specifically Canada and the United States) but were assumed applicable to the United States. The “investment” application was excluded from this analysis. The proportion of palladium’s use in the automotive application was split 97–3 percent among the light duty vehicle manufacturing and heavy duty vehicle manufacturing, respectively, based on data from Johnson Matthey plc (2016). Light duty vehicle manufacturing was split between light duty truck and utility vehicle manufacturing and automobile manufacturing based on 2023 industry output. The proportion of palladium’s use in chemical applications was split among the different associated BEA industries based on information from Hagelüken and others (2005). The proportion of palladium’s use in the dental application was split proportionally based on the value of shipments of the Manufacturing of dental metals, artificial teeth not customized for individual application, and other dental laboratory supplies [2045975000] NAPCS code reported by the two dental-associated BEA industries. The proportion of palladium’s use in the electrical & electronics application was first split among the BEA industries based on information from Johnson Matthey plc (2024) regarding platinum-group-metal use in electronic pastes, plating, and other electronics uses. It was then split further based on the expenditure of the associated BEA industries on gold and other precious metals (material code 33141911) reported in the 2012 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012a). The proportion of palladium’s use in the “other” application was assumed to be palladium’s use in petroleum refining.

Phosphates

In the United States, 97 percent of phosphates were assumed to be for fertilizer, with the remaining 3 percent for other uses (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a)

Platinum

The proportions of platinum’s use by application were obtained from Johnson Matthey plc (2024). These data pertain to the application fractions for North America (specifically Canada and the United States) but were assumed to be applicable to the United States. The “investment” application was excluded from this analysis. The proportion of platinum’s use in the automotive application was split roughly 84–16 percent among the light duty vehicle manufacturing and heavy duty truck manufacturing, respectively, based on data from Johnson Matthey plc (2016). Light duty vehicle manufacturing was split between light duty truck and utility vehicle manufacturing and automobile manufacturing based on 2023 industry output. The proportion of platinum’s use in the chemical application was split among the associated BEA industries based on information noted in Nassar (2015). The proportion of platinum’s use in the dental & biomedical application was split among the associated BEA industries based on information noted by Butler (2010). The proportion of platinum’s use in the dental application was further split proportionally based on the value of shipments of the Manufacturing of dental metals, artificial teeth not customized for individual application, and other dental laboratory supplies [2045975000] NAPCS code reported by the two dental-associated BEA industries. The proportion of platinum’s use in the electrical & electronics application was split among the associated BEA industries based on information noted in Johnson Matthey plc (2024). The proportion of platinum’s use in other applications was split based on information from Kendall (2006). The proportion of platinum’s use was further split between the “Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]” and “Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing [333611]” industries proportionally based on the value of shipments on the associated NAPCS codes.

Potash

An estimated 95 percent of potash was used for fertilizer, with the remaining 5 percent being used for all other chemicals (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1985; Natural Resources Canada, 2025).

98 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.1. Data sources and notes regarding applications for mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.— Continued [Details of the applications and the estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used each mineral commodity are found in table 4.2. The rare- earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System]

Mineral commodity

Data sources and notes regarding applications

Rare-earth elements

U.S. consumption by individual rare-earth element was disaggregated into consumption by application based on global consumption for each of the applications by each rare-earth element based on data from Project Blue (2025f). Because the Project Blue rare-earth consumption data for magnets include only raw material inputs used to make magnets and do not include imports of magnet materials, imports for magnet materials for the two different magnet types (neodymium-iron-boron and samarium-cobalt) were added to their respective rare- earth-element consumption estimates based on the previously described import data. Rare-earth-element consumption in automotive catalytic converters was split 90–10 percent between light duty vehicles and heavy duty vehicles. Light duty vehicle manufacturing was split between light duty truck and utility vehicle manufacturing and automobile manufacturing based on 2023 industry output. In addition to the consumption of rare-earth elements to manufacture permanent magnets, the United States also imported rare-earth magnets. Rare-earth-element consumption in neodymium-iron-boron magnets was split proportionally based on the global consumption of neodymium-iron-boron magnets by application category noted by Project Blue (2025f), excluding wind turbines because it was believed that U.S. manufactured wind turbines used gearboxes in 2023. Neodymium-iron-boron magnets used in consumer electronics were split between hard disk drives and other electronics based on data from Roskill Information Services Ltd. (2021a). Neodymium-iron-boron magnets used in electric vehicle motors were split between light duty truck and utility vehicle manufacturing and automobile manufacturing based on their market share in their respective industries. Neodymium-iron-boron magnets used in “other” applications were split equally among medical, guided missiles, and search, detection, and navigation instruments. Rare-earth-element consumption in samarium-cobalt magnets was split among four subcategories of the application based on their allocated revenue shares. Rare-earth-element consumption in ceramics was split 80–20 percent between thermal barrier coatings for aerospace turbine blades and industrial gas turbine blades, respectively. For the “other” application category, all subcategories of the application were split equally, except for lutetium. Lutetium’s uses in the medical and radiation detector applications were based on import data from bills of lading (Trade Mining, 2025), with the remaining applications being split equally. For rare-earth elements that are used in both automotive catalytic converters and magnets for electric vehicles, the categories were merged in the model and assumed to be connected to virtually all (99.9 percent) of the “Automobile manufacturing [336111]” and the “Light truck and utility vehicle manufacturing [336112]” industries’ output. Industry connections were assumed to be the same across all rare-earth elements, unless specifically identified.

Rhenium

The proportions of rhenium’s use in the United States were assumed to be 80 percent for superalloys and 15 percent for catalysts. The remaining 5 percent was split equally among the identified applications. Rhenium’s use in superalloys was split 80–20 percent between aerospace and industrial turbines, respectively.

Rhodium

The proportions of rhodium’s use in the United States by application were obtained from CPM Group (2024a). The proportion of rhodium’s use in automotive applications was split 90–10 percent between light duty vehicle manufacturing and heavy-duty truck manufacturing, respectively. Light duty vehicle manufacturing was split between light duty truck and utility vehicle manufacturing and automobile manufacturing based on 2023 industry output. Rhodium’s use in electrical applications was assumed to be entirely for industrial thermocouples. All other applications were split equally among their associated BEA industries.

Ruthenium

The proportions of ruthenium’s use by application were obtained from Johnson Matthey plc (2024). These data pertain to global application fractions but were assumed applicable to the United States. The proportion of ruthenium’s use in the “chemical” application was split equally among the associated BEA industries. Similarly, the proportion of ruthenium’s use in the “other” application category was split equally among the associated BEA industries. The proportion of ruthenium’s use in the “electrical” and “electrochemical” applications was split among the associated BEA industries based on additional information noted by Johnson Matthey plc (2024).

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 99 Table 4.1. Data sources and notes regarding applications for mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.— Continued [Details of the applications and the estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used each mineral commodity are found in table 4.2. The rare- earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System]

Mineral commodity

Data sources and notes regarding applications

Selenium

The proportions of selenium’s use by application category (metallurgy, glass, electronics and semiconductors, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, and other) in the United States were obtained from Mordor Intelligence (2025c). Selenium’s use for the metallurgical application was split equally among the subcategories of the application. Selenium’s use in the remaining reported application categories was disaggregated into subcategories of each application based on the portion of each associated industry’s output that used selenium as a percentage of the portion of the output of all associated industries that used selenium within the application category.

Silicon ferroalloys

Ferrosilicon’s use in the United States was assumed to all be used by this BEA industry.

Silicon metal

The proportions of silicon metal’s use in the United States by application were obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b), some of which were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary information but used in this analysis. Reported silicon metal use in steels is assumed to be metallurgical- grade silicon and allocated to the silicon ferroalloys mineral commodity.

Silver

The proportions of silver’s use in the United States by application category were obtained from CPM Group (2024b). Silver’s use in solar photovoltaics was estimated based on the quantity (in gigawatts) of crystalline-silicon photovoltaic modules manufactured in the United States in 2023 (Feldman and others, 2024) multiplied by the global quantity of silver consumption for solar photovoltaics divided by the total quantity of photovoltaics installed (The Silver Institute and Metals Focus, 2025). This quantity of silver was assumed to be a component of the reported silver used in electrical and electronic components. Silver’s remaining use in the electrical & electronics application was split among the subcategories based on the expenditure of the associated BEA industries on gold and other precious metals (material code 33141911) reported in the 2012 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012a). Silver’s use in dental applications was estimated based on an estimated number of annual fillings in the United States (175 million) (King, 2011), the percentage of fillings that were based on silver amalgam (4.1 percent in 2023) (Lamsal and others, 2024), and an assumed silver content per filling of 0.17 grams. Silver’s use in the dental applications was split proportionally based on the value of shipments of the Manufacturing of dental metals, artificial teeth not customized for individual application, and other dental laboratory supplies [2045975000] NAPCS code reported by the two dental-associated BEA industries. This quantity of silver was assumed to be a component of the reported silver use in “miscellaneous” application category. The remaining use of silver under the “miscellaneous” application category was assumed to be for electroplating. Silver’s use in official coins and other investment instruments was not connected to any BEA industry.

Strontium

The proportions of strontium’s use in the United States by application category were obtained from estimates made by the U.S. Geological Survey (2024). The aggregated category of “electrolytical zinc, master alloy, pigments and fillers and other applications, including glass” was split among electrolytic zinc, master alloy, and glass based on information from the Chemical Data Reporting database (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2022), and the remainder was allocated to paints and pigments. Strontium’s use in electrolytic zinc production was split between primary and secondary production based on the reported domestic primary and secondary zinc smelter production (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025b).

Tantalum

The proportions of tantalum’s use in the United States by application category in 2020 were obtained from Padilla and Nassar (2023). Tantalum’s use in cemented carbides was split between two industries based on the reported consumption of tungsten carbide by those two industries in the 2012 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012b). Tantalum’s use in superalloys was split into two applications based on data on nickel-based superalloys reported by Eckard (2017), excluding superalloys used in nuclear reactor, industrial process, oil and gas, and automotive applications.

100 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.1. Data sources and notes regarding applications for mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.— Continued [Details of the applications and the estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used each mineral commodity are found in table 4.2. The rare- earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System]

Mineral commodity

Data sources and notes regarding applications

Tellurium

The proportions of tellurium’s use by application in the United States were estimated based on global demand by application reported by Mordor Intelligence (2025d). The undifferentiated “other” application category was split equally into subcategories of the application.

Tin

The proportions of tin’s use by application were obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b), some of which were aggregated to avoid releasing company proprietary information but used in this analysis at a more disaggregated level. Tin’s use in chemical applications was disaggregated into subcategories of the application based on data presented by Roskill Information Services Ltd. (2019d). The application category of “miscellaneous metal forms” represents the sum of tin’s use in babbitt, bar, tubes, foil, type, and white metal. Additionally, the quantity of tin used in lead-acid batteries, which was estimated based on the estimated ratio of global lead and tin used in lead-acid batteries, was added to the reported consumption.

Titanium ferroalloys

All domestic ferrotitanium was assumed to be used in steel production

Titanium metal

An estimated 80 percent of titanium metal’s use in the United States was for aerospace applications (U.S. Geological Survey, 2019). The remainder was split among the other application categories based on the application fractions reported by Project Blue (2025h) for global demand. Titanium metal’s use in the chemical application was assumed to be entirely as anodes for the chlor-alkali industry. Titanium metal’s use in the commercial application was split equally between bicycles and medical applications. Titanium metal’s use in the undifferentiated “other” category was assumed to be equally split between armored vehicles and guided missiles and space vehicles.

Titanium mineral concentrates

The proportions of titanium mineral concentrates used in the United States were assumed to be 96 percent for pigments and 1 percent for each of the other applications.

Titanium pigment

The proportions of titanium pigment used by application were estimated based on information provided by the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b) for U.S. shipments of titanium dioxide in 2022. The application category of “plastics and rubber” reported by the U.S. Geological Survey (2025b) was split between the two applications based on the value of their associated BEA industry’s output that was linked to titanium pigment as estimated in this analysis. The proportion of titanium used in paper products was disaggregated from the undifferentiated “other” applications based on the percentage of U.S. shipments of titanium dioxide going to paper in 2019 (Gambogi and Tolcin, 2024). This application fraction was split equally among the three associated paper-related industries (paper mills, paperboard mills and paper products). The remaining share was split equally among the other applications.

Titanium sponge

All titanium sponge consumption was assumed to be for titanium metal products.

Tungsten

The proportions of tungsten used in the United States by application were based on data from the International Tungsten Industry Association (2019) for 2018, which were extrapolated to 2023. The proportions by major application category were further disaggregated into subcategories of the applications using data on world tungsten consumption reported in Project Blue (2025i). Tungsten’s use in superalloys was split 80–20 percent between aerospace and industrial turbines, respectively.

Vanadium

The proportions of vanadium’s use in the United States by application category were based on data from U.S. Geological Survey (2025b). Vanadium’s use in superalloys was split into subcategories of the application based on data from Eckard (2017). Vanadium’s use in other alloys was assumed to be mainly titanium-based alloys for aerospace applications. The quantity of vanadium consumed in pigments was estimated based on data from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2022). Vanadium may have been used in other applications (particularly catalysts), but insufficient data were available to make an assessment.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 101 Table 4.1. Data sources and notes regarding applications for mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.— Continued [Details of the applications and the estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used each mineral commodity are found in table 4.2. The rare- earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System]

Mineral commodity

Data sources and notes regarding applications

Zinc, mined

All U.S. consumption of zinc concentrates was assumed to be processed in zinc smelters.

Zinc, smelted

The proportions of zinc’s use by different industries in the United States was estimated based on information from the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2012 Economic Census for the material use of zinc and zinc-base alloy shapes and forms under material code 33149105 and zinc oxide under material code 32521202 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012a) and supplemented with information from the Chemical Data Reporting database (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2022) for zinc and zinc oxide.

Zirconium

The proportions of zirconium’s use by application (zircon flour and milled sand; zircon opacifier refractories [zirconia]; and zircon chemicals) for the United States were obtained from Mordor Intelligence (2024c). Zirconium’s use in flour and milled sands was split among the aluminum foundries, ferrous metal foundries, and nonferrous metal foundries based on data from the 2012 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012a). In addition to the reported opacifier category, a portion (6.1 percent) of zirconium’s use in refractories was assumed to also be for opacifiers (ceramics). Zirconium’s use in chemicals was initially split among several applications based on data from the Zircon Industry Association (2019): gemstones and technical ceramics; nuclear (metal); titanium dioxide coatings; cosmetics; paper coatings; paint driers; other. Within the gemstone and technical ceramics category under chemicals, the uses were split equally among gemstones, technical ceramics, and coatings for turbine blades. Within the technical ceramics subcategory, the use was split equally among the cutting, griding and high- stress parts. Within the coatings for turbine blades subcategory, 80 percent was allocated to aerospace, and 20 percent was allocated for gas turbines. The titanium dioxide coatings and paint driers subcategories were combined into a single paints and driers subcategory. Within the chemicals category, Zircon Industry Association (2019) indicates that the use in nuclear applications was a “metal” application. That subcategory was thus assumed to be used in several metal applications (including nuclear), and the quantity allocated to it was split among multiple metal applications (nuclear, aerospace and defense, chemical processing, and other metal uses) proportional to the uses as reported for zirconium metal use by application in the United States by Mordor Intelligence (2024c). The quantity allocated to the aerospace and defense subcategory for metal was merged with the quantity allocated to the coatings for turbine blades category to form a single aerospace turbine blades application. The “other metal” application was assumed to be for automotive parts.

102 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry. [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment Alumina

Abrasives

Abrasive product manufacturing [327910]

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of aluminum oxide, nonmetallic sized grains, powders, and flour abrasives (including graded products only) [2027650000]. The result was then multiplied by alumina’s share of domestic alumina and bauxite consumption in this application.

Aluminum production

Alumina refining and primary aluminum production [331313]

73.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of primary aluminum relative to the total output of this industry in 2023.

Ceramics and refractories

Clay product and refractory manufacturing [327100]

9.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fireclay, high alumina, and insulating brick and shapes [2041450003]. The result was then multiplied by alumina’s share of domestic alumina and bauxite consumption in this application.

Chemicals

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other inorganic aluminum compounds [2024550000]. The result was then multiplied by alumina’s share of domestic alumina and bauxite consumption in this application. Aluminum

All applications

Aluminum production manufacturing from purchased aluminum [33131B]

97.9

The assessment was based on the value of aluminum products produced by this industry relative to its total output in 2021.

Ammunition and ammunition primer

Ammunition, arms, ordnance, and accessories manufacturing [33299A]

17.9

Antimony is used in small arms ammunition and ammunition primers. Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of primers (30 mm or less, 1.18 in. or less) and all other ammunition components [2008825000]; Manufacturing of centerfire pistol cartridges, including cartridges interchangeable between rifles and pistols (30 mm or less, 1.18 in. or less) [2008775000]; Manufacturing of shotgun shells [2008800000]; and Manufacturing of centerfire pistol cartridges, including cartridges interchangeable between rifles and pistols (30 mm or less, 1.18 in. or less) [2008775000].

Ceramics

Other fabricated metal manufacturing [332999]

4.2

Antimony trioxide is used as an opacifier in ceramics, mainly in lead-free porcelain enamels for cast iron and steel plumbing fixtures. Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of enameled iron and metal sanitary ware and components, including baths, showers (receptors, stalls), sinks, wash basins, and lavatories (toilets, portable chemical toilets, urinals, flush tanks) [2038425000].

Antimony

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 103 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Antimony—Continued Flame retardant— Adhesives

Adhesive manufacturing [325520]

1.6

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]” industry, which produced antimony oxide (except pigments).

Flame retardant—Paper

Paper mills [322120]

0.03

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other coated and processed papers, excluding for packaging uses [2023500000]. One-third of this value was assumed to use antimony flame retardant.

Flame retardant— Plastics

Plastics material and resin manufacturing [325211]

Antimony trioxide is used with halogenated (brominated and chlorinated) flame retardants as a synergist additive (Mathys and others, 2007). Halogenated flame retardants reportedly composed 30 to 36 percent of the global market of flame retardants in recent years (Mordor Intelligence, 2021a; European Chemical Agency, 2023). The U.S. flame retardant thermoplastic market in 2022 was estimated to be valued at $3.4 billion (Grand View Research, Inc., 2022c). One-third of this value was assumed to use antimony flame retardants. The resultant value was divided by the revenue generated by this industry.

Flame retardant— Rubber

Synthetic rubber and artificial and synthetic fibers and filaments manufacturing [3252A0]

2.6

Flame retardant—Textile Fabric mills [313200]

5.6

The value of the U.S. flame retardant textile market was estimated to be approximately $2.2 billion in 2023 (Global Industry Analysts Inc., 2024). One-third of this value was assumed to use antimony flame retardants. The resultant value was divided by the revenue generated by this industry.

Glass

0.04

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

104 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Antimony—Continued Pigments

Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]

2.8

Antimony trioxide is used as a white pigment (Pigment White 11). Antimony is also used in several other inorganic pigments: nickel antimony titanate, Pigment Yellow 53 (Chemical Abstracts Service [CAS] Number, 8007-18-9); chrome antimony titanate, Pigment Brown 24 (CAS number, 68186-90-3); manganese antimony titanate, Pigment Yellow 164 (CAS number: 68412-38-4); and manganese chrome antimony brown, Pigment Brown 40 (CAS number 68412- 38-4) (Filella and others, 2020). These products likely fall under the following NAPCS codes: Manufacturing of other white opaque pigments [2024300000] and Manufacturing of white extender pigments (including barytes, blanc fixe, and whiting), ceramic color pigments, and all other inorganic pigments [2024400000]. The percentage of the “Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]” industry that used antimony was approximated based on revenues for these NAPCS codes, as well as information from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2022) and the 2002 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004a), which contain more detailed product-level data.

Plastics

Plastics material and resin manufacturing [325211]

14.4

Antimony is used a stabilizer in polyvinyl chloride and as a catalyst in the production of PET. Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of thermoplastic resins and plastics materials, polyvinyl chloride [2025350012] and Manufacturing of thermoplastic resins and plastics materials, polyester [2025350015]. Because more than 95 percent of PET produced worldwide was catalyzed with antimony trioxide (Sivaram, 2016), and the remaining PET was catalyzed with germanium oxide in Japan, it was assumed that 100 percent of these products required antimony.

Other metallic applications

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

1.1

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]” industry, which produced antimony metal. Arsenic

Batteries, lead-acid

Storage battery manufacturing [335911]

4.2

Assessment was based on the ratio of the quantity of arsenic used in lead-acid batteries, divided by an assumed average arsenic content of lead alloys of 0.125 percent, to the quantity of lead used in lead-acid batteries in the United States in 2023.

Herbicides and insecticides

Pesticide and other agricultural chemical manufacturing [325320]

0.4

Assessment was based on the quantity of arsenic estimated to be used in this application, which was assumed to be all for monosodium methanearsonate (with an assumed 46.5 percent arsenic content), multiplied by a price of $127.24 per 2.5-gallon jug that contains 6 pounds of monosodium methanearsonate per gallon (P&M Solutions LLC, 2025) and divided by the total output of this industry.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 105 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Arsenic—Continued Metallurgy

Copper rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331420]

0.005

Semiconductors

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

1.9

Assessment was based on the value of gallium arsenide semiconductor products in the United States (Grand View Research, Inc., 2024h) as a percentage of the entire industry’s output in 2023.

Wood preservation

Sawmills and wood preservation [321100]

3.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of wood poles, piles, and posts, treated [2035600000]; Treating wood owned by others with arsenical chemicals, creosote, and other chemicals (including fire-retardant and pentachlorophenol) [2052125000]; Manufacturing of railway crossties, mine ties, switch ties, and bridge ties, treated [2035550000]; Manufacturing of plywood and sawn wood fence pickets, paling, and rails, treated [2035625000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 42 percent, which represented the approximate percentage of wood utility poles that were treated with arsenic (Beyond Pesticides, 2003).

Other—Clay products

Clay product and refractory manufacturing [327100]

0.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of glazed brick and other brick (paving, floor, and sewer) [2035800000] and Manufacturing of clay floor and wall tile, glazed and unglazed (including ceramic mosaic tile) [2036000000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 1 percent, which was an assumption based on the declining use of arsenic.

Other—Optical lenses

Optical instrument and lens manufacturing [333314]

0.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of all other miscellaneous optical instruments and lenses (including binoculars and astronomical instruments) [2018600000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 1 percent, which was an assumption based on the declining use of arsenic.

Other—Pharmaceuticals

Pharmaceutical preparation manufacturing [325412]

0.01

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other pharmaceutical preparations affecting neoplasms, the endocrine system, and metabolic diseases, for human use [2010150031]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 0.13 percent. Arsenic trioxide is used to treat acute promyelocytic leukemia, which accounted for 10 to 15 percent of all acute myeloid leukemia (Leukemia & Lymphoma Society, 2025) that accounted for 1 percent of all cancers (National Cancer Institute, 2024).

