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GERSTEIN SCIENCE INFORMATION CENTRE
ONTARIO
COLLEGE OF PHARMACY
44- GERRARD ST. Eo TORONTO,
ONTARIO
COLLEGE OF f HARMACY
44- GERRARD ST. E. TORONTO,
Presented hy Dr. E. B. SHUTTLEWORTH
First Dean of The Ontario College of F.
THE LANGUAGE OF
MEDICINE
^-z'
A MANUAL GIVING THE ORIGIN,
ETYMOLOGY, PRONUNCIATION, AND MEANING OF
THE TECHNICAL TERxVIS FOUND IN
MEDICAL LITERATURE
BY
F. R. CAMPBELL, A. M., M. D.
PROFESSOR OF MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS, MEDICAL DEPARTMENT OF NIAGARA UNIVERSITY
NEW YORK
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
1888
Nv
\
>y
Copyright, 1888, By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.
TO
EDWARD MOTT MOORE, M. D., LL. D.,
EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF SURGERY, MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, UNIVERSITY OF BUFFALO.
IN HOMAGE TO HIS RIPE SCHOLARSHIP, HIS GENIUS AS A SURGEON, AND HIS SKILL AS A TEACHER, THIS BOOK IS GRATEFULLY INSCRIBED BY HIS FORMER PUPIL,
THE AUTHOR.
PREFACE.
THE object of this work is to provide the medical student with a suitable means of acquiring the vocabulary of his science. Like Shakespeare, the great majority of medical students have but "small Latine and lesse Greeke." Even those who have enjoyed the advantages of literary colleges are often unable to apply their knowledge of the classical languages in determining the etymology and meaning of ordinary medical words, partly because the classics are studied more from a literary than a philological point of view, but largely because the words most used in medical works seldom appear in the Latin and Greek with which tney are familiar.
In studying mathematics or grammar tne pupil begins with definitions of the new words to be employed. In medi- cine, also, much valuable time could be saved if the student would first master the meaning of the technical terms by which the principles of the science are to be carried into his mind. The words must be understood before thoughts which they convey can be comprehended. In the first part of this work are discussed many of the elementary principles of philology and etymology, illustrated by common words occurring in medical literature. Coleridge has said that we may often derive more useful knowledge from the history of a word than from the history of a campaign. In medicine we may often obtain more practical benefit from the study of some word with an account of the errors involved therein, than from the study of a new theory which rises like a balloon only to burst like a bubble. A brief history of medicine, from a linguistic
iv FREFA CE.
point of view, is given in order that the sources of our tech- nical words may be known.
In part second will be found the majority of the Latin Avords used in medical works. The principles of Latin gram- mar which are employed in nomenclature and prescription writing are discussed and exercises for translation are given in order that the student may fix the words and grammatical principles in his mind.
The subject of orthoepy is incidentally discussed and a list of many words commonly mispronounced is given. The majority of these have been collected in the class-room, but many, very many, have been mispronounced by medical society orators and college professors who have persisted in propagating their orthoepical blunders through the medical profession until one hesitates before pronouncing some words correctly for fear of being misunderstood.
In part third will be found the principal words of Greek origin with a description of the method of converting Greek words into Latin and English. In part fourth are collected the majority of the words transferred from the modern foreign languages into our medical vocabulary. In determining the correct etymology of words the author has, in the main, followed Curtius, Skeat, and Halsey. But philologists, like doctors, sometimes disagree, and in these cases the writer has selected what appeared to him the most reasonable derivation.
It may be urged that this work should have been under- taken by a professor of the languages rather than by a physi- cian. But the teacher of languages knows comparatively little of the real needs and defects of the average medical student, while a physician reasonably familiar with the ancient and modern languages is able to apply his linguistic knowledge in
PREFACE. c/ O' "'v
a manner at once more interesting and instructive to the medical student.
In conclusion, the author must acknowledge his indebted- ness to the following authors, for without their aid the prepara- tion of this book would have been an impossibility: —
Andrews, Latin-E?iglish Lexicon.
BiONDELLi, Studii Linguistici.
Bracket, Dictiofiaire Etymologique de la Langue Francaise
CuRTius, Grundzuege der Griechischen Etymologie.
Darmesteter, Life of Words as the Symbols of Ideas,
Encyclopcedia Britannica.
Farrar, Origiti of Language.
Halsey, Etymology of Latin and Greek.
LiDDELL and Scott, Greek-English Lexicon.
Dr. Meredith, Errors of Speech.
Pareira, Physicians^ Prescription Book.
Skeat, Etymological English Dictionaty.
Thomas, Medical Dictionary.
Trench, On the Study of Words.
Whitney, Language and the Study of Language.
Frederick R. Campbell.
Buffalo, N. Y., fanuary, i88S.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER. I.
II.
III. IV.
PART I.
origin of the language of medicine.
Introduction,
Historical Sources of the Language OF Medicine, ....
The Origin of Words, The Life and Death of Words,
PAGE.
1-6
7-33 34-48
49-54
PART II.
THE LATIN ELEMENT IN THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
I. Orthography, 5 5-5 6
II. Orthoepy, 57-64
III. Words Commonly Mispronounced, . 65-90
IV. Parts of Speech and Declension Endings, 91-93 V. The First Declension,
VI. The Second Declension,
VII. The Third Declension,
VIII. The Fourth Declension,
IX. The Fifth Declension,
X. Indeclinable Nouns,
XL Derivation of Nouns,
XII. Declension of Adjectives,
XIII. Comparison of Adjectives,
XIV. Numeral Adjectives, XV. Derivation of Adjectives,
XVI. Pronouns, .
XVII. The Verb,
XVIII. Adverbs,
94-99
100-106
107-120
I2I-I25
126-127
128-129
• 130-135
• I36-I5I
• 152-157
,
. I58-I6I
162-165
,
166-170
.