106 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment Barite

Barium chemicals

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

0.7

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]” industry.

Oil and gas well drilling

Drilling oil and gas wells [213111]

75.8

Paints

Paint and coating manufacturing [325510]

3.4

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]” industry.

Plastics

Plastics material and resin manufacturing [325211]

7.6

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]” industry.

Rubber

Synthetic rubber and artificial and synthetic fibers and filaments manufacturing [3252A0]

0.5

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]” industry.

Abrasives

Abrasive product manufacturing [327910]

0.01

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of aluminum oxide, nonmetallic sized grains, powders, and flour abrasives (including graded products only) [2027650000]. The result was then multiplied by bauxite’s share of domestic alumina and bauxite consumption in this application.

Alumina production

Alumina refining and primary aluminum production [331313]

14.4

Assessment was based on the value of alumina production as a percentage of this industry’s output in 2023.

Chemicals

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

0.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other inorganic aluminum compounds [2024550000]. The result was then multiplied by bauxite’s share of domestic alumina and bauxite consumption in this application.

Refractory

Clay product and refractory manufacturing [327100]

4.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fireclay, high alumina, and insulating brick and shapes [2041450003]. The result was then multiplied by bauxite’s share of domestic alumina and bauxite consumption in this application.

Bauxite

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 107 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment Beryllium

Aerospace and defense—Aerospace

Aircraft manufacturing [336411]

44.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of manned military aircraft, including manned aircraft for U.S. military and any other manned aircraft built to military specifications [2012100003]; Manufacturing of unmanned robotic military aircraft, including unmanned aircraft for U.S. military and any other unmanned aircraft built to military specifications [2012100006]; and Manufacturing of manned civilian aircraft [2012125003]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 50 percent, which was the assumed share of the products that used beryllium.

Aerospace and defense— Communication

Broadcast and wireless communications equipment [334220]

5.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of space-based (satellite) stations [2011825003]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 80 percent, which was the assumed share of the products that used beryllium.

Aerospace and defense—Search and detection

Search, detection, and navigation instruments manufacturing [334511]

14.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of search, detection, and acquisition radar systems and equipment, airborne and missile/space [2017500009]; Manufacturing of airborne navigational systems, inertial navigation systems [2017500057]; Manufacturing of missile-borne and space vehicle guidance systems [2017500042]; Manufacturing of other search, detection, identification, and tracking systems and equipment [2017500031]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 80 percent, which was the assumed share of the products that used beryllium.

Analytical equipment

Analytical laboratory instrument manufacturing [334516]

1.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of analytical and scientific instruments, excluding optical [2017725000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 1.4 percent, which represented the value of the products (product codes 3345160121 and 3345160143) that used X-ray tubes or windows as a percentage of the total value of this NAPCS code in 2004 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004c).

Automotive

Motor vehicle electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing [336320]

2.4

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Copper rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331420]” industry.

108 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Beryllium—Continued Electronics and telecommunication— Connectors and switches

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

1.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of electronic connectors, including parts [2033800000] and Manufacturing of switches, mechanical, for electronic circuitry [2033875000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 10 percent, which was the assumed share of the products that used beryllium.

Electronics and telecommunication— Current carrying wire

Wiring device manufacturing [335930]

0.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of current-carrying wiring devices, metal contacts, precious and other [2039300009]; Manufacturing of current-carrying wiring devices, pin and sleeve connectors [2039300012]; Manufacturing of pressure connectors [2039500003]; Manufacturing of compression connectors [2039500006]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 10 percent, which was the assumed share of the products that used beryllium.

Electronics and telecommunication— Relays

Relay and industrial control manufacturing [335314]

1.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of relays for electronic circuitry, industrial control overload, and switchgear-type [2033950000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 10 percent, which was the assumed share of the products that used beryllium.

Industrial components

Plastics material and resin manufacturing [325211]

21.5

Assessment was based on the percentage of plastics manufactured with beryllium-based injection molds. An estimated 43 percent of global plastics were manufactured using injection molding (Grand View Research, Inc., 2022f), of which an estimated 50 percent of molds in the United States contained beryllium (Knudson, 2017).

Lasers

Electromedical and electrotherapeutic apparatus manufacturing [334510]

1.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of medical laser equipment [2018000031]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 62.7 percent, which represented the percentage of lasers assumed to use beryllium active materials (Parkhi, 2020).

Oil and gas and other energy—Nuclear

Electric power generation, transmission, and distribution [221100]

0.3

Beryllium is usually used as a neutron source for new nuclear reactors (World Nuclear Association, 2025a). Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the “Nuclear electric power generation [221113]” industry in 2017 relative to its total output. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 1.1 percent, which represented the nameplate capacity of the sole new nuclear powerplant that was commissioned in 2023 as a percentage of all nuclear powerplants operating in the United States in 2023 (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2025).

Oil and gas and other energy—Tools for energy

Drilling oil and gas wells [213111]

Beryllium is used in non-sparking tools for oil and gas well drilling. Copper-based alloys (excluding brass and bronze), many of which use beryllium, represented 41 percent of the non-sparking tools market (Market.Us, 2024b).

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 109 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Beryllium—Continued X-ray tubes and windows

Irradiation apparatus manufacturing [334517]

51.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of irradiation (ionizing radiation) equipment, including X-ray, beta ray, gamma ray, and nuclear [2018025000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 57.9 percent, which represented the proportion of the NAPCS code that likely used beryllium X-ray tubes and windows based on the value sum of the more detailed NAPCS codes: Manufacturing of digital radiography equipment, used for diagnostic purposes [2018025003]; Manufacturing of computerized axial tomography (CT or CAT scan), used for diagnostic purposes [2018025006]; Manufacturing of all other medical diagnostic X-ray equipment, including dental and conventional [2018025009]; Manufacturing of industrial and scientific X-ray equipment [2018025015]; and Manufacturing of X-ray tubes [2018025018]. Bismuth

Cosmetics and personal care

Toilet preparation manufacturing [325620]

0.03

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of cosmetics [2010675003]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 0.08 percent, which represented the sales value of eye cosmetics and blushers as a percentage of total cosmetics in the United States in 2002 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004a) multiplied by an estimated share for bismuth, which was based on the global sales of cosmetic- grade bismuth oxychloride (Business Research Insights, 2025a) as a percentage of the value of all mineral cosmetics (Grand View Research, Inc., 2023f).

Electronics and semiconductors— Electronic solder

Printed circuit assembly (electronic assembly) manufacturing [334418]

The market share of bismuth-based solders was reported to range from 1 to 3 percent (Indium Corp., 2010).

Electronics and semiconductors— Thermoelectric devices

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

0.1

In 2023, the value of the global thermoelectric devices market was $502 million (Maximize Market Research Pvt. Ltd., 2024), which represented approximately 0.1 percent of the global semiconductor devices market (Semiconductor Industry Association, 2024).

Metallurgical— Aluminum alloys

Secondary smelting and alloying of aluminum [331314]

0.05

Assessment was based on the value of bismuth consumed in this application divided by an assumed 0.64‑percent bismuth content in aluminum alloys (MatWeb, 2025), divided by the total quantity of secondary aluminum produced in the United States (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a).

Metallurgical—Fusible alloys

Other general purpose machinery manufacturing [33399A]

0.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of automatic fire sprinklers [2040000000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 20 percent, which was the assumed market share of fire sprinklers that used bismuth.

110 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Bismuth—Continued Metallurgical— Malleable iron and steel

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

0.01

Pharmaceuticals

Pharmaceutical preparation manufacturing [325412]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of antacids and antidiarrheals, including acid neutralizing and products with coating functions [2010250006]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 57 percent, which represented the share of stomach remedies sales in the United States in 2019 that use bismuth compounds (Petruzzi, 2024).

Other—Pigments and paints

Paint and coating manufacturing [325510]

3.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of paints, traffic marking, all types, including shelf goods and highway department [2040350009] and Manufacturing of paints and enamels, automotive, other transportation and machinery refinishing, including primers [2040350012].

Alloys

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

0.05

Batteries, rechargeable

Storage battery manufacturing [335911]

0.9

Cadmium is used in nickel-cadmium rechargeable batteries. To estimate the value of these products, the value of U.S. manufacturing of lithium-ion battery cells and lead-acid batteries was subtracted from the total industry output of this industry in 2023. The value of lithium- ion battery cells manufactured in the United States was based on production and cell cost data from Benchmark Mineral Intelligence Ltd. (2023a, c) relative to the total output of this industry. The value of lead- acid battery manufacturing was based on the sum of the sale revenues from the following NAPCS codes, averaged for years 2020 and 2021: Manufacturing of storage batteries, lead-acid-type, BCI dimensional size group 8D (1.5 cu ft (.042 cu m) and smaller) [2030050000]; Manufacturing of motive-power-type lead-acid storage batteries, larger than BCI dimensional size group 8D (1.5 cu ft (.042 cu m)), including mining and industrial locomotive [2030075000]; and Manufacturing of all other lead-acid storage batteries, larger than BCI dimensional size group 8D (1.6 cu ft (.042 cu m)), including communication and standby emergency [2030100000]. The result was then multiplied by 16 percent, which represented the global share of nickel-cadmium battery sales relative to the share of all other storage batteries (excluding lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries) based on data from Mordor Intelligence (2022a).

Cadmium

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 111 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Cadmium—Continued Coatings and electroplating

Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities [332800]

0.1

Pigments

Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]

1.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of white extender pigments (including barytes, blanc fixe, and whiting), ceramic color pigments, and all other inorganic pigments [2024375000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 8.7 percent, which represented the global value of cadmium pigments as a percentage of all other inorganic pigments excluding chromium, iron oxide, and titanium dioxide (Global Market Insights, 2024a).

Other—Solar photovoltaics

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

1.5

Assessment was based on subtracting estimated amount of copper- indium-gallium-(di)selenide solar cells from the quantity of thin-film solar photovoltaics produced in the United States in 2023 multiplied by the average U.S. solar photovoltaics module value in 2023 (Feldman and others, 2024) divided by the total industry output.

Chemicals

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

3.5

Chromite Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Iron, gold, silver, and other metal ore mining [2122A0]” industry. Chromium chemicals Petrochemical catalysts

Plastics material and resin manufacturing [325211]

2.6

Pigments

Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]

3.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of chrome colors [2024325000].

Plating

Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities [332800]

4.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Electroplating, plating, polishing, anodizing, and coloring [2053500000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 20 percent, which represented the percentage of global electroplating market that was based on chromium (Global Growth Insights, 2025a).

112 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Chromium ferroalloys Cast iron

Ferrous metal foundries [331510]

17.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of gray iron castings for rolling mill, construction, utility, automotive, and all other uses [2027925000].

Steels

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

8.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of stainless steel ingots and semifinished shapes and forms [2026890000]; Manufacturing of hot rolled stainless steel, finished, sheet and strip [2026920000]; Manufacturing of cold rolled stainless steel, finished product, sheet and strip [2026935000]; and Manufacturing of hot rolled stainless steel bars, plates, and structural shapes [2026970000]. Chromium metal

Superalloys—Aerospace

Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]

86.9

Superalloys— Automotive

Other motor vehicle parts manufacturing [336390]

3.3

Assessment was based on the value of the North American turbocharger market (Global Market Insights, 2025a) divided by the total industry output in 2023.

Superalloys—Industrial processes

Metal tank (heavy gauge) manufacturing [332420]

3.1

Superalloys—Industrial turbines

Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing [333611]

57.7

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 113 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Chromium metal—Continued Superalloys—Oil and gas

Mining and oil and gas field machinery manufacturing [333130]

44.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of rotary oil and gas field drilling machinery and equipment, excluding parts [2013050000]; Manufacturing of other oil and gas field drilling machinery and equipment, excluding parts [2013075000]; Manufacturing of oil and gas field production machinery and equipment (excluding pumps and parts) [2013100000]; and Manufacturing of oil and gas field derricks, substructures and accessories, including well-surveying machinery and equipment and well-logging equipment [2013150000].

Other alloys

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

1.3

Batteries, lithium-ion

Storage battery manufacturing [335911]

44.8

Assessment was based on the value of lithium-ion battery cells manufactured in the United States that contain cobalt, which was based on production and cell cost data from Benchmark Mineral Intelligence Ltd. (2023a, c) relative to the total output of this industry in 2023.

Other—Agriculture

Other animal food manufacturing [311119]

0.5

Other—Catalysts

Petroleum refineries [324110]

37.5

Assessment was based on the charge capacity of catalytic hydrotreating in the United States in 2023 as a percentage of atmospheric crude oil distillation capacity (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2024b) multiplied by 42 percent, which represented the approximate share of cobalt-based catalysts used in hydrodesulfurization (Strategy & Stats Insider, 2022).

Other—Ceramics

Clay product and refractory manufacturing [327100]

20.27

Other—Chemicals

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

0.02

Other—Glass

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

0.3

Cobalt chemicals

114 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Cobalt chemicals—Continued Other—Paint

Paint and coating manufacturing [325510]

5.52

Other—Pigments

Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]

2.2

Other—Tires

Tire manufacturing [326210]

0.2

Alloys (other)

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

0.3

Cemented carbides— Cutting tool, machine tool accessories, and industrial molds

Cutting and machine tool accessory, rolling mill, and other metalworking machinery manufacturing [33351B]

45.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of cutting tools (including broaches, reamers, hobs) and all other miscellaneous solid and tipped carbide cutting tools for machine tools and metalworking machinery, excluding tips and blanks [2050000000]; Manufacturing of high-speed steel end and solid and tipped carbide end mills, non- and indexable-inserted-blade-type, throwaway-insert- type, and all other miscellaneous milling cutters [2050025000]; Manufacturing of carbon and high-speed steel shank and solid and tipped carbide twist drills, including masonry twist drill bits, gun drills, combined drills, countersinks, and counterbores [2050075000]; and Manufacturing of taps (excluding taps in threading sets and screw plates and inserted chaser types) and precision ground carbide indexable and throwaway inserts for machine tools and metalworking machinery [2050100000].

Cemented carbides— Special dies and tools

Special tool, die, jig, and fixture manufacturing [333514]

46.2

Magnetic alloys

Other fabricated metal manufacturing [332999]

1.2

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 115 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Cobalt metal—Continued Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron— Automobile electric motors

Automobile manufacturing [336111]

31.2

Assessment was based on the percentage of automobiles in the United States that were battery electric, hybrid, or plug-in hybrid vehicles in 2023 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2024).

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron— Automotive electronics

Audio and video equipment manufacturing [334300]

4.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of speakers for automobiles [2032400000].

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron— Consumer electronics, hard disk drives

Computer storage device manufacturing [334112]

17.9

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron— Consumer electronics, other

Audio and video equipment manufacturing [334300]

39.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of speakers, including loudspeaker systems and loudspeakers [2008625000] and Manufacturing of other consumer audio and video equipment, including audio and video recorders and players (camcorders) [2008650000].

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron—Energy saving

Air conditioning, refrigeration, and warm air heating equipment manufacturing [333415]

6.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of room air conditioners and dehumidifiers, excluding portable dehumidifiers [2007325000] and Manufacturing of unitary air conditioners, excluding air source heat pumps [2038825000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 23 percent, which represented the share of all air conditioner units that used neodymium-iron-boron magnets (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2020a).

Magnets, neodymium- Light truck and utility iron-boron—Light vehicle manufacturing duty truck and utility [336112] vehicle electric motors

19.1

Assessment was based on the percentage of light truck and utility vehicles manufactured in the United States that were battery electric, hybrid, or plug-in hybrid vehicles in 2023 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2024).

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron—Other electric motors

Motor and generator manufacturing [335312]

9.5

Assessment was based on the assumption that 10 percent of motors and generators used rare-earth permanent magnets, 95 percent of which were based on neodymium-iron-boron magnets.

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron—Other, guided missiles

Guided missile and space vehicle manufacturing [336414]

52.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of complete guided missiles [2012400000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 75 percent, which was the assumed market share of neodymium-iron-boron magnets.

116 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Cobalt metal—Continued Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron—Other, medical

Electromedical and electrotherapeutic apparatus manufacturing [334510]

0.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of magnetic resonance imaging equipment (MRI) [2018000003]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 14 percent, which represented the share of the low-field-strength MRI global market in 2024 (Grand View Research, Inc., 2025b) multiplied by an assumed 95‑percent market share for neodymium-iron-boron magnets.

Magnets, neodymium- Search, detection, and iron-boron—Other, navigation instruments search, detection, and manufacturing navigation instruments [334511]

5.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of electronic warfare countermeasures equipment (jamming, communications, and radar) [2017500033]; Manufacturing of gyroscopes [2017475012]; Manufacturing of acceleration indicators, rate-of-climb and angle-of-attack indicators, and artificial horizon flight instruments [2017475006]; Manufacturing of airborne navigational systems, inertial navigation systems [2017500057]; Manufacturing of search, detection, and acquisition radar systems and equipment, airborne and missile/space [2017500009]; Manufacturing of other search, detection, and acquisition radar systems and equipment [2017500012]; Manufacturing of tracking radar systems and equipment (fire control, bombing, bombing-navigational radar, aircraft and missile tracking radar, etc.) [2017500015]; and Manufacturing of sonar search, detection, tracking, and communication systems and equipment guidance, including ASM (sonar telephone, depth finding, hydrophones mapping, sonobuoys, etc.) [2017500021]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 25 percent, which was the assumed market share of neodymium-iron-boron magnets.

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron—Power steering

Motor vehicle steering, suspension component (except spring), and brake systems manufacturing [3363A0]

11.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other motor vehicle steering and suspension components, including motor vehicle ball joints [2042675000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 55 percent, which represented the approximate share of motor vehicle steering that used rare-earth permanent magnets (Stanford Magnets, 2024).

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron—Robotics

Other general purpose machinery manufacturing [33399A]

9.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of industrial robots [2016650000].

Magnets, samarium- cobalt—Guided missiles

Guided missile and space vehicle manufacturing [336414]

17.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of complete guided missiles [2012400000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 25 percent, which was the assumed share for samarium-cobalt magnets.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 117 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Cobalt metal—Continued Magnets, samarium- cobalt—Medical

Electromedical and electrotherapeutic apparatus manufacturing [334510]

0.05

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of magnetic resonance imaging equipment (MRI) [2018000003]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 0.75 percent, which represented the share of low-field-strength MRI global market in 2024 (Grand View Research, Inc., 2025b), multiplied by an assumed 5‑percent market share for samarium-cobalt magnets.

Magnets, samarium- cobalt—Motors and generators

Motor and generator manufacturing [335312]

0.5

Assessment assumed that 10 percent of motors and generators used rare- earth permanent magnets, 5 percent of which were based on samarium- cobalt magnets.

Magnets, samarium- Search, detection, and cobalt—Search, navigation instruments detection, and manufacturing navigation instruments [334511]

17.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of electronic warfare countermeasures equipment (jamming, communications, and radar) [2017500033]; Manufacturing of gyroscopes [2017475012]; Manufacturing of acceleration indicators, rate-of-climb and angle-of-attack indicators, and artificial horizon flight instruments [2017475006]; Manufacturing of airborne navigational systems, inertial navigation systems [2017500057]; Manufacturing of search, detection, and acquisition radar systems and equipment, airborne and missile/space [2017500009]; Manufacturing of other search, detection, and acquisition radar systems and equipment [2017500012]; Manufacturing of tracking radar systems and equipment (fire control, bombing, bombing-navigational radar, aircraft and missile tracking radar, etc.) [2017500015]; and Manufacturing of sonar search, detection, tracking, and communication systems and equipment guidance, including ASM (sonar telephone, depth finding, hydrophones mapping, sonobuoys, etc.) [2017500021]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 75 percent, which was the assumed market share of samarium-cobalt magnets.

Steels

0.03

Assessment was based on the value of cobalt-containing steels produced domestically relative to the output of this industry in 2023. To estimate the value of cobalt-containing steel produced, the quantity of cobalt consumed in various types of steel was divided by estimated cobalt contents of cobalt-containing steels (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2019a) and then multiplied by a unit value for each type of steel. The unit values were estimated based on weighted-average import unit values for the different types of steel (Zen Innovations AG, 2025).

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

118 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Cobalt metal—Continued Superalloys—Aerospace

Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]

84.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of military aircraft engines (including other aircraft engines built to military specifications) [2029400000]; Manufacturing of civilian aircraft engines [2029425000]; Manufacturing of parts and accessories for military aircraft engines [2029450000]; and Manufacturing of parts and accessories for civilian aircraft engines [2029475000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 97 percent, which was the percentage of superalloys that were estimated to be cobalt and nickel based for this application in 2016 (Eckard, 2017).

Superalloys—Industrial turbines

Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing [333611]

52.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2020 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of turbine generator sets, excluding prime mover generator sets [2015700000]; Manufacturing of steam turbines and other vapor turbines [2015725000]; and Manufacturing of gas turbines, excluding aircraft (all sizes) [2015775000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 91 percent, which was the percentage of superalloys that were estimated to be cobalt and nickel based for this application in 2016 (Eckard, 2017).

All applications

Nonferrous metal (except aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

32.8

All applications

Copper rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331420]

95.9

Copper, mined Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of refined primary copper and copper-base alloy and primary copper smelter products, not commercial grade, produced for further refining, including blister or anode copper, cathode, wire bar, ingot and ingot bar, cakes, slabs, shot, etc. [2027175000]. Copper, refined Assessment was based on subtracting the value of shipments from products that were identified as non-copper from the total shipments of this industry in 2021 relative to the total output of this industry.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 119 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment Feldspar

Ceramics

Clay product and refractory manufacturing [327100]

34.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of clay floor and wall tile, glazed and unglazed (including ceramic mosaic tile) [2036000000]; Manufacturing of all wet and dry process voltage porcelain products and components, including steatite electrical products and other ceramic electrical products and components for electronic applications [2034100000]; Manufacturing of vitreous china, porcelain, and earthenware (semivitreous) table and kitchenware (including household, hotel, or commercial uses) (including bone and feldspar) [2007400000]; and Manufacturing of vitreous plumbing fixtures, vitreous china lavatories, and flush tanks, including all other plumbing accessories and earthenware [2038400000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 95 percent, which was the assumed share of glass that required feldspar (SCRREEN, 2023).

Glass

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of glass containers (including value of packaging) [2048450000]; Manufacturing of flat glass (float, sheet, and plate process) [2026050000]; Manufacturing of specialized glass for windows and doors [2037275000]; and Manufacturing of other glass fiber, textile- type (including yarn, strand, staple yarn, sliver, roving, chopped strand, and milled glass fiber) [2020575000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 95 percent, which was the assumed share of glass that required feldspar (SCRREEN, 2023).

Paints and coatings

Paint and coating manufacturing [325510]

0.1

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Ground or treated mineral and earth manufacturing [327992]” industry. Fluorspar, acidspar

Aluminum production

Alumina refining and primary aluminum production [331313]

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of aluminum ingot, including billet [2026995000].

Fluorocarbons

Industrial gas manufacturing [325120]

10.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fluorocarbon gases [2024225000].

Fluoropolymers

Plastics material and resin manufacturing [325211]

4.4

120 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Fluorspar, acidspar—Continued Other chemicals—Glass

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

2.6

Other chemicals— Lithium-ion batteries

Storage battery manufacturing [335911]

44.8

Other chemicals—Metal processing

Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities [332800]

17.9

Other chemicals— Nuclear fuel (uranium hexafluoride)

Electric power generation, transmission, and distribution [221100]

1.6

Fluorspar is used for the conversion of uranium oxide to uranium hexafluoride. Although the sole operating domestic producer that performs this conversion is likely in the “Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]” industry, the use is connected to the final using industry (nuclear electric power generation). Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the “Nuclear electric power generation [221113]” industry in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 4.65 percent, which represented the fraction of domestically produced uranium purchased by owners and operators of U.S. civilian nuclear power reactors in 2023 (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2024c).

Other chemicals— Petroleum alkylation

Petroleum refineries [324110]

Assessment was based on the percentage of U.S. petroleum refining capacity that used alkylation (American Fuel & Petrochemical Manufacturers and American Petroleum Institute, 2023).

Other chemicals— Semiconductor manufacturing

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

93.5

High-purity, electronic grade hydrofluoric acid and fluorogases are used extensively in semiconductor device manufacturing processes (for example, etching). Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of microprocessors [2033575000]; Manufacturing of memory [2033600000]; Manufacturing of other integrated circuit packages [2033625000]; and Manufacturing of other semiconductor devices, including semiconductor parts such as chips, wafers, and heat sinks [2033700000].

Other chemicals—Water fluoridation

Water, sewage and other systems [221300]

67.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Water supply, transmission, treatment, and distribution, including water supply through irrigation systems [6000175003]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 72.3 percent, which represented the percentage of the U.S. population served with fluorinated water (U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2024).

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 121 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Fluorspar, metspar Cement

Cement manufacturing [327310]

1.7

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]” industry.

Ceramics

Clay product and refractory manufacturing [327100]

0.02

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]” industry.

Glass

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

0.1

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]” industry.

Iron and steel

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

2.4

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]” industry. Gallium

Semiconductor devices

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

Assessment was based on the “base case” described in detail by Nassar and others (2024).

Germanium Fiber optics

Communication and energy wire and cable manufacturing [335920]

Assessment was based on the “base case” described in detail by Nassar and others (2024).

Infrared optics—Infrared Search, detection, and surveillance devices navigation instruments manufacturing [334511]

6.9

Assessment was based on the “base case” described in detail by Nassar and others (2024).

Infrared optics—Night- vision equipment

Optical instrument and lens manufacturing [333314]

2.4

Assessment was based on the “base case” described in detail by Nassar and others (2024).

Medical devices

Electromedical and electrotherapeutic apparatus manufacturing [334510]

0.4

Assessment was based on the “base case” described in detail by Nassar and others (2024).

122 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Germanium—Continued Radiation detection devices

Watch, clock, and other measuring and controlling device manufacturing [33451A]

0.7

Assessment was based on the “base case” described in detail by Nassar and others (2024).

Semiconductor devices and solar cells

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

1.8

Assessment was based on the “base case” described in detail by Nassar and others (2024) and then updated based on the value of germanium- based U.S. semiconductor device sales (Grand View Research, Inc., 2024g) relative to that industry’s output in 2023. Gold

Dental equipment and supplies

Dental equipment and supplies manufacturing [339114]

4.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of dental metals, artificial teeth not customized for individual application, and other dental laboratory supplies [2045975000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 51.5 percent, which represented the approximate market share of dental metals that were based on gold dental alloys in 2022 (KBV Research, 2024b).

Dental laboratories

Dental laboratories [339116]

0.5

Electrical & Other electronic electronics—Other component electronic components manufacturing [33441A]

Assessment was based on the percentage of global printed circuit board finishes that used gold in 2016 (Shah, 2018).

Electrical & electronics—Printed circuit assemblies

Printed circuit assembly (electronic assembly) manufacturing [334418]

Assessment was based on the percentage of global printed circuit board finishes that used gold in 2016 (Shah, 2018).

Electrical & electronics— Semiconductor and related devices

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

This factor approximates the percentage of semiconductors that used gold based on gold’s market share of bonding wire in 2023 (~23 percent; KBV Research, 2024a) and, additionally, the share of industry output that is based on gallium-based compound semiconductors (~7 percent; Nassar and others, 2024) where gold is used for contact metallization.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 123 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Gold—Continued Jewelry

Jewelry and silverware manufacturing [339910]

50.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of jewelry and personal goods (excluding costume), gold and platinum (excluding gold and platinum clad or plated to silver and nonprecious metals) [2005600000]; and Manufacturing of other jewelers' findings and materials, including gold, platinum, and silver plated to nonprecious metal [2034400000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 96 percent, which represented the value of gold consumed by U.S. jewelry manufacturing relative to that of U.S. consumption of gold and platinum in jewelry manufacturing.

Other—Plating

Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities [332800]

3.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Electroplating, plating, polishing, anodizing, and coloring [2053500000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 15 percent, which represented the percentage of the global electroplating market that was based on gold (Global Growth Insights, 2025a).

Other—Watches

Watch, clock, and other measuring and controlling device manufacturing [33451A]

0.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of watches (excluding watch bands and batteries) [2005575000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 8 percent, which represented the approximate market share of the ultra-luxury market for watches (Amed and others, 2021; Grand View Research, Inc., 2023h).

All applications

Carbon and graphite product manufacturing [335991]

12.7

All applications

Carbon and graphite product manufacturing [335991]

74.8

Graphite, natural Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of graphite electrodes for electric furnaces and electrolytic cell use [2026775000] and Manufacturing of all other carbon and graphite products, including carbon and graphite fibers, brushes, brush plates, contacts, excluding refractories [2026800000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 14.5 percent, which represented the natural graphite share of the combined calculated apparent consumption value of natural and synthetic graphite. Graphite, synthetic Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of graphite electrodes for electric furnaces and electrolytic cell use [2026775000] and Manufacturing of all other carbon and graphite products, including carbon and graphite fibers, brushes, brush plates, contacts, excluding refractories [2026800000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 85.5 percent, which represented the synthetic graphite share of the combined calculated apparent consumption value of natural and synthetic graphite.

124 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment Hafnium

Nuclear

Electric power generation, transmission, and distribution [221100]

0.4

Assessment was based on the value of nuclear electricity generation relative to the value of all electricity generation in 2017 multiplied by hafnium's market share in nuclear control rods, which was estimated to be 1.5 percent. This estimate was based on the ratio of hafnium to silver-indium-cadmium required per kilowatthour in nuclear powerplants (Nuclear Energy Agency, 2011) multiplied by the share of nuclear electricity generation that was on pressurized water reactors (where silver-indium-cadmium control rods are used) in the United States in 2023 (World Nuclear Association, 2025b).

Optical coatings

Optical instrument and lens manufacturing [333314]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of sighting, tracking, and fire-control equipment, optical-type [2018575000]; Manufacturing of night vision goggles and equipment [2018575012]; Manufacturing of binoculars and astronomical instruments [2018600003]; and Manufacturing of optical test and inspection equipment [2018600006]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 1 percent because hafnium likely composed a small market share in these applications.

Plasma cutting

Other general purpose machinery manufacturing [33399A]

0.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other welding equipment, components, and accessories (excluding arc, resistance, and gas welding equipment) [2014850000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 5.7 percent, which was the share of other welding equipment that used plasma welding in 2002 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004a), multiplied by an assumed market share of 10 percent for hafnium.

Superalloys—Aerospace

Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]

71.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of military aircraft engines (including other aircraft engines built to military specifications) [2029400000]; Manufacturing of civilian aircraft engines [2029425000]; Manufacturing of parts and accessories for military aircraft engines [2029450000]; and Manufacturing of parts and accessories for civilian aircraft engines [2029475000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 82.56 percent, which represented the percentage of superalloys that were estimated to be nickel based (and thus containing niobium) for this application in 2016 (Eckard, 2017).

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 125 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Hafnium—Continued Superalloys—Industrial gas turbines

Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing [333611]

39.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2020 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of turbine generator sets, excluding prime mover generator sets [2015700000]; Manufacturing of steam turbines and other vapor turbines [2015725000]; and Manufacturing of gas turbines, excluding aircraft (all sizes) [2015775000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 69.11 percent, which represented the percentage of superalloys that were estimated to be nickel based (and thus containing niobium) for this application in 2016 (Eckard, 2017).

Superalloys—Rocket nozzles

Propulsion units and parts for space vehicles and guided missiles [33641A]

Hafnium is added as an alloying agent (for example, in the C103 alloy) for use in rocket nozzles. An assumed 10‑percent market share was assumed because no specific data were found.

Other—Catalysts

Plastics material and resin manufacturing [325211]

0.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of thermoplastic resins and plastics materials, polyethylene [2025350003] and Manufacturing of thermoplastic resins and plastics materials, polypropylene [2025350006]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 1 percent because hafnium-based catalysts likely produced a small share of polyolefins.

Other—Semiconductors

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

38.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of microprocessors [2033575000]. Hafnium has been used as a high dielectric constant material since the introduction of 45‑nanometer technology.

Aerospace propulsion units

Propulsion units and parts for space vehicles and guided missiles [33641A]

9.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of missile and space vehicle engine and propulsion parts and accessories [2012525000].

Analytical and science laboratory applications

Scientific research and development services [541700]

46.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Basic and applied research in natural and exact sciences, including biological sciences [7009675000] and Basic and applied research in medical and health sciences [7009750000].

Diving gas

Sporting and athletic goods manufacturing [339920]

0.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of sailboards, surfboards, water skis, and underwater sports equipment (excluding cameras and watches) [2009050009]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 43.9 percent, which represented the percentage of this NAPCS code’s revenues in 2002 that were specific to underwater equipment based on the 2002 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004a).

Helium

126 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Helium—Continued Engineering applications

Scientific research and development services [541700]

29.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Basic and applied research in engineering and technology [7009700000].

Fiber optics

Communication and energy wire and cable manufacturing [335920]

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fiber optic cable, for all other applications [2039175000] and Manufacturing of fiber optic cable, for communications applications [2039150000].

Leak detection

Aircraft manufacturing [336411]

82.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of military aircraft, including all aircraft for U.S. military and any other aircraft built to military specifications [2012100000] and Manufacturing of civilian aircraft [2012125000].

Lifting gas—Party- balloons

All other retail [4B0000]

0.3

Assessment was based on the value of the helium-filled balloon industry in the United States relative to this industry’s total output. The value of the helium-filled balloon industry was estimated by multiplying the value of the global helium-filled party balloon market in 2022 ($2.5 billion) by 1.07, which accounted for the annualized growth rate of that market, to estimate the value in 2023 (Verified Market Reports, 2025h). The result was then multiplied by 35 percent, which was the estimated market share for the United States, based on a reported market share of 38 percent for North America (Verified Market Reports, 2025h).

Lifting gas—Weather services

All other miscellaneous professional, scientific, and technical services [5419A0]

1.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Weather forecasting services [7012263000].

Magnetic resonance imaging

Medical and diagnostic laboratories [621500]

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) [7004160015].

Semiconductor devices

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

14.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other integrated circuit packages [2033625000].

Welding—Aerospace

Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]

Assessment assumed that all aircraft engine and engine parts required welding. Helium is widely used in arc welding, in various proportions. However, it is mostly used in gas metal arc welding. Gas metal arc welding is about twice as common as gas tungsten arc welding. Although argon is more commonly used in gas tungsten arc welding, helium can be used in some applications. A factor of 70 percent was thus assumed.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 127 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Helium—Continued Welding—Automotive

Motor vehicle body manufacturing [336211]

Assessment assumed that all motor vehicle bodies required welding. Helium is widely used in arc welding, in various proportions. However, it is mostly used in gas metal arc welding. Gas metal arc welding is about twice as common as gas tungsten arc welding. Although argon is more commonly used in gas tungsten arc welding, helium can be used in some applications. A factor of 70 percent was thus assumed.

Other—Automobile air bags

Other motor vehicle parts manufacturing [336390]

0.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of motor vehicle air bag assemblies and parts, new [2032425000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 7.8 percent, which represented the approximate share of helium’s use in motor vehicle airbags. Specifically, helium is particularly used in curtain airbags for fast deployment. The 2024 value of the global curtain airbag market was $4.52 billion (Grand View Research, Inc., 2024a), whereas the overall airbag market in 2024, according to Precedence Research, was $58.18 billion (Precedence Research, 2024).

Other—Hard disk drives

Computer storage device manufacturing [334112]

1.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of disk subsystems and disk arrays for multiuser computer systems [2011625003] and Manufacturing of disk drives (all sizes) [2011625006]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 7 percent, which was an estimate that there were approximately 18 million helium-filled hard disk drives shipped each year (1 million per month for one company [Shendar, 2021] that had reportedly two-thirds of all helium-filled hard disk drive shipments [Western Digital, 2022]) out of 260 million hard disk drives per year in 2020–21 (Statista, 2024).

Other—Pharmaceutics

Hospitals [622000]

0.02

Assessment was based on the value of the heliox market in North America for medical use in 2024 (Wise Guy Reports, 2025), which was estimated to be one-half of the total use of heliox, relative to the output of this industry in 2023. Indium

Indium tin oxide— Coated glass

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

0.5

Assessment was based on the value of the U.S. indium-tin-oxide coated glass market (Fact.MR, 2025) as a percentage of this industry's output.

Indium tin oxide— Electronic displays

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

128 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Indium—Continued Semiconductor Semiconductor and compounds (including related device indium phosphide, manufacturing aluminum gallium [334413] indium phosphide, and copper indium gallium (di)selenide)

7.3

Assessment was based on U.S. market in 2023 for “other” semiconductor devices as reported by Grand View Research, Inc. (2024f), which included aluminum gallium indium phosphide, cadmium telluride, copper indium gallium selenide, indium phosphide, mercury cadmium telluride, and silicon germanium compounds. The value for silicon germanium was removed based on data from Grand View Research, Inc. (2024e) reported on germanium semiconductor devices in the United States.

Solders and alloys— Electronics

Printed circuit assembly (electronic assembly) manufacturing [334418]

1.3

Solders and alloys— Fusible alloys

Other general purpose machinery manufacturing [33399A]

0.4

Other—Dental alloys

Dental equipment and supplies manufacturing [339114]

0.2

Chemical—Acetic acid synthesis

Other basic organic chemical manufacturing [325190]

0.3

Assessment was based on an estimated iridium-based U.S. acetic acid production capacity of ~600,000 metric tons per year (Matherne, 2019) and a unit value for acetic acid of $740 per metric ton (average price in North America in June 2023) (ChemAnalyst, 2024a) relative to the industry’s total output in 2023.

Chemical—Pesticide synthesis

Pesticide and other agricultural chemical manufacturing [325320]

5.8

Assessment was based on the quantity of S-Metolachlor used in the United States (U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2024) multiplied by the price of this herbicide (Farmer's Business Network, Inc., 2024) by this industry relative to its total output in 2021.

6.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of chlorine, compressed or liquefied [2024625000] and Manufacturing of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) [2024650000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 50.8 percent, which represented the approximate share of U.S. chlorine production in 2022 that used membrane cells (Kreuz and others, 2022), which use iridium-coated electrodes.

Iridium

Electrochemical—Chlor- Other basic inorganic alkali chemical manufacturing [325180]

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 129 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Iridium—Continued Electrochemical— Copper foil for batteries

Storage battery manufacturing [335911]

12.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2019 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of storage batteries (excluding lead acid) [2030125000].

Electrochemical— Other electronic Copper foil for printed component circuit boards manufacturing [33441A]

12.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of bare printed circuit boards [2014930000].

Electrochemical—Proton Industrial gas exchange membrane manufacturing [325120]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of argon and hydrogen [2024200000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 1.05 percent, which accounted for the share of this NAPCS code that was for the manufacture of hydrogen (roughly 73 percent; U.S. Census Bureau, 2004d), the percentage of hydrogen produced by electrolyzers (roughly 7 percent; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2024a), and the percentage of electrolyzers that were based on proton membrane exchange (roughly 20 percent; Hydrogen Council and McKinsey & Company, 2023).

Electrochemical— Treatment of ballast water

1.6

Assessment was based on the value of the global market for ballast water treatment systems in 2022 (Maximize Market Research Pvt. Ltd., 2023a), multiplied by the North American share of that market (55 percent) (Maximize Market Research Pvt. Ltd., 2023a), an assumed 80‑percent share of the North American market for the United States, and a 37‑percent share for ruthenium-iridium-based electrolytic chlorination systems of the ballast water treatment systems (Heraeus Precious Metals and SFA (Oxford) Ltd., 2020). The result was divided by the total output of the industry in 2022

Electronics—Crucibles Other electronic to grow single crystals component of metal oxides manufacturing [33441A]

5.4

Other—Aerospace

Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]

4.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of parts and accessories for civilian aircraft engines [2029475000] and Manufacturing of parts and accessories for military aircraft engines [2029450000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 10 percent, which represented the share of aircraft engine spark plugs that used iridium (AviationPros, 2007).

Other—Automotive spark plugs

Motor vehicle electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing [336320]

0.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of spark plugs (all types) [2029575000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 32 percent, which represented the approximate percentage of spark plugs that used iridium (Fortune Business Insights, 2024).

Ship building and repairing [336611]

130 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Iridium—Continued Other—Biomedical devices

Electromedical and electrotherapeutic apparatus manufacturing [334510]

6.9

Assessment was based on the sum of the value of the U.S. market of pacemakers (Grand View Research, Inc., 2022d) and cochlear implants (Grand View Research, Inc., 2023a) and the value of shipments from the NAPCS code Manufacturing of defibrillators [2018000024]—the latter which was multiplied by 59 percent to approximate the share of defibrillators that were implantable (The Brainy Insights, 2023)— relative to the output of the industry in 2021.

Other—Jewelry

Jewelry and silverware manufacturing [339910]

0.1

Assessment was based on the value of the calculated apparent consumption of this mineral commodity by this industry in 2023 multiplied by the ratio of revenue generated by this industry to the total material expenditure of this industry in 2017 based on data reported in the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2023), relative to the total output of this industry in 2023. Iron ore

Catalysts for ammonia production

Fertilizer manufacturing [325310]

6.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of synthetic ammonia for fertilizer use [2034625006] and Manufacturing of anhydrous synthetic ammonia for other uses [2034625009]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 95 percent, which represented the approximate percentage of ammonia produced using catalysts (Smith and Torrente-Murciano, 2021).

Cement clinker

Cement manufacturing [327310]

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of portland cement and other portland hydraulic cements (including oil well, white cement, blended cements, etc.), and masonry cement and cement clinker [2026400000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 1 percent, which was the assumed percentage of cement that used iron ore as an additive.

Ferrite magnets

Other fabricated metal manufacturing [332999]

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of permanent magnets, excluding ceramic permanent magnets [2034200000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 87.39 percent, which represented the approximate percentage of revenue from permanent magnets that were ferrite magnets using projected 2022 North American market data as a proxy (Kumar, 2017).

Oil and gas well drilling

All other chemical product and preparation manufacturing [3259A0]

0.05

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of drilling mud materials (mud thinners, thickeners, and purifiers) [2041350006]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 1 percent, which represented the approximate percentage of oil-and gas-well drilling that used iron ore because the market is currently dominated by barite (Latunussa and others, 2020).

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 131 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Iron ore—Continued Paints and pigments

Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]

2.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of iron oxide pigments [2024350000].

Steels

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

31.6

Assessment was based on domestic production of pig iron and direct- reduced iron multiplied by 92 percent (to approximate iron content), as a percentage of domestic raw steel production in 2023 (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a). Lead

Ammunition

Ammunition, arms, ordnance, and accessories manufacturing [33299A]

Assessment was based on a reported statistic that stated that 95 percent of ammunition in the United States contained lead (Gorman, 2017).

Batteries, lead-acid

Storage battery manufacturing [335911]

49.2

Assessment was based on the average value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2020 and 2021 relative to the total industry output in 2023: Manufacturing of storage batteries, lead- acid-type, BCI dimensional size group 8D (1.5 cu ft (.042 cu m) and smaller) [2030050000]; Manufacturing of motive-power-type lead- acid storage batteries, larger than BCI dimensional size group 8D (1.5 cu ft (.042 cu m)), including mining and industrial locomotive [2030075000]; and Manufacturing of all other lead-acid storage batteries, larger than BCI dimensional size group 8D (1.6 cu ft (.042 cu m)), including communication and standby emergency [2030125000].

Bearings—Motor vehicles

Motor vehicle transmission and power train parts manufacturing [336350]

0.9

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Bearings—Other transportation equipment

Railroad rolling stock manufacturing [336500]

3.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of passenger and freight train cars, rebuilt [2012200003].

Cable coverings

Communication and energy wire and cable manufacturing [335920]

2.7

Assessment was based on the value of the U.S. lead sheathed cable market (Verified Market Reports, 2024) relative to the overall output of this industry in 2023.

132 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Lead—Continued Casting metal— Electrical machinery

Material handling equipment manufacturing [333920]

5.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of work trucks, forklifts, and tractors fitted or not fitted with lifting and handling equipment, self-propelled, electric, gasoline, and other power system [2015625000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 44 percent, which represented the share of this output that was based on forklifts as reported in the 2002 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004a).

Casting metal—Motor vehicles

Other motor vehicle parts manufacturing [336390]

18.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of miscellaneous motor vehicle parts and components [2042975000].

Casting metal—Nuclear radiation shielding

Plate work and fabricated structural product manufacturing [332310]

0.02

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fabricated steel plate shielding for use in nuclear reactor buildings [2017175000].

Casting metal—Ships

Ship building and repairing [336611]

0.1

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Caulking lead

Adhesive manufacturing [325520]

2.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of nonstructural caulking compounds and sealants [2040425000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 10 percent, which represented an approximate share for lead. In the global caulk and sealants market, 90 percent of the market share is for silicone sealants, acrylic latex caulks, hybrid polymer caulks, and mildew-free sealants (Verified Market Reports, 2025d). Lead is not used in any of these types, so it was assumed to be within the 10 percent of other caulks and sealants.

Collapsible tubes

Other fabricated metal manufacturing [332999]

0.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fabricated metal collapsible tubes, aluminum and all other metals, including tin, tin-coated, tin-lead alloy, and lead [2048625000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 25 percent, which was the approximate share of lead-based collapsible tubes (Anand and Mane, 2014).

Extruded metal for construction

Hardware manufacturing [332500]

2.1

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Extruded metal for tanks, Metal tank (heavy process vessels gauge) manufacturing [332420]

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 133 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Lead—Continued Glass and ceramics

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

1.4

Assessment was based on the value of leaded glass windows in North America relative to this industry's output in 2023 (Wise Guy Reports, 2024a).

Leaded brass pipe fittings

Valve and fittings other than plumbing [33291A]

1.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of metal fittings, flanges, and unions for piping systems (iron, copper, copper alloy brass and bronze) [2038300000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 15.4 percent, which represented the approximate share of brasses that contained lead, which was estimated based on the quantity of lead used in brass mills in the United States in 2023 divided by an assumed 1.5‑percent lead content of brass, divided by the total output of brass mills in the United States in 2023 (Copper Development Association Inc., 2024).

Paints

Paint and coating manufacturing [325510]

0.1

Pigments and chemicals

All other chemical product and preparation manufacturing [3259A0]

0.06

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of rubber processing preparations, including red lead and 2-mercaptoimidazoline rubber accelerator composition [2025775000].

Sheet metal— Construction

Ornamental and architectural metal products manufacturing [332320]

2.6

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Sheet metal—Medical radiation shielding

Surgical appliance and supplies manufacturing [339113]

0.8

Assessment was based on the value of the lead-based medical radiation shielding market in North America, as a percentage of this industry's output in 2023 (Grand View Research, Inc., 2023e).

Sheet metal—Storage tanks

Metal tank (heavy gauge) manufacturing [332420]

3.1

Solder—Construction

Ornamental and architectural metal products manufacturing [332320]

0.05

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

134 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Lead—Continued Solder—Electrical and electronics

Printed circuit assembly (electronic assembly) manufacturing [334418]

39.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of printed circuit assemblies, loaded boards and modules (printed circuit boards with inserted electronic components) [2041925000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 42.6 percent, which represented the approximate share of lead-based solders (Global Market Insights, 2024c).

Solder—Metal cans

Metal can, box, and other metal container (light gauge) manufacturing [332430]

2.8

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Solder—Motor vehicles

Motor vehicle electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing [336320]

2.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of motor vehicle instrument board assemblies and all other electrical and electronic components, new [2030025000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 42.6 percent, which represented the approximate share of lead-based solders (Global Market Insights, 2024c).

Terne metal

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

0.1

Assessment was based on the quantity of lead consumed in this application divided by an assumed lead content of 67 percent, which was then divided by the total steel output of the United States in 2023 (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a).

Other—Polyvinyl chloride stabilizer

Plastics material and resin manufacturing [325211]

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of thermoplastic resins and plastics materials, polyvinyl chloride [2025350012]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 44.9 percent, which represented the percentage of polyvinyl chloride stabilizers based on lead (Coherent Market Insights, 2025).

Air conditioning

Air conditioning, refrigeration, and warm air heating equipment manufacturing [333415]

0.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other heat transfer equipment, including room air-induction units, mechanical refrigeration systems used on all types of vehicles, and absorption refrigeration and dehydration systems [2017800108]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 45.7 percent, which represented the percentage of the global market value of absorption chillers that were based on lithium bromide (Maximize Market Research Pvt. Ltd., 2025a).

Lithium

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 135 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Lithium—Continued Aluminum alloys

Secondary smelting and alloying of aluminum [331314]

1.5

Assessment was based on the quantity of lithium consumption in this application divided by an assumed average lithium content of aluminum-lithium alloys (2 percent) multiplied by an assumed price of $10 per kilogram divided by the total output of this industry. Lithium may have also been used in the production of aluminum using a subset Söderberg method, but the quantities produced using this method that required lithium were believed to be negligible in 2023 (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2020b).

Batteries, lithium-ion

Storage battery manufacturing [335911]

45.1

Assessment was based on the value of lithium-ion battery cells manufactured in the United States, which was based on production and cell cost data from Benchmark Mineral Intelligence Ltd. (2023a, c) relative to the total output of this industry in 2023.

Batteries, primary

Primary battery manufacturing [335912]

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of primary batteries, excluding lead acid [2010950000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 33.1 percent, which represented the approximate percentage of global primary batteries that used lithium in 2024 (Market.Us, 2025b).

Ceramics

Clay product and refractory manufacturing [327100]

2.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of vitreous china, porcelain, and earthenware (semivitreous) table and kitchenware (including household, hotel, or commercial uses) (including bone and feldspar) [2007400000] and Manufacturing of stoneware table and kitchen articles, household and commercial (for serving, cooking, preparing, and storing food and drink) [2007425000].

Glass

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

2.2

Assessment was based on the quantity of lithium consumed in this application multiplied by the price of spodumene (Project Blue, 2025c) relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]” industry.

Glass-ceramics

Major household appliance manufacturing [335220]

4.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of electric (including microwave) household ranges, ovens, surface cooking units, and equipment, excluding parts and accessories [2007100000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 28.1 percent, which represented the percentage of U.S. electric and induction cooktops that were based on induction (which were believed the be the main use of lithium in this application) (Grand View Research, Inc., 2023b).

136 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Lithium—Continued Lubricating greases

Other petroleum and coal products manufacturing [324190]

22.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of petroleum lubricating oils and greases [2041950000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 60.92 percent, which was the percentage of grease products that used lithium (conventional or complex) in North America in 2023 (NLGI, 2024).

Pharmaceuticals

Pharmaceutical preparation manufacturing [325412]

0.04

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other psychotherapeutic agents [2010175039].

Rubber

Synthetic rubber and artificial and synthetic fibers and filaments manufacturing [3252A0]

6.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), excluding latex [2025425000] and Manufacturing of styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), latex [2025450000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 37.2 percent, which represented the percentage of styrene-butadiene rubber produced using solution (which used lithium) rather than emulsion (which did not use lithium) in 2023 (Grand View Research, Inc., 2023g).

Other—Electronics

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of crystals, filters, piezoelectric, and other related electronic devices (excluding microwave filters) [2033825000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 3.3 percent, which represented lithium niobate’s share of the 2017 global market share of photonic integrated circuits (Gaurav, 2017).

Other—Inorganic chemicals

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

0.9

Other—Paints

Paint and coating manufacturing [325510]

7.2

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]” industry.

Magnesium compounds Animal feed

Other animal food manufacturing [311119]

69.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of chicken and turkey feed, supplements, concentrates, and premixes [2034450000]; Manufacturing of complete dairy cattle feed, supplements, concentrates, and premixes [2034475000]; Manufacturing of complete swine feed, supplements, concentrates, and premixes [2034500000]; and Manufacturing of complete beef cattle feed, supplements, concentrates, and premixes [2034525000].

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 137 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Magnesium compounds—Continued Dyes

Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]

6.1

Fertilizer

Fertilizer manufacturing [325310]

12.9

Glass

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

4.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of machine-made pressed and blown table, kitchen, art, and novelty glassware [2007500000]; Manufacturing of handmade pressed and blown glassware [2007525000]; and Manufacturing of flat glass (float, sheet, and plate process) [2026050000].

Mineral wool insulation

Mineral wool manufacturing [327993]

Pharmaceuticals

Pharmaceutical preparation manufacturing [325412]

13.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of pharmaceutical preparations, vitamin, nutrient, and hematinic preparations, for human use [2010300000]; Manufacturing of antacids and antidiarrheals, including acid neutralizing and products with coating functions [2010250006]; and Manufacturing of pharmaceutical preparations, acting on the digestive or the genito-urinary systems, for human use [2010250000].

Pulp mills

Pulp mills [322110]

83.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of special alpha and dissolving woodpulp (sulfite and sulfate for chemical conversion, papermaking, and other uses), sulfate woodpulp (including soda), sulfite woodpulp, and other woodpulp [2023125000].

Ready-mix concrete

Ready-mix concrete manufacturing [327320]

95.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of portland cement and other portland hydraulic cements (including oil well, white cement, blended cements, etc.), and masonry cement and cement clinker [2026400000] and Manufacturing of ready-mix concrete [2040575000].

Steel furnace linings

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

92.6

138 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Magnesium compounds—Continued Various other chemical products

All other chemical product and preparation manufacturing [3259A0]

15.9

Aluminum alloys

Secondary smelting and alloying of aluminum [331314]

94.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of aluminum and aluminum-base alloy powders, paste, and flakes [2026990000] and Manufacturing of aluminum ingot, including billet [2026995000].

Castings

Nonferrous metal foundries [331520]

65.1

Assessment was based on the value of aluminum-and magnesium- based castings from the following NAPCS codes: Manufacturing of aluminum and aluminum-base alloy die-castings [2028100000]; Manufacturing of aluminum and aluminum-base alloy sand castings (excluding cast aluminum cooking utensils) [2028125000]; Manufacturing of aluminum and aluminum-base alloy permanent and semipermanent mold castings (excluding cast aluminum cooking utensils) [2028150000]; Manufacturing of aluminum and aluminum- base alloy investment castings (excluding cast aluminum cooking utensils) [2028175000]; Manufacturing of other aluminum and aluminum-base alloy castings, excluding die-castings (excluding cast aluminum cooking utensils) [2028200000]; Manufacturing of other nonferrous foundries castings (excluding die-casting and aluminum) including nickel and nickel-base alloy, zinc and zinc-base alloy, magnesium and magnesium-base alloy, and all other nonferrous castings [2028300000]; and Manufacturing of nonferrous metals and alloys (excluding aluminum) die-castings [2028250000]. The output of the latter two NAPCS codes that was associated with magnesium alloys was disaggregated based on data from the 2002 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004a).

Cathodic protection

All other miscellaneous electrical equipment and component manufacturing [335999]

3.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other electrical equipment for industrial use, including industrial-use surge suppressors (excluding for electronic circuitry) [2016025000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 16.7 percent, which was the estimated share associated with cathodic protection equipment based on data from the 2002 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004a).

Chemicals

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

0.8

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other nondurable goods merchant wholesalers [424A00]” industry.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 139 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Magnesium metal—Continued Desulfurization

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

9.8

Assessment was based on the quantity of steel that would have used magnesium metal for desulfurization, which was estimated by dividing the quantity of magnesium metal used for desulfurization by 0.5 kg of magnesium required per metric ton of hot steel (Project Blue, 2025d). The result was then divided by the total quantity of steel produced in the United States in 2023 (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a) multiplied by the percentage of this industry's output that is associated with steel production.

Nodular iron

Ferrous metal foundries [331510]

17.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of ductile iron pressure pipe and fittings, all sizes [2027800000]; Manufacturing of other ductile iron castings for automotive uses [2027825000]; and Manufacturing of all other ductile iron castings for all other uses, including valve, construction and utility, machinery, electric and electronic equipment, heat-resistant parts (including coke oven doors) [2027850000].

Reducing agent

Nonferrous metal (except aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

1.7

Assessment was based on the quantity of beryllium metal, hafnium, titanium sponge, and zirconium metal produced in the United States multiplied by their respective prices as a percentage of the total industry output in 2023. Magnesium metal acts as a reducing agent during the production of these metals.

Other—Bicycles

Motorcycle, bicycle, and parts manufacturing [336991]

0.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of bicycles and other cycles, all types, except children's sidewalk bikes [2008700000] and Manufacturing of parts for bicycles, unicycles, and adult tricycles [2032750000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 3.8 percent, which was the reported market share of bicycles with magnesium alloy frames in 2021 (Aikerly (Shanghai) New Materials Co., Ltd., 2022).

Other—Fireworks

All other chemical product and preparation manufacturing [3259A0]

0.04

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fireworks and pyrotechnics, including flares, igniters (jet fuel or other), railroad torpedoes, toy pistol caps, etc. [2046700000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 14.3 percent (one-seventh) because one of the seven main colors of fireworks used magnesium (U.S. Geological Survey, 2020b).

Other—Matches

All other chemical product and preparation manufacturing [3259A0]

0.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of smoking accessories, including matches, cigarette lighters, cigarette holders, tobacco pipes, etc. [2004425000].

140 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Magnesium metal—Continued Other—Sports equipment

Sporting and athletic goods manufacturing [339920]

2.1

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other nondurable goods merchant wholesalers [424A00]” industry.

Other—Surgical equipment

Surgical and medical instrument manufacturing [339112]

1.3

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other nondurable goods merchant wholesalers [424A00]” industry. Manganese alloys

Steels

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

88.3

Because all steels require some manganese, the percentage of this industry’s output that was steel products was split between manganese alloys and manganese metal proportionally based on the share of each mineral commodity’s apparent consumption in this application.

Batteries, primary

Primary battery manufacturing [335912]

58.8

Aluminum alloys

Secondary smelting and alloying of aluminum [331314]

Assessment was based on the percentage of wrought alloys and extrusion billets that were Series 3000 aluminum-manganese alloys (Global Growth Insights, 2024).

Steels

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

6.4

Manganese dioxide Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of primary batteries, excluding lead acid [2010950000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 63 percent, which represented the approximate percentage of global primary batteries that used manganese (alkaline and zinc-carbon) in 2024 (Market.Us, 2025b). Manganese metal

Manganese ore Ferromanganese and silicomanganese

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

0.2

Assessment was based on the quantities of ferromanganese and silicomanganese produced in the United States, each multiplied by its reported price, as a percentage of this industry's output in 2023.

Manganese dioxide

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

0.4

Assessment was based on the quantity of manganese dioxide production in the United States multiplied by the reported price of manganese dioxide as a percentage of the industry's output in 2023.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 141 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Manganese sulfate (high purity) Batteries, rechargeable

Storage battery manufacturing [335911]

45.1

Brick and ceramic tile

Clay product and refractory manufacturing [327100]

0.03

Joint compounds

Lime and gypsum product manufacturing [327400]

15.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of gypsum building plasters [2037325000] and Manufacturing of other gypsum products [2037400000].

Paints and coatings

Paint and coating manufacturing [325510]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of paints and enamels, automotive, other transportation and machinery refinishing, including primers [2040350012]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 14 percent, which represented the approximate share of automotive pearlescent paint relative to all automotive paints based on the North American market share for all white pearl and one-half of the black effect paint in 2022 (Axalta Coating Systems, 2022) multiplied by an 80‑percent share for mica in pearlescent pigments and paints (Schipper and Cowan, 2018).

Plastics

Other plastics product manufacturing [326190]

18.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fabricated plastics components, housings, accessories, and parts for motor vehicles (excluding foam and reinforced plastics) [2029175003] and Manufacturing of transportation reinforced and fiberglass plastics products [2029200000].

Roofing

Asphalt shingle and coating materials manufacturing [324122]

0.02

Welding rods

Other general purpose machinery manufacturing [33399A]

0.1

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “All other chemical product and preparation manufacturing [3259A0]” industry.

Mica

142 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Mica—Continued Well drilling

Drilling oil and gas wells [213111]

5.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Drilling oil and gas wells, including drilling in, spudding in, or tailing in [1001625000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 6.7 percent. Flake type lost circulation material composed 20 percent of global market (Verified Market Reports, 2025i). Mica, cellophane, and calcium carbonate are all noted as common flake lost circulation material. Mica was thus assumed to compose one-third of the flake lost circulation material market.

Other—Cosmetics

Toilet preparation manufacturing [325620]

0.1

Cast iron

Ferrous metal foundries [331510]

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Catalyst

Petroleum refineries [324110]

37.5

Assessment was based on the charge capacity of catalytic hydrotreating in the United States in 2023 as a percentage of atmospheric crude oil distillation capacity (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2024b) multiplied by 42 percent, which represented the approximate share of molybdenum-based catalysts used in hydrodesulfurization (Strategy & Stats Insider, 2022).

Cemented carbides

Cutting and machine tool accessory, rolling mill, and other metalworking machinery manufacturing [33351B]

0.03

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Electric lamp bulbs

Electric lamp bulb and part manufacturing [335110]

16.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of electric lamp bulbs and tubes (including sealed beam lamp bulbs) [2051400000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 20 percent, which represented the approximate percentage of U.S. lamp shipments that were halogen based in 2022 (National Electrical Manufacturers Association, 2023).

Lubricants

Other petroleum and coal products manufacturing [324190]

14.7

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 143 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Molybdenum—Continued Magnetic alloys

Other fabricated metal manufacturing [332999]

0.01

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Mill products— Automotive parts

Other motor vehicle parts manufacturing [336390]

53.4

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Mill products—Coatings and heat treating

Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities [332800]

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Mill products—Custom roll forming

Custom roll forming [332114]

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Mill products— Electrical equipment

All other miscellaneous electrical equipment and component manufacturing [335999]

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Mill products—Forgings

All other forging, stamping, and sintering [33211A]

0.6

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Mill products— Glassmaking equipment

Other industrial machinery manufacturing [33329A]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of glassmaking machinery and equipment, including machines for hot working glass or glassware, excluding parts [2014325000].

Mill products— Hardware

Turned product and screw, nut, and bolt manufacturing [332720]

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Mill products— Household appliances

Major household appliance manufacturing [335220]

9.4

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Mill products— Industrial machinery

All other miscellaneous manufacturing [339990]

4.1

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

144 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Molybdenum—Continued Mill products—Medical X-ray tubes and detectors

Electromedical and electrotherapeutic apparatus manufacturing [334510]

0.04

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of parts and accessories for X-ray equipment [2045213000].

Mill products—Other commercial and service industry machinery

Other commercial and service industry machinery manufacturing [333318]

55.7

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Mill products—Other general-purpose machinery

Other general purpose machinery manufacturing [33399A]

44.7

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Mill products— Semiconductors

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

10.6

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Mill products—Spring and wire product

Spring and wire product manufacturing [332600]

13.5

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Mill products— Stampings

Metal crown, closure, and other metal stamping (except automotive) [332119]

5.7

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Mill products—Valves and fittings

Valve and fittings other than plumbing [33291A]

38.1

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Nickel alloys (excluding superalloys)

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

0.02

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Pigments

Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]

0.8

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 145 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Molybdenum—Continued Steels

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

3.7

Assessment was based on the value of molybdenum-containing steels produced domestically relative to the output of this industry in 2023. To estimate the value of molybdenum-containing steel produced, the quantity of molybdenum consumed in various types of steel was divided by the estimated molybdenum contents of molybdenum- containing steels (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2019b) and then multiplied by a unit value for each type of steel. The unit values were estimated based on weighted-average import unit values for the different types of steel (Zen Innovations AG, 2025).

Superalloys—Aerospace

Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]

86.9

Superalloys—Industrial turbines

Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing [333611]

57.7

Wear and corrosion

Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities [332800]

0.4

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Welding materials

Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities [332800]

0.9

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Other alloys

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

0.7

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Other chemicals

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

0.002

146 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Molybdenum—Continued Other—Fertilizer

Fertilizer manufacturing [325310]

0.03

Other—Micronutrients

Vegetable and melon farming [111200]

0.8

Processed nickel

Nonferrous metal (except aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

Assessment was based on the quantity of nickel ores and concentrates consumed in the United States multiplied by the reported price as a percentage of this industry's output in 2023.

Batteries, rechargeable

Storage battery manufacturing [335911]

49.8

Assessment was based on the value of the production of lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, nickel-cadmium, and nickel-zinc rechargeable batteries. The value of lithium-ion battery cells manufactured in the United States that contain nickel was based on production and cell cost data from Benchmark Mineral Intelligence Ltd. (2023a, c), relative to the total output of this industry in 2023. The value of the other nickel-containing recharge batteries was estimated by subtracting the value of U.S. manufacturing of lithium-ion battery cells and lead-acid batteries from the total output of this industry in 2023. The result was then multiplied by 83 percent, which represented the global share of nickel-metal hydride, nickel-cadmium, and nickel-zinc battery sales relative to the share of sales of all other storage batteries (excluding lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries) based on data from Mordor Intelligence (2022a).

Magnetic alloys

Other fabricated metal manufacturing [332999]

1.2

Other alloys

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

10.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2020 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of nickel and nickel-base alloy mill shapes, excluding nickel and nickel alloy wire [2027375000] and Manufacturing of nickel and nickel alloy wire [2033210000].

Other chemical uses

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

2.2

Nickel, primary refined

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 147 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Nickel, primary refined—Continued Plating

Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities [332800]

7.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Electroplating, plating, polishing, anodizing, and coloring [2053500000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 30 percent, which represented the percentage of the global electroplating market that was based on nickel (Global Growth Insights, 2025a).

Stainless and other steel alloys

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

1.5

Assessment was based on the value of nickel-containing steels produced domestically relative to the output of this industry in 2023. To estimate the value of nickel-containing steel produced, the quantity of nickel consumed in various types of steel was divided by the estimated nickel contents of nickel-containing steels (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2018b) and then multiplied by a unit value for each type of steel. The unit values were estimated based on weighted-average import unit values for the different types of steel (Zen Innovations AG, 2025). The percentage of this industry’s output might seem lower than expected because a large proportion of stainless and other nickel-containing steels were produced from secondary (recycled) sources, which were excluded from the analysis.

Superalloys—Aerospace

Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]

84.2

Superalloys—Industrial turbines

Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing [333611]

52.6

Catalysts

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

0.05

Niobium Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]” industry.

148 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Niobium—Continued Ceramic capacitors

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

1.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of capacitors for electronic circuitry [2033725000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 53 percent, which represented the proportion of Class II ceramic capacitors that likely used niobium, multiplied by the proportion of capacitors that were ceramic (Gagliardi, 2019).

Crystals and filters

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

0.2

High performance alloys

Aircraft manufacturing [336411]

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of military aircraft, including all aircraft for U.S. military and any other aircraft built to military specifications [2012100000]. It was thus assumed that niobium was more likely used in military as opposed to civilian aircraft.

Steels

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

13.3

Assessment was based on the value of niobium-containing steels produced domestically relative to the output of this industry in 2023. To estimate the value of niobium-containing steel produced, the quantity of niobium consumed in various types of steel was divided by estimated niobium contents of niobium-containing steels (McCaffrey and others, 2023) and then multiplied by a unit value for each type of steel. The unit values were estimated based on weighted-average import unit values for the different types of steel (Zen Innovations AG, 2025).

Superalloys—Aerospace

Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]

71.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of military aircraft engines (including other aircraft engines built to military specifications) [2029400000]; Manufacturing of civilian aircraft engines [2029425000]; Manufacturing of parts and accessories for military aircraft engines [2029450000]; and Manufacturing of parts and accessories for civilian aircraft engines [2029475000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 82.6 percent, which represented the percentage of superalloys that were estimated to be nickel based (and thus containing niobium) for this application in 2016 (Eckard, 2017).

Superalloys— Automotive

Other motor vehicle parts manufacturing [336390]

3.3

Assessment was based on the value of the North American turbocharger market (Global Market Insights, 2025a) multiplied by 51 percent to approximate the share of superalloys that were nickel based (Eckard, 2017) then divided by the total industry output in 2023.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 149 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Niobium—Continued Superalloys—Industrial processes

Metal tank (heavy gauge) manufacturing [332420]

1.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of nonferrous metal process pressure vessels, tanks, and kettles for refineries, chemical plants, paper mills (more than 24 in. outside diameter and not less than 5 cu ft cap.), custom fabricated at the factory [2016350003]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 45.8 percent, which represented the percentage of superalloys that were estimated to be nickel based (and thus containing niobium) for this application in 2016 (Eckard, 2017).

Superalloys—Industrial turbines

Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing [333611]

39.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2020 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of turbine generator sets, excluding prime mover generator sets [2015700000]; Manufacturing of steam turbines and other vapor turbines [2015725000]; and Manufacturing of gas turbines, excluding aircraft (all sizes) [2015775000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 69.1 percent, which represented the percentage of superalloys that were estimated to be nickel based (and thus containing niobium) for this application in 2016 (Eckard, 2017).

Superalloys—Nuclear reactor

Power boiler and heat exchanger manufacturing [332410]

15.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of nuclear reactor steam supply systems, heat exchangers and condensers, pressurizers, components, and auxiliary equipment [2016425000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 69.1 percent, which represented the percentage of superalloys that were estimated to be nickel based (and thus containing niobium) for this application in 2016 (Eckard, 2017).

Superalloys—Oil and gas

Mining and oil and gas field machinery manufacturing [333130]

36.7

150 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Niobium—Continued Supercapacitors

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

0.02

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of capacitors for electronic circuitry [2033725000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 0.55 percent, which represented the proportion of metal oxide type supercapacitors, which likely used niobium, within hybrid and pseudo-capacitors, multiplied by the 2023 proportional value of the supercapacitors market (BCC Research LLC, 2023) to the 2023 capacitors market (Gagliardi, 2019).

Superconductors

Electromedical and electrotherapeutic apparatus manufacturing [334510]

5.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of magnetic resonance imaging equipment (MRI) [2018000003]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 79 percent, which represented the percentage of MRI machines that were mid-or high-field strength (Grand View Research, Inc., 2025b) and used low-temperature superconductors and thus typically used niobium (BCC Research LLC, 2020). Palladium

Automotive—Catalytic converters for automobiles

Automobile manufacturing [336111]

78.3

Assessment was based on the percentage of automobiles manufactured in the United States that used catalytic converters (meaning all those that were not battery electric vehicles) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2024).

Automotive—Catalytic converters for heavy duty vehicles

Heavy duty truck manufacturing [336120]

98.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of buses, complete, including military (excluding trolley buses) [2011900000]; Manufacturing of heavy-duty trucks, including heavy- duty truck, tractor, and bus chassis [2011910000]; and Manufacturing of firefighting vehicles and other heavy trucks, complete [2011925000].

Automotive—Catalytic converters for light duty truck and utility vehicles

Light truck and utility vehicle manufacturing [336112]

97.3

Assessment was based on the percentage of light duty trucks and utility vehicles manufactured in the United States that used catalytic converters (meaning all those that were not battery electric vehicles) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2024).

Chemical— Acetaldehyde synthesis (Wacker- Hoechst process)

Other basic organic chemical manufacturing [325190]

0.1

Assessment was based on subtracting U.S. net imports of acetaldehyde (HTS code 291212) from the value of U.S. acetaldehyde consumption in 2023, as reported by Grand View Research, Inc. (2021), relative to this industry's output.

Chemical—Catchment gauzes in nitric acid production

Fertilizer manufacturing [325310]

1.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of nitric acid [2034625003].

Chemical—Hydrogen peroxide synthesis

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

1.5

Assessment was based on subtracting the value of U.S. net imports of hydrogen peroxide (HTS code 284700) from the value of U.S. hydrogen peroxide consumption in 2023, as reported by Grand View Research, Inc. (2024b), relative to this industry's output.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 151 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Palladium—Continued Chemical— Pharmaceutical preparation

Pharmaceutical preparation manufacturing [325412]

Assessment was based on the percentage of pharmaceuticals that are manufactured with palladium catalysts (Shipman, 2018).

Chemical—Purified terephthalic acid (PTA) synthesis

Other basic organic chemical manufacturing [325190]

3.2

Assessment was based on reported U.S. purified terephthalic acid production capacity of 4.120 million metric tons (Hay, 2018) and a unit price of purified terephthalic acid of $1,100 per metric ton (ChemAnalyst, 2024d).

Chemical—Vinyl acetate Other basic organic monomer synthesis chemical manufacturing [325190]

2.8

Assessment was based on reported U.S. vinyl acetate monomer production capacity of 1.835 million metric tons per year and the unit value of vinyl acetate monomer of $2,000 per metric ton (Matherne, 2021).

Dental equipment and supplies

Dental equipment and supplies manufacturing [339114]

5.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of dental metals, artificial teeth not customized for individual application, and other dental laboratory supplies [2045975000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 59 percent, which represented the market share of dental metals that were based on palladium and gold (where palladium was often an alloy) in 2022 (KBV Research, 2024b).

Dental laboratories

Dental laboratories [339116]

0.6

Electrical & electronics—Multi- layer ceramic capacitors

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

0.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of capacitors for electronic circuitry [2033725000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 18.3 percent, which represented the market share of electronic capacitors that were multilayer ceramic capacitors that were palladium based (Zogby, 2018).

Electrical & Other electronic electronics—Other component electronic components manufacturing [33441A]

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Electrical & electronics—Printed circuit assemblies

Assessment was based on the percentage of global printed circuit board finishes that used electroless nickel-electroless palladium-immersion gold surface finishes in 2016 (Shah, 2018).

Printed circuit assembly (electronic assembly) manufacturing [334418]

152 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Palladium—Continued Electrical & electronics— Semiconductors

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

Assessment was based on the percentage of the global bonding wire market that used palladium in 2017 (Lau and Lam, 2020).

Jewelry

Jewelry and silverware manufacturing [339910]

0.4

Pollution control

Other engine equipment manufacturing [333618]

20.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of parts and accessories for internal combustion engines, excluding aircraft and gas automotive engines and turbines [2042440000].

Other—Petroleum refining

Petroleum refineries [324110]

16.7

Assessment was based on the U.S. refinery catalytic hydrocracking downstream charge capacity relative to total downstream charge capacity in 2023 (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2024b). Phosphates

Fertilizer

Fertilizer manufacturing [325310]

41.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of superphosphates and other phosphatic fertilizer materials [2034700000]; Manufacturing of mixed fertilizers, dry [2034725000]; and Manufacturing of mixed fertilizers, liquid [2034750000].

Other uses

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of phosphoric acid [2024525000]. Platinum

Automotive—Catalytic converters for automobiles

Automobile manufacturing [336111]

78.3

Automotive—Catalytic converters for heavy duty vehicles

Heavy duty truck manufacturing [336120]

98.1

Automotive—Catalytic converters for light duty truck and utility vehicles

Light truck and utility vehicle manufacturing [336112]

97.3

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 153 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Platinum—Continued Chemical—Nitric acid synthesis

Fertilizer manufacturing [325310]

1.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of nitric acid [2034625003].

Chemical—Para-xylene synthesis

Petrochemical manufacturing [325110]

4.5

Assessment was based on an estimated production capacity of U.S. para- xylene production (~3.16 million metric tons per year) (Smith, 2020) and an average unit value of para-xylene of $1,062 per metric ton (ChemAnalyst, 2024c), relative to the industry’s output in 2023.

Chemical—Silicones synthesis

Synthetic rubber and artificial and synthetic fibers and filaments manufacturing [3252A0]

8.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of silicone elastomers [2025550000].

Dental & biomedical— Anti-cancer drugs

Pharmaceutical preparation manufacturing [325412]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of anti-neoplastic agents, including radioactive isotopes, and specific anti- neoplastic agents [2010150027]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 15 percent, which represented the approximate percentage of anti-cancer drugs that were based on platinum (BioSpace, 2021).

Dental & biomedical— Dental laboratories

Dental laboratories [339116]

0.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of dental metals, artificial teeth not customized for individual application, and other dental laboratory supplies [2045975000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 51.5 percent, which represented the approximate market share of dental metals that were based on high- gold dental alloys, where platinum was often an alloying element, in 2022 (KBV Research, 2024b).

Dental & biomedical— Dental materials

Dental equipment and supplies manufacturing [339114]

4.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of dental metals, artificial teeth not customized for individual application, and other dental laboratory supplies [2045975000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 51.5 percent, which represented the market share of dental metals that were based on gold (where platinum was often an alloy) in 2022 (KBV Research, 2024b).

Dental & biomedical— Pacemakers, defibrillators, cochlear implants

Electromedical and electrotherapeutic apparatus manufacturing [334510]

6.9

Assessment was based on the sum of the value of the U.S. market of pacemakers (Grand View Research, Inc., 2022d) and cochlear implants (Grand View Research, Inc., 2023a) and the value of shipments from the NAPCS code Manufacturing of defibrillators [2018000024]—the latter of which was multiplied by 59 percent to approximate the share of defibrillators that were implantable (The Brainy Insights, 2023)— relative to the output of the industry in 2021.

154 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Platinum—Continued Dental & biomedical— Stents and catheters

Surgical and medical instrument manufacturing [339112]

7.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of stents [2045875031] and Manufacturing of surgical and medical catheters [2045775000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 45 percent, which represented the percentage of coronary stents that used platinum alloys in the United States (U.S. Department of Energy, 2012).

Electrical & electronics—Hard disk drives

Computer storage device manufacturing [334112]

17.9

Electrical & Other electronic electronics—Other component electronic components manufacturing [33441A]

7.3

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Electrical & electronics— Thermocouples

Industrial process variable instruments manufacturing [334513]

0.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of other temperature measuring instruments [2017625033]; Manufacturing of primary temperature sensors, excluding aircraft types, thermocouples [2017625036]; and Manufacturing of electrical and electronic temperature measuring instruments [2017625031]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 7.9 percent, which represented the global market share of precious metal thermocouples (Market Reports World, 2022; Dhapte, 2025).

Glass manufacturing equipment

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

17.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other glass fiber, textile-type (including yarn, strand, staple yarn, sliver, roving, chopped strand, and milled glass fiber) [2020575000]; Manufacturing of glass fiber mat, textile-type [2021225000]; and Manufacturing of flat glass (float, sheet, and plate process) [2026050000].

Jewelry

Jewelry and silverware manufacturing [339910]

10.4

Petroleum

Petroleum refineries [324110]

Assessment was based on the U.S. refinery catalytic reforming downstream charge capacity relative to total downstream charge capacity in 2023 (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2024b).

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 155 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Platinum—Continued Pollution control

Other engine equipment manufacturing [333618]

20.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of parts and accessories for internal combustion engines, excluding aircraft and gas automotive engines and turbines [2042440000].

Other—Aircraft turbine blade casting and coating

Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]

86.9

Other—Gas turbine blade casting and coating

Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing [333611]

57.7

Other—Spark plugs

Motor vehicle electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing [336320]

0.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 relative to the industry's total output: Manufacturing of spark plugs (all types) [2029575000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 12.5 percent, which represented the approximate percentage of spark plugs that used platinum. Potash

Chemicals

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

5.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) liquid (including liquid later converted to dry or solid) (Basis -88-92 percent, KOH) [2024675003] and Manufacturing of potassium and sodium compounds, excluding bleaches, alkalis, and alum [2024575000].

Fertilizer

Fertilizer manufacturing [325310]

27.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of mixed fertilizers, dry [2034725000] and Manufacturing of mixed fertilizers, liquid [2034750000].

156 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Rare-earth elements Batteries, nickel-metal hydride

Storage battery manufacturing [335911]

3.8

Rare-earth elements were used in nickel-metal hydride rechargeable batteries. To estimate the value of these products, the value of U.S. manufacturing of lithium-ion battery cells and lead-acid batteries was subtracted from the total industry output of this industry in 2023. The value of lithium-ion battery cells manufactured in the United States was based on production and cell cost data from Benchmark Mineral Intelligence Ltd. (2023a, c) relative to the total output of this industry. The value of lead-acid battery manufacturing was based on sum of the sale revenues from the following NAPCS codes, averaged for years 2021 and 2020: Manufacturing of storage batteries, lead-acid-type, BCI dimensional size group 8D (1.5 cu ft (.042 cu m) and smaller) [2030050000]; Manufacturing of motive-power-type lead-acid storage batteries, larger than BCI dimensional size group 8D (1.5 cu ft (.042 cu m)), including mining and industrial locomotive [2030075000]; and Manufacturing of all other lead-acid storage batteries, larger than BCI dimensional size group 8D (1.6 cu ft (.042 cu m)), including communication and standby emergency [2030100000]. The result was then multiplied by 66 percent, which represented the global share of nickel-metal hydride battery sales relative to the share of sales of all other storage batteries (excluding lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries) based on data from Mordor Intelligence (2022a).

Catalyst—Fluid catalytic Petroleum refineries cracking [324110]

38.1

Assessment was based on the U.S. refinery catalytic cracking downstream charge capacity relative to total downstream charge capacity in 2023 (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2024b).

Catalysts—Catalytic converters for automobiles

Automobile manufacturing [336111]

78.3

Catalysts—Catalytic converters for heavy duty vehicles

Heavy duty truck manufacturing [336120]

98.1

Catalysts—Catalytic converters for light duty trucks and utility vehicles

Light truck and utility vehicle manufacturing [336112]

97.3

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 157 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Rare-earth elements—Continued Ceramics—Thermal barrier coatings for aircraft turbines

Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]

71.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of military aircraft engines (including other aircraft engines built to military specifications) [2029400000]; Manufacturing of civilian aircraft engines [2029425000]; Manufacturing of parts and accessories for military aircraft engines [2029450000]; and Manufacturing of parts and accessories for civilian aircraft engines [2029475000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 82.6 percent, which was the percentage of superalloys that were estimated to be nickel based for this application in 2016 (Eckard, 2017).

Ceramics—Thermal barrier coatings for industrial gas turbines

Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing [333611]

39.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2020 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of turbine generator sets, excluding prime mover generator sets [2015700000]; Manufacturing of steam turbines and other vapor turbines [2015725000]; and Manufacturing of gas turbines, excluding aircraft (all sizes) [2015775000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 69.1 percent, which was the percentage of superalloys that were estimated to be nickel based for this application in (Eckard, 2017).

Display panels

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

0.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of all other specialized electronic hardware [2033925018]. This result was then multiplied by a factor of 4.8 percent, which represented the value of shipments of liquid crystal displays and other liquid devices (product code 334419E150) as a percentage of the value of shipments in 2004 of NAPCS code Manufacturing of all other specialized electronic hardware [2033925018] (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005).

Fiber optics

Communication and energy wire and cable manufacturing [335920]

2.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fiber optic cable, for communications applications [2039150000] and Manufacturing of fiber optic cable, for all other applications [2039175000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 10.5, which represented the value of the global erbium-doped fiber amplifier market (Verified Market Reports, 2025f) as a percentage of the global fiber-optic market in 2024 (Precedence Research, 2025).

Magnetic alloys

Other fabricated metal manufacturing [332999]

1.2

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron— Automobile electric motors

Automobile manufacturing [336111]

31.2

Assessment was based on the percentage of automobiles in the United States that were battery electric, hybrid, or plug-in hybrid vehicles in 2023 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2024).

158 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Rare-earth elements—Continued Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron— Automotive electronics

Audio and video equipment manufacturing [334300]

4.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of speakers for automobiles [2032400000].

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron— Consumer electronics, hard disk drives

Computer storage device manufacturing [334112]

17.9

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron— Consumer electronics, other

Audio and video equipment manufacturing [334300]

39.8

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron—Energy saving

Air conditioning, refrigeration, and warm air heating equipment manufacturing [333415]

6.6

Magnets, neodymium- Light truck and utility iron-boron—Light vehicle manufacturing duty truck and utility [336112] vehicle electric motors

19.1

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron—Other electric motors

Motor and generator manufacturing [335312]

9.5

Assessment was based on the assumption that 10 percent of motors and generators used rare-earth permanent magnets, 95 percent of which were based on neodymium-iron-boron magnets.

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron—Other, guided missiles

Guided missile and space vehicle manufacturing [336414]

52.6

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron—Other, medical

Electromedical and electrotherapeutic apparatus manufacturing [334510]

0.9

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 159 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Rare-earth elements—Continued Magnets, neodymium- Search, detection, and iron-boron—Other, navigation instruments search, detection, and manufacturing navigation instruments [334511]

5.7

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron—Power steering

Motor vehicle steering, suspension component (except spring), and brake systems manufacturing [3363A0]

11.9

Magnets, neodymium- iron-boron—Robotics

Other general purpose machinery manufacturing [33399A]

9.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of industrial robots [2016650000].

Magnets, samarium- cobalt— Electromedical

Electromedical and electrotherapeutic apparatus manufacturing [334510]

0.05

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of magnetic resonance imaging equipment (MRI) [2018000003]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 0.75 percent, which represented the share of low-field strength MRI global market in 2024 (Grand View Research, Inc., 2025b), multiplied by an assumed 5‑percent market share for samarium-cobalt magnets.

Magnets, samarium- cobalt—Guided missiles

Guided missile and space vehicle manufacturing [336414]

17.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of complete guided missiles [2012400000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 25 percent, which was the assumed share for samarium-cobalt magnets.

160 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Rare-earth elements—Continued Magnets, samarium- cobalt—Motors and generators

Motor and generator manufacturing [335312]

0.5

Assessment assumed that 10 percent of motors and generators used rare- earth permanent magnets, 5 percent of which were based on samarium- cobalt magnets.

Magnets, samarium- Search, detection, and cobalt—Search, navigation instruments detection, and manufacturing navigation instruments [334511]

17.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of electronic warfare countermeasures equipment (jamming, communications, and radar) [2017500033]; Manufacturing of gyroscopes [2017475012]; Manufacturing of acceleration indicators, rate-of-climb and angle-of-attack indicators, and artificial horizon flight instruments [2017475006]; Manufacturing of airborne navigational systems, inertial navigation systems [2017500057]; Manufacturing of search, detection, and acquisition radar systems and equipment, airborne and missile/space [2017500009]; Manufacturing of other search, detection, and acquisition radar systems and equipment [2017500012]; Manufacturing of tracking radar systems and equipment (fire control, bombing, bombing-navigational radar, aircraft and missile tracking radar, etc.) [2017500015]; and Manufacturing of sonar search, detection, tracking, and communication systems and equipment guidance, including ASM (sonar telephone, depth finding, hydrophones mapping, sonobuoys, etc.) [2017500021]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 75 percent, which was the assumed market share of samarium-cobalt magnets.

Optical glass

Optical instrument and lens manufacturing [333314]

6.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of binoculars and astronomical instruments [2018600003]; Manufacturing of parts and accessories for binoculars and astronomical instruments [2045215000]; Manufacturing of miscellaneous unmounted lenses for optical instruments and lenses [2018600015]; and Manufacturing of miscellaneous mounted lenses for optical instruments and lenses [2018600018].

Phosphors—Erbium

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

0.02

Phosphors—Excluding erbium, holmium, thulium, and ytterbium

Electric lamp bulb and part manufacturing [335110]

66.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of electric lamp bulbs and tubes (including sealed beam lamp bulbs) [2051400000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 80 percent, which represented the approximate percentage of U.S. lamp shipments that were compact fluorescent or light-emitting diode in 2022 (National Electrical Manufacturers Association, 2023).

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 161 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Rare-earth elements—Continued Phosphors—Holmium

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

0.02

Phosphors—Thulium

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

0.82

Phosphors—Ytterbium

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

0.03

Pigments

Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]

4.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of white extender pigments (including barytes, blanc fixe, and whiting), ceramic color pigments, and all other inorganic pigments [2024375000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 20 percent, which represented the approximate share of other inorganic pigments that were ceramic color pigments based on data from the 1997 Economic Census for 1992 and 1997 (U.S. Census Bureau, 1999).

Polishing

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

10.7

Rare-earth elements’ use in polishing is mainly for glass: flat glass, optical glass, and liquid crystal displays (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2021a). Because the latter two uses already have their own application categories, the assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of flat glass (float, sheet, and plate process) [2026050000].

Steel

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

0.7

The total quantity of rare-earth consumption in steels was divided by 97 percent to approximate the total quantity of mischmetal that would have been used (assuming 3 percent of the content was iron and other impurities). The result was then divided by a ratio of mischmetal added to steel, which was assumed to be the geometric mean of the reported 0.3 to 1.0 kg of rare earths per metric ton of steel (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2021a), and then divided by the total raw steel production in the United States in 2023 (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025a).

Other (Cerium)—Water treatment

All other chemical product and preparation manufacturing [3259A0]

0.07

162 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Rare-earth elements—Continued Other (Dysprosium)— Lasers

All other miscellaneous electrical equipment and component manufacturing [335999]

0.005

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of laser sources, including nondiode and diode [2034025000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 0.1 percent, which was estimated based on the market share of solid-state lasers (Parkhi, 2020) and an estimated proportion of solid-state lasers that may have used dysprosium (Global Market Insights, 2025b).

Other (Dysprosium)— Nuclear control rods

Electric power generation, transmission, and distribution [221100]

0.06

Other (Dysprosium)— Transducer

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

2.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of transducers, electroacoustic (sonar, ultrasonic, vibration, etc.) [2033850003].

Other (Erbium)—Lasers

All other miscellaneous electrical equipment and component manufacturing [335999]

0.14

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of laser sources, including nondiode and diode [2034025000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 2.2 percent, which was estimated based on the market share of solid-state lasers (Parkhi, 2020) and the proportion of solid-state lasers that may have used erbium (Global Market Insights, 2025b).

Other (Europium)— Medical

Medical and diagnostic laboratories [621500]

0.01

Other (Europium)— Nuclear control rods

Electric power generation, transmission, and distribution [221100]

0.03

Other (Europium)— Semiconductors

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

0.01

Other (Gadolinium)— Crystals

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

1.4

Assessment was based on the total value of gadolinium-gallium garnet multiplied by the 35‑percent market share for North America (Verified Market Reports, 2025g) as a percentage of total industry output in 2023.

Other (Gadolinium)— Medical

Medical and diagnostic laboratories [621500]

0.2

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 163 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Rare-earth elements—Continued Other (Gadolinium)— Nuclear control rods

Electric power generation, transmission, and distribution [221100]

0.5

Other (Holmium)— Catalysts

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

0.003

Other (Holmium)— Glass

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

0.008

Other (Holmium)— Lasers

All other miscellaneous electrical equipment and component manufacturing [335999]

0.01

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of laser sources, including nondiode and diode [2034025000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 0.17 percent, which was estimated based on the market share of solid-state lasers (Parkhi, 2020) and an estimated proportion of solid-state lasers that may have used holmium (Global Market Insights, 2025b).

Other (Holmium)— Nuclear control rods

Electric power generation, transmission, and distribution [221100]

0.05

Other (Lanthanum)— Water treatment

All other chemical product and preparation manufacturing [3259A0]

0.03

Other (Lutetium)— Catalysts

Other basic organic chemical manufacturing [325190]

0.5

Other (Lutetium)— Electronics

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

1.3

Other (Lutetium)— Medical

Electromedical and electrotherapeutic apparatus manufacturing [334510]

0.6

Assessment was based on the value of the U.S. PET scanners market (Grand View Research, Inc., 2022e) as a percentage of this industry's total output, multiplied by the approximate share (36 percent) of detectors based on lutetium oxyorthosilicate (Future Markets Insights, 2016).

164 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Rare-earth elements—Continued Other (Lutetium)— Petroleum refining

Petroleum refineries [324110]

0.4

Other (Lutetium)— Radiation detectors

Watch, clock, and other measuring and controlling device manufacturing [33451A]

0.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of nuclear radiation detection and monitoring instruments [2017550000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 8.6 percent, which represented the share of U.S. radiation detectors revenues based on scintillators in 2023 (Grand View Research, Inc., 2024d) multiplied by the share of global scintillators that used lutetium (Astute Analytica, 2024).

Other (Neodymium)— Lasers

All other miscellaneous electrical equipment and component manufacturing [335999]

0.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of laser sources, including nondiode and diode [2034025000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 4.8 percent, which was estimated based on the market share of solid-state lasers (Parkhi, 2020) and the proportion of solid-state lasers that may have used neodymium (Global Market Insights, 2025b).

Other (Praseodymium)— Other basic inorganic Catalysts chemical manufacturing [325180]

0.1

Other (Samarium)— Catalysts

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

0.0001

Other (Samarium)— Lasers

All other miscellaneous electrical equipment and component manufacturing [335999]

0.005

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of laser sources, including nondiode and diode [2034025000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 0.09 percent, which was estimated based on the market share of solid-state lasers (Parkhi, 2020) and an estimated proportion of solid-state lasers that may have used samarium (Global Market Insights, 2025b).

Other (Samarium)— Nuclear control rods

Electric power generation, transmission, and distribution [221100]

0.002

Other (Terbium)— Medical

Medical and diagnostic laboratories [621500]

0.7

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 165 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Rare-earth elements—Continued Other (Terbium)— Semiconductors

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

0.6

Other (Terbium)— Transducer

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

2.2

Other (Thulium)— Lasers

All other miscellaneous electrical equipment and component manufacturing [335999]

0.01

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of laser sources, including nondiode and diode [2034025000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 0.09 percent, which was estimated based on the market share of solid-state lasers (Parkhi, 2020) and an estimated proportion of solid-state lasers that may have used thulium (Global Market Insights, 2025b).

Other (Ytterbium)— Catalysts

Plastics material and resin manufacturing [325211]

0.01

Other (Ytterbium)— Lasers

All other miscellaneous electrical equipment and component manufacturing [335999]

0.02

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of laser sources, including nondiode and diode [2034025000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 0.3 percent, which was estimated based on the market share of solid-state lasers (Parkhi, 2020) and an estimated proportion of solid-state lasers that may have used ytterbium (Global Market Insights, 2025b).

Other (Ytterbium)— Stainless steel

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

0.2

Other (Yttrium)—Lasers

All other miscellaneous electrical equipment and component manufacturing [335999]

0.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of laser sources, including nondiode and diode [2034025000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 8 percent, which was estimated based on the market share of solid-state lasers (Parkhi, 2020) and the proportion of solid-state lasers that may have used yttrium (Global Market Insights, 2025b).

Other (Yttrium)— Yttrium ferrite garnet

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

1.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of ferrite, including yttrium garnets, microwave components (circulators, isolators, phase shifters, attenuators, equalizers, limiters, mixers, etc.) [2033900003].

166 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment Rhenium

Petroleum catalyst

Petroleum refineries [324110]

Assessment was based on the U.S. refinery catalytic reforming downstream charge capacity relative to total downstream charge capacity in 2023 (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2024b).

Rocket nozzle and combustion chambers

Propulsion units and parts for space vehicles and guided missiles [33641A]

3.6

Semiconductor equipment (infrared heating lamps and heater filaments)

Semiconductor machinery manufacturing [333242]

0.3

Semiconductors

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

0.04

Superalloys—Aerospace

Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]

86.9

Superalloys—Industrial turbines

Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing [333611]

57.7

Thermocouples

Industrial process variable instruments manufacturing [334513]

0.34

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other temperature measuring instruments [2017625033]; Manufacturing of primary temperature sensors, excluding aircraft types, thermocouples [2017625036]; and Manufacturing of electrical and electronic temperature measuring instruments [2017625031]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 4.1 percent, which represented the value of the global tungsten-rhenium thermocouple wire market (Verified Market Reports, 2025m) as a percentage of the total thermocouple market (Dhapte, 2025).

Other electronics including thin-film resistors

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

0.09

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 167 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment Rhodium

Automotive—Catalytic converters for automobiles

Automobile manufacturing [336111]

78.3

Automotive—Catalytic converters for heavy duty vehicles

Heavy duty truck manufacturing [336120]

98.1

Automotive—Catalytic converters for light truck and utility vehicles

Light truck and utility vehicle manufacturing [336112]

97.3

Chemical—Acetic acid synthesis (Monsanto process)

Other basic organic chemical manufacturing [325190]

1.2

Assessment was based on an estimated production capacity of rhodium- based U.S. acetic acid (~2.330 million metric tons per year; Matherne, 2019) and a unit value for acetic acid of $740 per metric ton (average price in North America in June 2023) (ChemAnalyst, 2024a) by this industry relative to its total output in 2023.

Chemical—Acetic anhydride synthesis (Hoechst/Halcon process)

Other basic organic chemical manufacturing [325190]

0.3

Assessment was based on the geomean of the production range of 500 million to 750 million pounds of acetic anhydride reported in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2022) for 2019 and an assumed price of acetic anhydride of $1.61 per kilogram for North America in September 2022 (ChemAnalyst, 2024b).

Chemical— Hydrogenation (Wilkinson's catalyst)

Other basic organic chemical manufacturing [325190]

The rhodium-based Wilkinson's catalyst is mainly used in the selective hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes. A wide variety of chemicals can be made using this catalyst, including carbone, 2-Methyl-5-(prop-1-en-2-yl)cyclohex-2-en-1-one, and L-DOPA, L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, used to treat Parkinson's disease. Owing to the lack of information, it was assumed that 1 percent of this industry's value was produced using this catalyst.

Chemical—n -aldehydes oxo synthesis (hydroformylation)

Other basic organic chemical manufacturing [325190]

1.2

Assessment was based on the geomean of the production range of 1 billion to 5 billion pounds of butanal as reported by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2022) for 2019, an assumed price of butanal of $2 per kilogram in 2022, and a 75‑percent market share of butanal synthesis based on rhodium catalysts (Malewar, 2020).

Chemical—Nitric acid synthesis

Fertilizer manufacturing [325310]

1.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of nitric acid [2034625003].

168 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Rhodium—Continued Electrical & electronics— Thermocouples

Industrial process variable instruments manufacturing [334513]

0.7

Glass manufacturing equipment

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

6.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other glass fiber, textile-type (including yarn, strand, staple yarn, sliver, roving, chopped strand, and milled glass fiber) [2020575000] and Manufacturing of glass fiber mat, textile-type [2021225000].

Other

Jewelry and silverware manufacturing [339910]

1.6

Chemical—Acetic acid synthesis (CativaTM process)

Other basic organic chemical manufacturing [325190]

0.3

Assessment was based on an estimated production capacity of ruthenium- promoted U.S. acetic acid (~600,000 metric tons per year) (Matherne, 2019) and a unit value for acetic acid of $740 per metric ton (average price in North America in June 2023; ChemAnalyst, 2024a) relative to the industry’s total output in 2023.

Chemical—Ammonia synthesis

Fertilizer manufacturing [325310]

0.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of synthetic ammonia for fertilizer use [2034625006] and Manufacturing of anhydrous synthetic ammonia for other uses [2034625009]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 5 percent, which represented the approximate percentage of ammonia produced using ruthenium catalysts (Smith and Torrente-Murciano, 2021).

Chemical—Other organic compound synthesis

Other basic organic chemical manufacturing [325190]

1.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other synthetic organic chemicals [2025050000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 10 percent, which represented an assumed percentage of other synthetic organic chemicals that were manufactured using ruthenium catalysts. This includes oxidation, hydrogenation, olefin metathesis, and other chemical syntheses.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 169 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Ruthenium—Continued Electrical—Hard disk drives

Computer storage device manufacturing [334112]

17.9

Electrical—Resistor paste

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

2.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of resistors for electronic circuitry [2033750000].

Electrical— Semiconductor interconnects

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

0.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of microprocessors [2033575000]; Manufacturing of memory [2033600000]; Manufacturing of other semiconductor devices, including semiconductor parts such as chips, wafers, and heat sinks [2033700000]; and Manufacturing of other integrated circuit packages [2033625000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 1 percent, which represented the percentage of the world sputtering target market based on ruthenium in 2018 (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2020c).

Electrochemical—Chlor- Other basic inorganic alkali chemical manufacturing [325180]

12.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of chlorine, compressed or liquefied [2024625000] and Manufacturing of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) [2024650000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 95.6 percent, which represented the percentage of the 2022 U.S. chloralkali industry capacity that used membrane or diaphragm cells, which use ruthenium (Kreuz and others, 2022).

Electrochemical—Proton Industrial gas exchange membrane manufacturing [325120]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of argon and hydrogen [2024200000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 1.05 percent, which accounted for the share of this NAPCS code that was for the manufacture of hydrogen (roughly 73 percent; U.S. Census Bureau, 2004d), the percentage of hydrogen produced by electrolyzers (roughly 7 percent; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2024a), and the percentage of electrolyzers that were based on proton membrane exchange (roughly 20 percent; Hydrogen Council and McKinsey & Company, 2023).

170 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Ruthenium—Continued Electrochemical— Treatment of ballast water

Ship building and repairing [336611]

1.6

Assessment was based on the value of the global market for ballast water treatment systems in 2022 (Maximize Market Research Pvt. Ltd., 2023a), multiplied by the North American share of that market (55 percent; Maximize Market Research Pvt. Ltd., 2023a), an assumed 80‑percent share of the North American market for the United States, and a 37‑percent share of ballast water treatment systems for the ruthenium-iridium-based electrolytic chlorination systems. The result was divided by the total output of the industry in 2023 (Heraeus Precious Metals and SFA (Oxford) Ltd., 2020).

Other—Carbides

Cutting and machine tool accessory, rolling mill, and other metalworking machinery manufacturing [33351B]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of the calculated apparent consumption of this mineral commodity by this industry in 2023 multiplied by the ratio of revenue generated by NAICS industries “Cutting tool and machine tool accessory manufacturing [333515]” and “Rolling mill and other metalworking machinery manufacturing [333519]” to the total material expenditures of these two industries in 2017 based on from data reported in the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2023), relative to the total output of this industry in 2023.

Other—Corrosion- Plate work and resistance alloys fabricated structural for offshore oil and product manufacturing geothermal production [332310]

0.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fabricated structural iron and steel for offshore oil and gas platforms [2035100006].

Other—Dental alloys

Dental equipment and supplies manufacturing [339114]

0.5

Other—Jewelry alloys

Jewelry and silverware manufacturing [339910]

0.1

Chemicals and pharmaceuticals— Anti-dandruff shampoo

Toilet preparation manufacturing [325620]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of hair preparations (including shampoos) [2010525000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 1.5 percent, which represented the value of the global selenium sulfide shampoo market (Archive Market Research, 2025) as a percentage of the value of the entire global shampoo market (Patel, 2024).

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 171 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Selenium—Continued Chemicals and pharmaceuticals— Dietary supplements

Medicinal and botanical manufacturing [325411]

0.001

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of pharmaceutical preparations, vitamin, nutrient, and hematinic preparations, for human use [2010300000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 2.7 percent, which represented the share of the North American selenium dietary supplements market (Wise Guy Reports, 2024b) as a percentage of the total North American dietary supplements market (Research and Markets, 2025).

Chemicals and pharmaceuticals— Dyes and pigments

Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]

1.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of white extender pigments (including barytes, blanc fixe, and whiting), ceramic color pigments, and all other inorganic pigments [2024375000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 8.7 percent, which represented the global value of cadmium pigments (in which selenium is used) as a percentage of all other inorganic pigments excluding titanium dioxide, iron oxide, and chromium (Global Market Insights, 2024a).

Chemicals and pharmaceuticals— Selenium dioxide

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of the global selenium dioxide market (Verified Market Research, 2025a) as a percentage of the value of the global “other inorganic chemical market” (The Business Research Company, 2025).

Electronics and semiconductors— Photodetectors

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

0.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other light-sensitive and light-emitting devices [2033700012]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 21.4 percent, which represented an estimated share for selenium based on the value of the global amorphous selenium photodetectors market (Sharma, 2025a) as a percentage of the global photodetectors market in 2024 (Sharma, 2025b).

Electronics and semiconductors— Photovoltaic cells

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

0.003

Assessment was based on the nameplate capacity of the leading copper- indium-gallium-(de)selenide solar cells producer in the United States (Ascent Solar Technologies Inc., 2024) multiplied by the average U.S. solar photovoltaics module value in 2023 (Feldman and others, 2024) divided by the total industry output.

Electronics and semiconductors— Quantum dots

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

0.7

Assessment was based on the value of the North American cadmium- selenium quantum dot market (Maximize Market Research Pvt. Ltd., 2025b), multiplied by an assumed 85‑percent U.S. share of the North American market, as a percentage of this industry's total output.

172 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Selenium—Continued Glass—Flat glass

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

7.7

Assessment was based on the quantity of selenium consumed in this application multiplied by 5 percent (because up to 95 percent of selenium added may be volatilized during processing) divided by a reported usage of 1 to 2 ppm selenium content of flint glass (Timmer and others, 2010) as a percentage of the total glass output of the United States (Eisenhauer and Johnson, 1999).

Glass—Lenses

Optical instrument and lens manufacturing [333314]

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of all other miscellaneous optical instruments and lenses (including binoculars and astronomical instruments) [2018600000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 7.7 percent, which represented the value of the global sintered zinc selenide optical lens market (Custom Market Insights, 2024) as a percentage of the overall global optical lens market (Fortune Business Insights, 2023).

Metallurgy—Copper alloys

Copper rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331420]

0.01

Metallurgy—Lead alloys Storage battery manufacturing [335911]

0.04

Metallurgy—Steel additive

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

0.2

Selenium can be an additive in certain steels (for example, 303Se, 430Se, and 416Se). Assessment was based on the production of these steels (American Iron and Steel Institute, 2023b) multiplied by an assumed price of 430 stainless steel (Argus Media Group, 2024) as a percentage of the total output of this industry in 2023. This percentage may be an overestimation because some of the reported steels may not incorporate selenium.

Other—Animal feed

Other animal food manufacturing [311119]

69.4

Other—Fertilizer additive

Fertilizer manufacturing [325310]

5.6

Assessment was based on the value of the U.S. micronutrients market as a percentage of the value of all fertilizers (Mordor Intelligence, 2021b).

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 173 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Silicon ferroalloys Iron and steel

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

61.8

Assessment was based on the value of ferrosilicon-containing steels produced domestically relative to the output of this industry in 2023. To estimate the value of ferrosilicon-containing steel produced, the quantity of ferrosilicon consumed in various types of steel was divided by the estimated silicon contents of silicon-containing steels (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2019c) and then multiplied by a unit value for each type of steel. The unit values were estimated based on weighted-average import unit values for the different types of steel (Zen Innovations AG, 2025). Silicon metal

Aluminum

Secondary smelting and alloying of aluminum [331314]

89.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of aluminum ingot, including billet [2026995000].

Semiconductors and solar photovoltaics

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

85.2

Assessment was based on subtracting the value of the U.S. compound semiconductors market in 2023 (Grand View Research, Inc., 2024h) from the total output of this industry as a percentage of this industry’s output.

Silicones

Synthetic rubber and artificial and synthetic fibers and filaments manufacturing [3252A0]

9.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of silicone elastomers [2025550000].

Silver Batteries, primary

Primary battery manufacturing [335912]

3.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of primary batteries, excluding lead-acid [2010950000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 4.2 percent, which represented the approximate percentage of global primary batteries that used silver in 2024 (Market.Us, 2025b).

Biocides

Surgical appliance and supplies manufacturing [339113]

1.6

Assessment was based on the value of the North American silver wound dressing market as a percentage of this industry's total output (Grand View Research, Inc., 2024f).

Brazing alloys and solders

Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities [332800]

2.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Heat treating of metal for the trade (heat treating, pickling, annealing, brazing, shot peening, tempering, etc.) [2053450000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 15 percent, which was silver’s share of global braze alloys in 2023 (Maximize Market Research Pvt. Ltd., 2023b).

174 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Silver—Continued Catalyst

Other basic organic chemical manufacturing [325190]

2.9

Assessment was based on the value of ethylene oxide manufactured in the United States in 2018 (Swift and others, 2019).

Dental equipment and supplies

Dental equipment and supplies manufacturing [339114]

2.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of dental metals, artificial teeth not customized for individual application, and other dental laboratory supplies [2045975000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 24 percent, which represented the approximate market share of dental metals that were based on silver dental alloys in 2022 (KBV Research, 2024b).

Dental laboratories

Dental laboratories [339116]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of dental metals, artificial teeth not customized for individual application, and other dental laboratory supplies [2045975000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 24 percent, which represented the approximate market share of dental metals that were based on silver dental alloys in 2022 (KBV Research, 2024b).

Electrical & electronics—Bare printed circuit

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

1.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of bare printed circuit boards [2014930000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 12 percent, which represented the approximate share of global printed circuit board finishes that used silver immersion in 2016 (Shah, 2018).

Electrical & electronics— Integrated circuit packages

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

Assessment was based on the percentage of the global bonding wire market that used silver in 2017 (Lau and Lam, 2020).

Electrical & Other electronic electronics—Other component electronic components manufacturing [33441A]

7.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of electronic connectors, including parts [2033800000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 45 percent, which was the estimated market share for silver-based contacts (Data Horizon Research, 2025).

Electrical & electronics—Printed circuit assemblies

10.8

Printed circuit assembly (electronic assembly) manufacturing [334418]

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 175 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Silver—Continued Jewelry

Jewelry and silverware manufacturing [339910]

18.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of jewelry and personal goods (excluding costume), all other precious metals and types, including silver and silver-clad jewelry; jewelry made of precious stones, semiprecious stones, or pearls; and stamped metal coins [2005625000]; and Manufacturing of jewelers' findings and materials, precious metal (excluding gold, platinum, and silver plated to nonprecious metal) [2034375000].

Mirrors

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

0.5

Assessment was based on the value of the North American silver mirror market in 2024 as a percentage of this industry's output (Verified Market Reports, 2025k).

Photography

All other chemical product and preparation manufacturing [3259A0]

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of photographic presensitized printing plates (unexposed), phototypesetting and image-setting film, sensitized photographic paper and cloth, silver-halide-type (excluding X-ray) [2046400000].

Silverplate and sterling ware

Jewelry and silverware manufacturing [339910]

2.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of silverware and hollowware made of precious solid or clad metal [2007600000] and Manufacturing of hollowware, unplated, plated, and electroplated, precious and nonprecious metals, including baby goods, ecclesiastical ware, novelties, toiletware, and trophies [2007625000].

Solar photovoltaic

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

1.6

Assessment was based on the quantity of crystalline-silicon solar photovoltaics modules manufactured in the United States multiplied by the average U.S. solar photovoltaics module value in 2023 (Feldman and others, 2024) divided by the total industry output.

Other—Electroplating

Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities [332800]

2.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Electroplating, plating, polishing, anodizing, and coloring [2053500000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 10 percent, which represented the percentage of the global electroplating market that was based on silver (Global Growth Insights, 2025a).

176 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment Strontium

Aluminum master alloy

Secondary smelting and alloying of aluminum [331314]

0.02

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of aluminum and aluminum-base alloy powders, paste, and flakes [2026990000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 0.2 percent, which was the estimated share of strontium aluminum master alloy. This share was estimated by dividing the quantity of strontium used in the aluminum strontium master alloy application by an assumed strontium content of 10 percent (AMG Aluminum, 2024) and then by the total quantity of secondary aluminum alloys produced in the United States (U.S. Geological Survey, 2025b).

Electrolytic zinc production, primary

Nonferrous metal (except aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

3.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of refined primary unalloyed zinc slab and zinc-base alloy, including unalloyed dust [2027431000].

Electrolytic zinc production, secondary

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

3.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of refined secondary alloyed and unalloyed zinc, including all ASTM- specification zinc [2027427000].

Glass

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

0.2

Magnetic alloys

Clay product and refractory manufacturing [327100]

0.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of all wet and dry process voltage porcelain products and components, including steatite electrical products and other ceramic electrical products and components for electronic applications [2034100000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 9.3 percent, which was the percentage of this product category’s output that was ceramic permanent magnets based on the 2002 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004a).

Paints

Paint and coating manufacturing [325510]

0.05

Assessment was based on the value of the global strontium chromate market (Market Research Intellect, 2025) multiplied by the North American share of strontium in paints and coatings (Transparency Market Research, 2018) divided the total industry output in 2023.

Pigments

Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]

0.6

Assessment was based on the value of the North America’s share of the global strontium aluminum market multiplied by an assumed 90‑percent market share for the United States (Verified Market Research, 2025b).

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 177 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Strontium—Continued Pyrotechnics and signals

All other chemical product and preparation manufacturing [3259A0]

0.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fireworks and pyrotechnics, including flares, igniters (jet fuel or other), railroad torpedoes, toy pistol caps, etc. [2046700000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 42.9 percent (three-sevenths) because three of the seven main colors of fireworks used strontium (U.S. Geological Survey, 2020b).

Well drilling

Drilling oil and gas wells [213111]

0.04

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Drilling oil and gas wells, including drilling in, spudding in, or tailing in [1001625000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 0.05 percent, which represented the estimated market share for strontium based on the ratio of celestite to barite used in the United States for well drilling. Tantalum

Cemented carbides— Cutting tool, machine tool accessories, and industrial molds

Cutting and machine tool accessory, rolling mill, and other metalworking machinery manufacturing [33351B]

6.3

Cemented carbides— Special dies and tools

Special tool, die, jig, and fixture manufacturing [333514]

6.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of metalworking die and die sets [2016200000] and Manufacturing of punches, die parts, and other special tooling [2016225000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 13.8 percent, which assumed that one-half of the non-tungsten carbide share of cutting tools was tantalum carbides (Market.Us, 2025a).

178 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Tantalum—Continued Chemical processing industry—Heat exchangers

Power boiler and heat exchanger manufacturing [332410]

1.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fabricated heat exchangers and steam condensers closed types (excluding nuclear applications) including bar and fin tube [2016375000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 3 percent, which represented the share of tantalum in the U.S. shell and tube heat exchanger market (Grand View Research, Inc., 2024e).

Chemical processing industry—High- temperature alloys

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

0.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of titanium and titanium-base alloy forging and extrusion, ingot and billet, and all other titanium and titanium-base alloy mill shapes (including sheet, plate, tubing, bar, etc.), excluding wire [2027400000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 5 percent, which was the assumed market share of tantalum in titanium-based mill shapes.

Electronics—Electrolytic Other electronic capacitors component manufacturing [33441A]

1.2

Assessment was based on the value of the tantalum capacitor market (Research and Markets, 2024c) multiplied by the U.S. share of global tantalum used in capacitors (Project Blue, 2025g).

Electronics—Hard disc drive (HDD) media

Manufacturing and reproducing magnetic and optical media [334610]

11.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of magnetic and optical recording media, including unrecorded disks and tapes [2046800000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 26.8 percent, which represented the global market share of optical storage media that contained tantalum (Deetman and others, 2018).

Electronics— Semiconductors and resistors

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of diodes and rectifiers [2033675000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 39 percent, which represented the share of the 2018 global sputtering target market that was based on tantalum (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2020c).

Electronics—Wave filters

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

2.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of crystals, filters, piezoelectric, and other related electronic devices (excluding microwave filters) [2033825000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 39 percent, which represented the share of the 2018 global sputtering target market that was based on tantalum (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2020c).

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 179 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Tantalum—Continued Medical applications— Internal fixation devices and stents

Surgical and medical instrument manufacturing [339112]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of surgical and medical internal fixation devices (bone nails, plates, and screws, etc.) [2045800000] and Manufacturing of stents [2045875031]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 2.25 percent, which represented the share of implants that were estimated to be based on tantalum, which was estimated by multiplying the approximate market share of implants made of titanium (45 percent; Grand View Research, Inc., 2023d) by the ratio of the quantity of tantalum to titanium (5 percent) used in this application.

Optical glass

Ophthalmic goods manufacturing [339115]

0.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of ophthalmic focal lenses, prescription, ground, excluding retailing prescription eyeglasses in combination with the grinding of the eyeglass lenses to order on the premises [2034350000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 2 percent, which represented the market share of tantalum in vision correction lenses (Deetman and others, 2018).

Research & development Scientific research and development services [541700]

0.4

Superalloys—Aerospace

Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]

71.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of military aircraft engines (including other aircraft engines built to military specifications) [2029400000]; Manufacturing of civilian aircraft engines [2029425000]; Manufacturing of parts and accessories for military aircraft engines [2029450000]; and Manufacturing of parts and accessories for civilian aircraft engines [2029475000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 82.6 percent, which represented the percentage of superalloys that were estimated to be nickel based (and thus containing niobium) for this application in 2016 (Eckard, 2017).

Superalloys—Industrial turbines

Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing [333611]

39.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2020 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of turbine generator sets, excluding prime mover generator sets [2015700000]; Manufacturing of steam turbines and other vapor turbines [2015725000]; and Manufacturing of gas turbines, excluding aircraft (all sizes) [2015775000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 69.1 percent, which represented the percentage of superalloys that were estimated to be nickel based (and thus containing niobium) for this application in 2016 (Eckard, 2017).

180 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment Tellurium

Metallurgy

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

0.01

Photovoltaics

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

1.5

Assessment was based on subtracting the estimated amount of copper- indium-gallium-(di)selenide solar cells from the quantity of thin-film solar photovoltaics produced in the United States in 2023 multiplied by the average U.S. solar photovoltaics module value in 2023 (Feldman and others, 2024) divided by the total industry output.

Thermoelectric devices

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

0.2

Assessment was based on the North American share of the global bismuth telluride market as a percentage of this industry's output in 2023 (Verified Market Reports, 2025b).

Other—Blasting caps

All other chemical product and preparation manufacturing [3259A0]

0.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of explosives and blasting accessories [2041750000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 7.9 percent, which represented the estimated share of explosives that used electronic blasting caps based on the value of the global market for electronic blasting caps (Verified Market Reports, 2025e) as a percentage of the value of the global industrial explosives market (360iResearch, 2025).

Other—Lenses

Optical instrument and lens manufacturing [333314]

39.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of sighting, tracking, and fire-control equipment, optical-type [2018575000]; Manufacturing of sighting and tracking laser systems [2018575009]; Manufacturing of night vision goggles and equipment [2018575012]; and Manufacturing of miscellaneous filters for optical instruments and lenses [2018600012].

Other—Rubber vulcanizing

Synthetic rubber and artificial and synthetic fibers and filaments manufacturing [3252A0]

0.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2019 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), excluding latex [2025425000]; Manufacturing of styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), latex [2025450000]; and Manufacturing of butyl, polychloroprene, and stereo polyisoprene elastomers, and nitrile rubber, including latex [2025475000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 4 percent, which represented the estimated share of rubber vulcanization that used tellurium diethyldithiocarbamate based on the value of the global market for tellurium diethyldithiocarbamate (Global Growth Insights, 2025b) as a percentage of the entire rubber accelerator market (Business Research Insights, 2025b).

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 181 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment Tin

Alloys

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

4.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other nonferrous metals and alloys, lead, tungsten, molybdenum, rolled, drawn, and extruded shapes (sheet, strip, pipe, tubing, traps, etc.), excluding wire [2027425000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 48.5 percent, which represented the remaining share of this output after the outputs associated with lead, tungsten, and molybdenum were removed based on the 2002 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004a).

Batteries, lead-acid

Storage battery manufacturing [335911]

49.2

Assessment was based on the average value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2020 and 2021 relative to the total industry output: Manufacturing of storage batteries, lead-acid-type, BCI dimensional size group 8D (1.5 cu ft (.042 cu m) and smaller) [2030050000]; Manufacturing of motive-power-type lead-acid storage batteries, larger than BCI dimensional size group 8D (1.5 cu ft (.042 cu m)), including mining and industrial locomotive [2030075000]; and Manufacturing of all other lead-acid storage batteries, larger than BCI dimensional size group 8D (1.6 cu ft (.042 cu m)), including communication and standby emergency [2030125000].

Chemicals—Biocides

Pesticide and other agricultural chemical manufacturing [325320]

Chemicals—Brake pads

Motor vehicle steering, suspension component (except spring), and brake systems manufacturing [3363A0]

0.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other motor vehicle brake parts and assemblies, new [2042750000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 4.1 percent, which represented the approximate share of brake pads that used tin, which was estimated based on a noted volume of global tin used in brake pads (roughly 1,000 metric tons) (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2019d), a reported tin content of 3 percent (Hulskotte and others, 2014), and a total mass of brake pads of approximately 814,000 metric tons (McWilliams, 2018).

Chemicals—Catalysts

Urethane and other foam product (except polystyrene) manufacturing [326150]

14.2

Assessment was based on the percentage of the polyurethane produced by organometallic catalysts (Grand View Research, Inc., 2024c), which were assumed to predominately use tin.

182 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Tin—Continued Chemicals—Cement

Cement manufacturing [327310]

9.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2020 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of portland cement and other portland hydraulic cements (including oil well, white cement, blended cements, etc.), and masonry cement and cement clinker [2026400000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 10 percent, which was an assumed percentage of cement additives based on tin because tin has lost significant market share since its peak of 20 percent before 2015 (Pearce and Wallace, 2015).

Chemicals—Ceramic pigments

Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]

4.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of white extender pigments (including barytes, blanc fixe, and whiting), ceramic color pigments, and all other inorganic pigments [2024375000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 19.1 percent, which represented the approximate share of ceramic color pigment based on the 1997 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 1999).

Chemicals— Electroplating

Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities [332800]

1.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Electroplating, plating, polishing, anodizing, and coloring [2053500000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 6.7 percent, which was the approximate fraction of the global electroplating market that was based on tin (Market.Us, 2024a; Verified Market Reports, 2025l).

Chemicals—Flame retardants

All other chemical product and preparation manufacturing [3259A0]

0.2

Chemicals—Glass

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

2.2

Chemicals—Indium tin oxide

Other electronic component manufacturing [33441A]

0.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of all other specialized electronic hardware [2033925018]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 4.8 percent, which represented the value of shipments of liquid crystal displays and other liquid devices (material code 334419E150) as a percentage of the value of shipments in 2004 of the NAPCS code Manufacturing of all other specialized electronic hardware [2033925018] (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005).

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 183 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Tin—Continued Chemicals—Polyvinyl chloride stabilizer

Plastics material and resin manufacturing [325211]

1.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of thermoplastic resins and plastics materials, polyvinyl chloride [2025350012]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 21.1 percent, which represented the percentage of polyvinyl chloride stabilizers based on tin (Coherent Market Insights, 2025).

Chemicals—Toothpaste

Toilet preparation manufacturing [325620]

0.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of dentifrices, including toothpaste, gels and tooth powders [2010575000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 2 percent, which represented the percentage of toothpaste that was based on stannous fluoride (Seraina, 2024).

Copper alloys

Copper rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331420]

Assessment was based on the production of copper alloys as a percentage of all semifabricated copper products in the United States (International Copper Study Group, 2023) multiplied by the share that were bronzes (Grand View Research, Inc., 2023c) multiplied by the share of bronzes that were phosphor bronzes containing tin (Grand View Research, Inc., 2022a).

Miscellaneous metal forms

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

1.7

Pipe and tubing

Fabricated pipe and pipe fitting manufacturing [332996]

8.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fabricated iron and steel pipe and all other nonferrous fabricated pipe and pipe fittings [2038275000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 9.3 percent, which represented the portion of this output that was all other nonferrous fabricated pipe and pipe fittings made from purchased pipe after excluding copper, aluminum, iron, and steel pipes and pipe fittings based on the 2002 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004a).

Solders

Printed circuit assembly (electronic assembly) manufacturing [334418]

92.9

Tinning

Copper rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331420]

3.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of copper wire, bare and tinned (nonelectrical) [2032975000].

184 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Tin—Continued Tinplate

Metal can, box, and other metal container (light gauge) manufacturing [332430]

28.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of steel cans and tinware end products (including ice cream cans, lids, ends, and parts) [2048550000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 90 percent. Laminated tin-free steel was estimated to account for 10 percent of the metal can market (International Tin Association, 2022), suggesting a maximum of 90 percent of this industry used tinplate.

Steel

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

34.3

Aerospace

Aircraft manufacturing [336411]

93.3

Chemical—Chlor-alkali

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

12.9

Commercial—Bicycles

Motorcycle, bicycle, and parts manufacturing [336991]

0.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of bicycles and other cycles, all types, except children's sidewalk bikes [2008700000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 9.5 percent, which represented the reported percentage of bicycles that had titanium frames in 2023 (Grand View Research, Inc., 2025a).

Titanium ferroalloys Assessment was based on the value of titanium-containing steels produced domestically relative to the output of this industry in 2023. To estimate the value of titanium-containing steel produced, the quantity of titanium consumed in various types of steel was divided by the estimated titanium contents of tungsten-containing steels (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2020d) and then multiplied by a unit value for each type of steel. The unit values were estimated based on weighted-average import unit values for the different types of steel (Zen Innovations AG, 2025). Titanium metal

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 185 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Titanium metal—Continued Commercial—Medical

Surgical and medical instrument manufacturing [339112]

16.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of orthopedic and prosthetic appliances, other types, excluding intraocular lenses [2010350000]; Manufacturing of surgical and orthopedic instruments [2017825000]; and Manufacturing of surgical and medical internal fixation devices (bone nails, plates, and screws, etc.) [2045800000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 45 percent, which represented titanium’s share of medical alloys (Grand View Research, Inc., 2023d).

Desalination and heat- exchangers

Power boiler and heat exchanger manufacturing [332410]

11.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fabricated heat exchangers and steam condensers closed types (excluding nuclear applications) including bar and fin tube [2016375000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 21 percent, which represented titanium’s share of the shell and tube heat exchanger global market in 2023 (Grand View Research, Inc., 2024e).

Power

Electric power generation, transmission, and distribution [221100]

37.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the “Nuclear electric power generation [221113]” and “Hydroelectric power generation [221111]” industries in 2017 relative to this industry’s total output.

Shipping and marine

Ship building and repairing [336611]

59.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of ships (including combat ships, troop transport vessels, fleet auxiliaries, and service craft), self-propelled, military, new construction [2012275000] and Manufacturing of ships, self-propelled, nonmilitary, new construction [2012300000].

Transport

Other motor vehicle parts manufacturing [336390]

5.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of exhaust system parts, new (including mufflers, resonators, pipes, and catalytic converters) [2042950000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 25 percent, which represented the estimated share of exhaust systems that used titanium based on the global titanium motorcycle exhaust pipe market share in 2023 (Verified Market Reports, 2025j).

Other—Armored vehicles

Military armored vehicle, tank, and tank component manufacturing [336992]

84.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of tanks [2012325000]; Manufacturing of self-propelled weapons and other full tracked combat vehicles and armored utility vehicles [2012350000]; and Manufacturing of parts for self-propelled weapons, tanks, and other full-tracked combat vehicles and armored utility vehicles [2032815000].

186 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Titanium metal—Continued Other—Guided missile and space vehicle manufacturing

Guided missile and space vehicle manufacturing [336414]

71.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of complete guided missiles [2012400000].

Cemented carbides

Cutting and machine tool accessory, rolling mill, and other metalworking machinery manufacturing [33351B]

6.3

Chemicals

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

1.3

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Other nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying [2123A0]” industry.

Metal

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

12.6

Pigments

Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]

42.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of titanium dioxide, composite and pure [2024275000].

Welding rod coatings

Other general purpose machinery manufacturing [33399A]

1.2

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of resistance welders, components, accessories, and electrodes [2014800000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 35 percent, which represented the approximate share of welding electrodes that were based on rutile in 2023 (Market Research Future, 2025).

Titanium mineral concentrates

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 187 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Titanium pigment Paints and coatings

Paint and coating manufacturing [325510]

An estimated 95 percent of all paints and coatings used titanium dioxide pigments (Tronox Holdings Plc, 2022; British Coatings Federation Ltd., 2025).

Paper mills

Paper mills [322120]

44.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of bleached bristols and clay-coated, uncoated freesheet, cotton fiber, special industrial, packaging, and industrial converting papers [2023475000]; Manufacturing of paper towels, retail packages (rolled, folded, and interfolded) [2008125000]; and Manufacturing of paper table napkins, industrial and retail packages, bulk and dispenser types [2008475000].

Paper products

Paper bag and coated and treated paper manufacturing [322220]

30.9

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]” industry.

Paperboard mills

Paperboard mills [322130]

11.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other solid bleached paperboard, including linerboard, heavyweight cup and round nested food container board, plate, dish, and tray stock, and paperboard for moist, liquid, and oily foods [2023275000].

Plastics

Other plastics product manufacturing [326190]

28.2

A reported 45 percent of all plastics pigments were based on inorganic pigments (Global Market Insights, 2024b), of which titanium dioxide pigments represent about 63 percent (Global Market Insights, 2024a), resulting in an estimated 28 percent of plastics using titanium dioxide pigments.

Rubber

Synthetic rubber and artificial and synthetic fibers and filaments manufacturing [3252A0]

Over 68 percent of industrial rubber products reportedly use titanium dioxide (Hebei Caiqing Material Technology Co., Ltd., 2025).

Other—Carpets and rugs

Carpet and rug mills [314110]

22.5

Other—Chemical preparations

All other chemical product and preparation manufacturing [3259A0]

10.2

Other—Cosmetics and toiletries

Toilet preparation manufacturing [325620]

81.9

188 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Titanium pigment—Continued Other—Printer ink

Printing ink manufacturing [325910]

18.8

Other—Textiles

Textile and fabric finishing and fabric coating mills [313300]

18.9

Titanium metal products

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2019 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of titanium and titanium-base alloy forging and extrusion, ingot and billet, and all other titanium and titanium-base alloy mill shapes (including sheet, plate, tubing, bar, etc.), excluding wire [2027400000].

Cemented carbides— Cutting tool, machine tool accessories and industrial molds

Cutting and machine tool accessory, rolling mill, and other metalworking machinery manufacturing [33351B]

33.2

Cemented carbides— Special dies and tools

Special tool, die, jig, and fixture manufacturing [333514]

33.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of metalworking die and die sets [2016200000] and Manufacturing of punches, die parts, and other special tooling [2016225000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 72.4 percent, which represented tungsten’s share of the cemented carbide market (Market.Us, 2025a).

Chemicals—Catalysts

Petroleum refineries [324110]

3.2

Tungsten

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 189 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Tungsten—Continued Chemicals— Chemical products and laboratory applications

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

1.1

Mill products—Cutting wire

Steel product manufacturing from purchased steel [331200]

0.1

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Mill products— Electrical contact materials

Wiring device manufacturing [335930]

5.3

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Mill products— High temperature applications

Industrial process furnace and oven manufacturing [333994]

10.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of parts and attachments for industrial fuel-fired furnaces, ovens, and kilns [2044550000].

Mill products— Incandescent lamps, compact fluorescent lamps, and high intensity discharge lamps

Electric lamp bulb and part manufacturing [335110]

16.6

Mill products— Semiconductors and integrated circuits

Semiconductor and related device manufacturing [334413]

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

0.4

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of arc welding machines, components, and accessories, excluding electrodes and stud welding equipment [2014775000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 3.1 percent, which represented the approximate share of arc welding machines that used tungsten electrodes based on the market size of tungsten welding electrodes as a percentage of the entire welding electrode market in 2023 (Allied Market Research, 2024).

Mill products—Tungsten Other general inert gas welding purpose machinery manufacturing [33399A]

190 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Tungsten—Continued Mill products—X-ray tubes

Irradiation apparatus manufacturing [334517]

41.2

Assessment was based on subtracting the revenues generated by NAPCS codes Manufacturing of other irradiation equipment [2045212000] and Manufacturing of nuclear medicine equipment [2018025012] from the revenue generated by NAPCS code Manufacturing of irradiation (ionizing radiation) equipment, including X-ray, beta ray, gamma ray, and nuclear [2018025000] in 2017 based on the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2023). The result was then multiplied by a factor of 80 percent, which was the assumed market share for tungsten-based anodes used in X-ray tubes.

Steels

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

0.3

Assessment was based on the value of tungsten-containing steels produced domestically relative to the output of this industry in 2023. To estimate the value of tungsten-containing steel produced, the quantity of tungsten consumed in various types of steel was divided by the estimated tungsten contents of tungsten-containing steels (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2020e) and then multiplied by a unit value for each type of steel. The unit values were estimated based on weighted-average import unit values for the different types of steel (Zen Innovations AG, 2025).

Superalloys—Aerospace

Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]

84.2

Superalloys—Industrial turbines

Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing [333611]

52.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2020 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of turbine generator sets, excluding prime mover generator sets [2015700000]; Manufacturing of steam turbines and other vapor turbines [2015725000]; and Manufacturing of gas turbines, excluding aircraft (all sizes) [2015775000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 91.1 percent, which was the percentage of superalloys that were estimated to be cobalt and nickel based for this application in 2016 (Eckard, 2017).

Other alloys—Tungsten heavy metal alloys and wear protection

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

1.3

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 191 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Tungsten—Continued Other—Jewelry

Jewelry and silverware manufacturing [339910]

0.6

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Other—Smart windows

Glass and glass product manufacturing [327200]

0.2

Other—Sport and Leisure

Sporting and athletic goods manufacturing [339920]

2.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of golf balls and clubs [2008950000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 19 percent, which represented the share of U.S. golf clubs from the U.S. golf club and ball market (Grand View Research, Inc., 2022b) multiplied by an assumed market share of 30 percent for tungsten.

Other—Substitute for lead

Other fabricated metal manufacturing [332999]

7.6

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Other—Vacuum metallizing

Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities [332800]

0.5

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry. Vanadium

Pigments

Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]

1.5

Assessment was based on the global market value for bismuth vanadate pigments, which was estimated to be $350 million in 2024 (Verified Market Reports, 2025c). Assuming the usage was proportional to the U.S. share of world GDP, the U.S. share of that market value was divided by the total industry output in 2023.

Steels

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

5.3

Assessment was based on the value of vanadium-containing steels produced domestically relative to the output of this industry in 2023. To estimate the value of vanadium-containing steel produced, the quantity of vanadium consumed in various types of steel was divided by the estimated vanadium contents of vanadium-containing steels (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2021b) and then multiplied by a unit value for each type of steel. The unit values were estimated based on weighted-average import unit values for the different types of steel (Zen Innovations AG, 2025).

192 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Vanadium—Continued Superalloys—Aerospace

Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]

71.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of military aircraft engines (including other aircraft engines built to military specifications) [2029400000]; Manufacturing of civilian aircraft engines [2029425000]; Manufacturing of parts and accessories for military aircraft engines [2029450000]; and Manufacturing of parts and accessories for civilian aircraft engines [2029475000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 82.6 percent, which represented the percentage of superalloys that were estimated to be nickel based (and thus containing vanadium) for this application in 2016 (Eckard, 2017).

Superalloys— Automotive

Other motor vehicle parts manufacturing [336390]

3.3

Superalloys—Industrial turbines

Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing [333611]

39.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2020 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of turbine generator sets, excluding prime mover generator sets [2015700000]; Manufacturing of steam turbines and other vapor turbines [2015725000]; and Manufacturing of gas turbines, excluding aircraft (all sizes) [2015775000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 69.1 percent, which represented the percentage of superalloys that were estimated to be nickel based (and thus containing vanadium) for this application in 2016 (Eckard, 2017).

Superalloys—Oil and gas

Mining and oil and gas field machinery manufacturing [333130]

36.7

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 193 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Vanadium—Continued Other alloys

Aircraft manufacturing [336411]

Zinc processing

Nonferrous metal (except aluminum) smelting and refining [331410]

3.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of military aircraft, including all aircraft for U.S. military and any other aircraft built to military specifications [2012100000]; Manufacturing of civilian aircraft [2012125000]; Manufacturing of other aircraft subassemblies and parts for civilian aircraft [2032500000]; and Manufacturing of other aircraft subassemblies and parts for military aircraft (including other aircraft built to military specifications) [2032475000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 90 percent, which was the estimated percentage of titanium alloys that contained vanadium (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2021b). Zinc, mined Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of refined primary unalloyed zinc slab and zinc-base alloy, including unalloyed dust [2027431000]. Zinc, smelted

Batteries, primary

Primary battery manufacturing [335912]

62.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2018 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of primary batteries, excluding lead acid [2010950000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 67 percent, which represented the approximate percentage of global primary batteries that used zinc (alkaline, zinc-carbon, and silver-oxide) (Market.Us, 2025b) in 2024.

Copper alloys

Copper rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331420]

10.1

Assessment was based on the quantity of copper alloys produced as a percentage of all U.S. semifabricated copper and copper alloy production in 2022 (International Copper Study Group, 2023) multiplied by the global percentage of copper alloys that were brasses (Grand View Research, Inc., 2023c).

Fertilizers

Fertilizer manufacturing [325310]

4.8

Foundries

Nonferrous metal foundries [331520]

8.4

Assessment was based on the value of zinc and zinc-based alloy castings shipments relative to the total value of nonferrous castings in 2003 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004b).

Galvanizing steel

Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing [331110]

17.2

Assessment was based on the percentage of net shipments of steel mill products that were galvanized steel in the United States in 2023 (American Iron and Steel Institute, 2023a).

194 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Zinc, smelted—Continued Galvanizing steel Steel product product manufacturing manufacturing from from purchased steel purchased steel [331200]

17.2

Assessment was based on the percentage of net shipments of steel mill products that were galvanized steel in the United States in 2023 (American Iron and Steel Institute, 2023a).

Hardware

Hardware manufacturing [332500]

24.3

Assessment was based on the estimated expenditures of this industry on this mineral commodity relative to this industry's expenditures on all goods and services from the “Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]” industry.

Paint and pigments

Synthetic dye and pigment manufacturing [325130]

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other white opaque pigments [2024300000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 40 percent, which was the approximate percentage of white opaque pigments that were based on zinc oxide in 1997 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004a).

Paper bleaching

Paper mills [322120]

Pharmaceuticals

Pharmaceutical preparation manufacturing [325412]

5.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2017 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of pharmaceutical preparations, acting on skin, for human use [2010275000]; Manufacturing of other cough and cold preparations, including topical preparations, cough drops, and others, non-prescription [2010225031]; and Manufacturing of cough and cold preparations, decongestants, including nasal sprays and nose drops, non-prescription [2010225018].

Printing ink

Printing ink manufacturing [325910]

0.3

Rolled and alloyed zinc

Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum) rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying [331490]

3.2

Soaps

Soap and cleaning compound manufacturing [325610]

0.1

Tires

Tire manufacturing [326210]

5.3

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 195 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Zinc, smelted—Continued Other rubber products

Other rubber product manufacturing [326290]

8.1

Aerospace turbine blades Aircraft engine and engine parts manufacturing [336412]

84.2

Chemicals—Chemical processing

Power boiler and heat exchanger manufacturing [332410]

4.9

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fabricated heat exchangers and steam condensers closed types (excluding nuclear applications) including bar and fin tube [2016375000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 9.1 percent, which represented the estimated market share of zirconium in the shell and tube heat exchanger U.S. market (Grand View Research, Inc., 2024e) based on the share of the “other” materials and the fraction of all applications most likely to contain zirconium (chemical, petrochemical, power generation).

Chemicals—Cosmetics

Toilet preparation manufacturing [325620]

7.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of cosmetics and other toilet preparations [2010675000]. The result was then multiplied by a factor of 22.6 percent, which represented the share of this NAPCS code under the following products from the 2002 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004a): Underarm deodorants, roll-on, solid, and other types [325620G231] and Underarm deodorants, aerosol and spray type [325620G221]. The result was then multiplied by the 93‑percent share for aluminum-based deodorants (Research and Markets, 2024a, b).

Chemicals—Gemstones

Miscellaneous nonmetallic mineral products [327999]

7.8

Assessment was based on the value of the North American share of the global cubic zirconia market (Verified Market Reports, 2025a) multiplied by an assumed 50 percent share for the United States as a percentage of this industry's total output in 2023.

Chemicals—Other

Other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing [325180]

0.01

196 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Zirconium—Continued Chemicals—Paints and driers

Paint and coating manufacturing [325510]

3.5

Chemicals—Paper coatings

Paper mills [322120]

0.1

Chemicals—Technical ceramics, cutting

Cutting and machine tool accessory, rolling mill, and other metalworking machinery manufacturing [33351B]

29.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of cutting tools (including broaches, reamers, hobs) and all other miscellaneous solid and tipped carbide cutting tools for machine tools and metalworking machinery, excluding tips and blanks [2050000000].

Chemicals—Technical ceramics, grinding

Abrasive product manufacturing [327910]

34.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of nonmetallic coated abrasive products and buffing wheels, polishing wheels, and laps [2051375000].

Chemicals—Technical ceramics, high-stress parts

Valve and fittings other than plumbing [33291A]

4.3

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of industrial ball valves (all metals, pressures, and types), including manual and power-operated, on-off valves, excluding parts [2044875000].

Gas turbines

Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing [333611]

52.6

Nuclear

Electric power generation, transmission, and distribution [221100]

32.2

Assessment was based on the value of the “Nuclear electric power generation [221113]” industry relative to the value of all electricity generation in 2017.

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 197 Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Zirconium—Continued Refractories

Industrial process furnace and oven manufacturing [333994]

36.1

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of fuel-fired industrial process furnaces, ovens, and kilns, excluding parts and attachments [2017250000] and Manufacturing of electric (excluding high-frequency induction and dielectric and resistance- heated) metal processing and heat-treating furnaces, excluding parts and attachments [2017350000].

Zircon flour and milled sand—Aluminum foundries

Nonferrous metal foundries [331520]

14.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of aluminum and aluminum-base alloy sand castings (excluding cast aluminum cooking utensils) [2028125000]; Manufacturing of aluminum and aluminum-base alloy investment castings (excluding cast aluminum cooking utensils) [2028175000]; Manufacturing of aluminum and aluminum-base alloy permanent and semipermanent mold castings (excluding cast aluminum cooking utensils) [2028150000]; and Manufacturing of other aluminum and aluminum- base alloy castings, excluding die-castings (excluding cast aluminum cooking utensils) [2028200000].

Zircon flour and milled sand—Ferrous metal foundries

Ferrous metal foundries [331510]

7.7

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of steel investment castings, including carbon, alloy and stainless steel, hi-temp metal (iron-, nickel-, or cobalt-based alloys) [2028025000]; Manufacturing of high alloy steel castings, excluding investment [2028075000]; Manufacturing of other ductile iron castings for automotive uses [2027825000]; and Manufacturing of all other ductile iron castings for all other uses, including valve, construction and utility, machinery, electric and electronic equipment, heat-resistant parts (including coke oven doors) [2027850000]. The result was then multiplied by an assumed market share of zirconium of 50 percent.

Zircon flour and milled sand—Nonferrous metal foundries

Nonferrous metal foundries [331520]

10.5

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of other nonferrous foundries castings (excluding die-casting and aluminum) including nickel and nickel-base alloy, zinc and zinc-base alloy, magnesium and magnesium-base alloy, and all other nonferrous castings [2028300000]; and Manufacturing of copper and copper-base alloy foundries (excluding die-casting) including sand, leaded red, manganese, aluminum bronzes, and all other copper castings (mold, centrifugal, investment, etc.) [2028275000]. The result was then multiplied by an assumed market share of zirconium of 50 percent.

198 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Table 4.2. Mineral commodity consumption by application and BEA industry.—Continued [Data sources and notes regarding applications are found in table 4.1. The primary sources of data regarding the revenues by NAPCS product code were the 2017 Economic Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020) and the 2018–2021 Annual Survey of Manufacturers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022) unless otherwise noted. The rare-earth elements are reported in the table as a single entry but were treated as 15 individual mineral commodities. Each industry name is followed by a 6-character alphanumeric code from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis in brackets, and each NAPCS product name is followed by a 10‑digit code in brackets. BEA, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; BCI, Battery Council International; cap., capacity; CAT, computed axial tomography; CT, computed tomography; cu ft, cubic foot; cu m, cubic meter; GDP, gross domestic product; HTS, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States; in., inch; kg, kilogram; mm, millimeter; NAICS, North American Industry Classification System; NAPCS, North American Product Classification System; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; ppm, part per million]

Application category

Associated BEA industry [code]

Estimated percentage of the associated BEA industry’s output that used this mineral commodity Percent of output

Basis for assessment

Zirconium—Continued Zircon opacifier (ceramics)

Clay product and refractory manufacturing [327100]

47.8

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS codes in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of vitreous plumbing fixtures, vitreous china lavatories, and flush tanks, including all other plumbing accessories and earthenware [2038400000]; Manufacturing of vitreous china, porcelain, and earthenware (semivitreous) table and kitchenware (including household, hotel, or commercial uses) (including bone and feldspar) [2007400000]; Manufacturing of clay floor and wall tile, glazed and unglazed (including ceramic mosaic tile) [2036000000]; and Manufacturing of clay refractories [2041450000].

Other metals— Automotive parts

Other motor vehicle parts manufacturing [336390]

4.6

Assessment was based on the value of shipments of the following NAPCS code in 2021 by this industry relative to its total output: Manufacturing of motor vehicle frames, new [2031800000].

Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 199

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Appendix 4. Mineral Commodity Consumption by Application and Associated Industry 205 McCaffrey, D.M., Nassar, N.T., Jowitt, S.M., Padilla, A.J., and Bird, L.R., 2023, Embedded critical material flow—The case of niobium, the United States, and China: Resources, Conservation and Recycling, v. 188, article 106698, accessed April 3, 2025, at https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106698. McWilliams, A., 2018, Global markets for friction products and materials: Boston, BCC Research LLC. Miatto, A., Reck, B.K., West, J., and Graedel, T.E., 2020, The rise and fall of American lithium: Resources, Conservation and Recycling, v. 162, article 105034, accessed June 10, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105034. Mordor Intelligence, 2021a, Global flame retardant chemicals market: Mordor Intelligence, Hyderabad. Mordor Intelligence, 2021b, United States fertilizer market: Hyderabad, India, Mordor Intelligence. Mordor Intelligence, 2022a, Global battery market: Hyderabad, India, Mordor Intelligence. Mordor Intelligence, 2022b, Global niobium market: Hyderabad, India, Mordor Intelligence. Mordor Intelligence, 2024a, Global beryllium market: Hyderabad, India, Mordor Intelligence. Mordor Intelligence, 2024b, Global hafnium market: Hyderabad, India, Mordor Intelligence. Mordor Intelligence, 2024c, Global zirconium market: Hyderabad, India, Mordor Intelligence. Mordor Intelligence, 2025a, Global bismuth market: Hyderabad, India, Mordor Intelligence. Mordor Intelligence, 2025b, Global cadmium market: Hyderabad, India, Mordor Intelligence. Mordor Intelligence, 2025c, Global selenium market: Hyderabad, India, Mordor Intelligence. Mordor Intelligence, 2025d, Global tellurium market: Hyderabad, India, Mordor Intelligence. Nassar, N.T., 2015, Limitations to elemental substitution as exemplified by the platinum-group metals: Green Chemistry, v. 17, no. 4, accessed May 1, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1039/c4gc02197e. Nassar, N.T., Shojaeddini, E., Alonso, E., Jaskula, B., and Tolcin, A., 2024, Quantifying potential effects of China’s gallium and germanium export restrictions on the U.S. economy: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2024–1057, 66 p., accessed October 15, 2024, at https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20241057.

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210 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals Walser, H., and Shields, J.A., Jr., 2007, Traditional and emerging applications of molybdenum metals and alloys: International Molybdenum Association Newsletter, July 2007, 15 p., accessed June 6, 2025, at https://www.imoa.info/download_files/molyreview/IMOA_ Newsletter/IMOANews_07-07.pdf. Western Digital, 2022, Beyond air. Helium take you higher: Western Digital brochure, 6 p., accessed March 19, 2024, at https://documents.westerndigital.com/content/dam/ doc-library/en_us/assets/public/western-digital/collateral/ brochure/brochure-helioseal-technology.pdf. Wise Guy Reports, 2024a, Global leaded glass windows market research report: Wise Guy Reports, accessed June 11, 2025, at https://www.wiseguyreports.com/reports/ leaded-glass-windows-market. Wise Guy Reports, 2024b, Global selenium supplements market research report: Wise Guy Reports, accessed June 18, 2025, at https://www.wiseguyreports.com/reports/ selenium-supplements-market.

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Appendix 5. Python Implementation of the Economic Impacts Model 211

Appendix 5. Python Implementation of the Economic Impacts Model This appendix documents the complete Python-based implementation developed to estimate the economic effects of mineral commodity trade disruption scenarios. As noted in the report, the model used input-output data from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) and centered on a structured convex optimization routine implemented using the CVXPY library. This implementation supports the analysis of mineral commodity trade disruption scenarios, enabling a systematic evaluation of the macroeconomic and industry-level effects resulting from changes in the availability and pricing of these mineral commodities.

Input Data Structure and Computational Workflow The model required the following data inputs, provided in Microsoft Excel® format with multiple sheets: • Direct requirements matrix: A matrix of interindustry coefficients (direct requirements matrix) from BEA data representing intermediate inputs per U.S. dollar of output. • Original industry data: Industry-level input-output monetary accounts (in U.S. dollars) derived from BEA tables with the following information: ○ BEA’s industry code ○ Industry output ○ Value added ○ Final demand ○ Intermediate demand • Mineral commodity to industry mapping: A dataset linking each mineral commodity’s consumption to its downstream consuming industries. This includes information regarding the quantity of each mineral commodity used by industry and the percentage of each industry’s output that uses the mineral commodity (details are provided in appendix 4). • Scenarios: Each row specifies a unique scenario with the following parameters: ○ Postdisruption to predisruption price ratio for affected mineral commodities (P′/P)

○ Net disruption level (n′, percentage reduction in mineral commodity available) ○ Mineral production growth rate outside the restricted country ○ Identity of the restricting country • Industry capacity utilization: Ratios representing the baseline utilization of production capacity for each industry. The code first validates and ingests the data, standardizing formats and filling missing values where applicable. A key preprocessing step involves constructing an expanded industry dataset by identifying industries that rely on the mineral commodity specified in each scenario. Each industry's exposure was weighted by the share of its output dependent on that mineral, allowing for customized disruption modeling. This expanded data forms the input for the optimization problem. The core model was formulated as a constrained quadratic program. The decision variable corresponded to postdisruption output of each industry, and the objective function penalized squared deviations from baseline value added, final demand, and intermediate demand, thereby favoring minimal adjustment while enforcing supply-side and demand-side constraints. These constraints were derived from the input-output linkages, price shocks, and domestic production limits.

Optimization and Solver Configuration We solved the optimization problem using the Clarabel solver through the CVXPY modeling framework. Clarabel is a conic interior-point solver, developed by Goulart and Chen (2024), optimized for large-scale convex programs expressed over standard cones, including the nonnegative orthant and second-order cones. In this application, Clarabel handles quadratic objectives and equality constraints that reflect real- world capacity and demand restrictions. We implemented the optimization using CVXPY version 1.6.5 (CVXPY, 2025), wherein constraints are expressed symbolically and passed to the solver without explicit transformation into standard conic form. The solver was chosen for its performance in medium-to large- scale structured problems and for its compatibility with Python-based workflows, allowing for scenario-based batch simulations. Each scenario was solved independently, which enables parallelization. The input-output problems involve over 400 industries and nearly 1,000 constraints, making solver

212 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals efficiency a key concern. Clarabel's ability to maintain numerical robustness and fast convergence makes it ideal for this use case. Although Clarabel was the default solver, the implementation can seamlessly be extended to support other solvers such as MOSEK, OSQP (Operator Splitting Quadratic Program), or SCS (Splitting Conic Solver).

Software Environment and Package Dependencies We conducted all computations in Python version 3.11.8 (Python Software Foundation, 2024). The following packages are essential to run the model: • NumPy 1.25.2: For linear algebra and numerical computation • Pandas 2.0.2: For structured data manipulation and reshaping • CVXPY 1.6.5: For modeling and solving convex optimization problems • Clarabel 0.9.0: Default conic solver for CVXPY in this version • Pyxlsb 1.0.10: For reading binary Excel files where applicable • Concurrent.futures: For managing parallel execution of scenarios

Output Format Upon completion, the model generated the following structured outputs: • Scenario-level macroeconomic summary: ○ Change in gross domestic product (GDP) owing to higher input prices paid by consuming industries ○ Change in GDP owing to output contraction in consuming industries ○ Change in GDP owing to increased revenues for producing industries ○ Change in GDP owing to output expansion in producing industries • Industry-level effect by scenario: ○ New industry output levels ○ Changes in value added by industry, with and without price effects • Run log and diagnostics: ○ Scenario identifiers with failed optimization runs ○ Type of failure (for example, primal infeasibility, numerical error) ○ Solver status and convergence information

We ran the model on a workstation equipped with an Intel vPRO Core i9 processor and 64 gigabytes (GB) of physical random-access memory (RAM). Runtime for 1,205 scenarios averaged approximately 30 to 35 minutes when processed in parallel.

Outputs were saved in Microsoft Excel® format with separate sheets for summary metrics, industry-level results, and diagnostics. This structure facilitated downstream visualization, statistical analysis, and reporting.

Parallel Processing

References Cited

Given the scenario-based nature of the analysis, we implemented parallel processing to reduce total runtime. The concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor1 interface was used to distribute individual scenario runs across multiple central processing unit (CPU) cores. Each scenario was treated as an independent task, allowing near- linear speed-up with the number of available cores. Failures in individual scenarios (for example, owing to infeasibility or numerical issues) were logged without halting the full batch run, ensuring robustness of the pipeline.

1concurrent.futures is a standard Python module that enables parallel

execution of tasks using threads or processes, providing an interface for managing asynchronous computations. For more details, visit https://docs.p ython.org/3/library/concurrent.futures.html.

CVXPY, 2025, CVXPY 1.6.5: CVXPY software release, accessed July 11, 2025, at https://www.cvxpy.org/. Goulart, P.J., and Chen, Y., 2024, Clarabel—An interior-point solver for conic programs with quadratic objectives: arXiv, preprint posted May 21, 2024, 48 p., accessed July 10, 2025, at http://arxiv.org/abs/2405.12762. Python Software Foundation, 2024, Python 3.11.8: Python Software Foundation, software release, February 6, 2024, accessed February 6, 2024, at https://www.python.org/ downloads/release/python-3118/.

Appendix 6. Natural Breaks Classification 213

Appendix 6. Natural Breaks Classification Overview To classify1 the probability-weighted net decreases in U.S. gross domestic product (GDP), in millions of U.S. dollars, determined from the assessment into interpretable and statistically meaningful categories, we used the Jenks natural breaks optimization method (Jenks, 1967). This technique is specifically designed to identify partitions that minimize within-class variance and maximize between-class variance. The method is particularly efficient in revealing natural groupings within skewed or heterogeneously distributed datasets, making it suitable for applications where data-driven classification is required.

Data Preparation and Transformation The classifying procedure was applied to a filtered and transformed version of the dataset to ensure the stability and interpretability of the resulting classes. First, only nonnegative values were retained for the analysis. This restriction ensured that subsequent logarithmic transformations were well defined and avoided distortion from undefined negative inputs. Second, a base-10 logarithmic transformation was applied to the data prior to classification. This transformation is commonly used to compress skewed distributions, highlight relative differences across orders of magnitude, and improve the detection of latent classes in data exhibiting multiplicative effects.

Determining the Optimal Number of Breaks The Jenks natural breaks optimization method requires specifying the number of classes in advance. To select this number in a data-driven manner, we used a two-step evaluation process: • Goodness of variance fit (GVF): For each candidate number of classes k from 1 to 10, the algorithm computes the GVF score, defined as

total variance − within-class variance GVF = _______________________________           total variance

6.1

Values closer to 1 indicate a more optimal classification, as they reflect low within-class variance relative to the overall variability in the data. The GVF score increases with the number of classes and converges to 1 when the number of classes equal the number of data points, indicating overfitting. To avoid this and determine the optimal number of classes, we implemented the Elbow method. • Elbow method for GVF curve: To identify the point at which increasing the number of breaks yields diminishing improvements, we plotted the GVF scores against the number of classes. The “elbow” in this curve was used as the heuristic cutoff. The inflection point on the GVF curve was located by the method suggested by Satopaa and others (2011), indicating that additional breaks beyond this threshold offered minimal marginal improvement in the classification quality. This selection process provides both a quantitative and visual criterion for determining the most appropriate number of natural classes. The Jenks natural breaks optimization method iteratively adjusts class boundaries to optimize the tradeoff among within- class variance and between-class variance. Specifically,

1Although we refer to Jenks natural breaks optimization method as a classification method throughout this study, it is technically a data clustering algorithm.

We use the term “classification” interchangeably for clarity and consistency with common usage in data visualization and cartography.

214 Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals • For each value of k, candidate class boundaries are initialized and adjusted using an iterative algorithm to minimize the sum of squared deviations within each class.

• The Jenks natural breaks optimization method was applied to the optimal number of classes, which was k = 5. • The resulting class boundaries were transformed back for interpretability in the original scale (millions of U.S. dollars), with cutoff intervals at 0.00 to 0.06, 0.06 to 1.97, 1.97 to 21.97, 21.97 to 205.76, and 205.76 to 4,497.89, which were used to determine the risk categories.

• At convergence, the GVF score is computed to assess the classification quality for that value of k. • The process is repeated for a range of candidate class counts, and the configuration with the best tradeoff (as determined by the elbow in the GVF curve) is selected as the final model. The combination of GVF score with Elbow method ensures that the resulting classification reflects the intrinsic structure of the dataset, rather than being imposed by arbitrary or evenly spaced thresholds.

All computations were performed using reproducible Python code, with graphical output illustrating both the GVF curve and final classification breaks.

Implementation • We conducted the analysis on log-transformed, nonnegative data to stabilize variance and normalize scale. • We used a knee-point detection algorithm to automate identification of the GVF elbow, which was identified at k = 5.

1.00

EXPLANATION Elbow k = 5

0.95

GVF

0.90

0.85 0.80

0.75 0.70 2

Number of classes

Figure 6.1. Graph showing Jenks goodness of variance fit (GVF) versus the number of classes (k), with the optimal number of classes identified at the elbow point (k = 5).

Number of mineral commodities

Appendix 6. Natural Breaks Classification 215

EXPLANATION

Jenks natural breaks (k = 5, GVF = 0.94):

Break: −2.64 Break: −1.23 Break: 0.29

Break: 1.34 Break: 2.31 Break: 3.65

4 3 2 1 0

−3

−2

−1

Log-transformed probability-weighted net decrease in GDP, in millions of current (2023) U.S. dollars

Figure 6.2. Graph showing the Jenks natural breaks optimization method applied to log-transformed values of probability-weighted net decreases in gross domestic product (GDP) in millions of U.S. dollars. Histogram bars represent the distribution of the number of mineral commodities for given observed log-transformed values. The blue curve overlying the histogram data is a kernel density estimate to more clearly visualize the shape of the distribution. Vertical lines indicate the optimized breakpoints. GVF, goodness of variance fit; k, number of classes.

References Cited Jenks, G.F., 1967, The data model concept in statistical mapping, in Frenzel, K., ed., International Yearbook of Cartography, volume 7: C. Bertelsmann Verlag, Gütersloh, p. 186–190.

Satopaa, V., Albrecht, J., Irwin, D., and Raghavan, B., 2011, Finding a “Kneedle” in a haystack—Detecting knee points in system behavior, in 2011 31st International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems Workshops, Minneapolis, Minn. June 20–24, 2011: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, p. 166–171.

Nassar and others—Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals—OFR 2025–1047, ver. 2.0

ISSN 2331-1258 (online) https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20251047

Methodology and Technical Input for the 2025 U.S. List of Critical Minerals—Assessing the Potential Effects of Mineral Commodity Supply Chain Disruptions on the U.S. Economy

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