I7I-I78
.
179-182
viii CONTENTS.
lAPTER.
PAGE.
XIX.
Prepositions,
183-186
XX.
Conjunctions,
187-189
XXI.
Prescription Writing,
PART III.
190-202
THE GREEK ELEMENT IN THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
I.
Orthography,
203-206
II.
The Parts and Functions of the Body,
207-216
III.
Prefixes,
217-229
IV.
Numeral Adjectives used as Prefixes,
230-231
V.
Suffixes or Postfixes,
232-261
VI.
Etymology of Some Other Words of
Greek Origin, ....
262-267
VII.
Hybrid Words,
268-270
VIII.
Nomenclature,
271-286
PART IV. elements derived from the modern LANGUAGES.
I. The French Element, . . . 287-294 II. Words Derived from Other Modern
Languages, ..... 295-298
General Index, ..... 299-301
Index of Words, .... 303
PART I.
ORIGIN OF THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
SCIENCES and arts, like nations, have languages of their own. When a nation makes progress in civilization, new words are formed to express new thoughts and discoveries. When old institutions die out, the words used to symbolize them disappear. So it is with the language of a science ; with each new theory or discovery a new word is born ; with each exploded hypothesis or abandoned instrument an old word dies. Words in a language like the cells of an animal are con- stantly forming and dying, this process being one of the surest indications of life. To use the words of a poet : —
" Life itself is but a rider On the myriad steeds of death, Since some tissue, some secretion ^ Lives and dies at every breath.
But the force which binds the atoms, Which controls secreting glands, Is the same that guides the planets ■ Acting by divine commands."
Nations disappear from the political map of the world and we often speak of them and their languages as " dead ; " but their life is not really gone, for their blood is mingled with that of their conquerors and the words used to designate truths discovered by them are retained as monuments, to tell the story of their customs
2 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
and civilization. There is no longer a Roman empire but Latin is the basis of the languages of five great nations and has exerted a lasting influence upon the vocabularies of every civilized race. The so-called sciences of alchemy and astrology have long slept in the dim and dusty past, but many of the terms employed by their devotees still exist in scientific nomenclature. Many of these words have assumed meanings en- tirely different from the original. Al eksir, elixir, with the alchymists meant, the philosopher's stone, but is now applied to an agreeable preparation of a medicine. So also many words which arose from strange medical notions, long ago abandoned, still remain in our language with their forms and significations more or less changed. Mania, Greek y.a'uta^ or iir^viz as used by Homer, is derived from the same root as /zjy'v, the moon, and meant originally, the moon sickness, being the exact counter- part of the Latin liinaticus from luna, the moon. These words are still employed to designate states of mental aberration although we ridicule the aetiological notions involved in them.
A careful study of the etymology of medical terms would enable us to reconstruct, in a measure, the history of our art, just as the geologist from strata and fossils, tells the story of the earth's creation and the develop- ment of all the life it now contains. By examining the silt at the mouth of a river we can determine the char- acter of the soil through which the waters have passed ; so also we can discover in the ancient medical words which have drifted down through the ages, indications of the sources of our knowledge, of our past errors and successes. We still talk oi plagues, a word derived from TT/j^'/T^', a blow inflicted by the almighty gods to wreak vengeance upon guilty mortals ; of melancholy from
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 3
//eP^ac black and yol-q bile, which was supposed to cause this affection ; of poultices which are no longer bean puddings or porridge, -blzo!;, ; of arteries, from d-pxr^^na a wind pipe or air tube, because they were supposed to contain nothing but air ; and yet the original ideas repre- sented by these words have long since faded from our view. In fact, as Archbishop Trench has shown, we find poetry, history and ethics in words, even in medical terms, which are supposed by those ignorant of their history, to be the symbols of the dryest of facts and ideas.
Saturn, one of the gods of the older school, has come down to us in saturnine poisoning ; Mars, the god of war and iron weapons, has given us the martial pre- parations; Jupiter Ammon, the horned god, is remem- bered in ammonia, hartshorn ; some of our instruments are of Vulcanized rubber; Mercury, as a Roman, has pre- sented us with mercurial preparations, as a Greek with name of Hermes, i^EpixXi^ he sees that our tubes are hermetically sealed. Venus, as a Roman, has a particular portion of the female anatomy, the vions veneris, dedi- cated to her memory, while she has sent us a host of diseases, the venereal, which are very remunerative to the doctor but not very complimentary to herself. As a Greek goddess with the name of Aphrodite, (J^podcnj) we see her in the class of aplirodisiac remedies. Eros i^' Hpo)^\ the Greek Cupid is remembered in Erotomania, Psyche ( V'^X^) his companion in psychiatry, and from Iris, the messenger of the gods, we now extract a cholagogue. All Olympus thus seems to have been interested in medicine, w'hile demigods, nymphs, satyrs, and naiads stroll through the various branches of our science giving their names, here to a plant used medicinally, and there to a disease, symptom, or part of the body.
4 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
When we speak of the tejido Achillis we are re- minded of that classical tale relating how the son of Peleus was held by the heel and dipped by his seaborn mother into the river Styx to make him invulnerable; how this particular tendon and the parts about it were not immersed, and how Paris succeeded in inflicting a mortal wound in this locality. There is poetry too in the names of drugs and plants. Phosphorus (f a»c light ifkpoi to carry), is the morning star, the light bearer; Cypripediiim in Venus's slipper, from Cypris one of her names ; while vwrpJiine recalls Morpheus, the changing god of dreams, who lulled mankind to sleep.
Even the names of diseases, strange as it may seem, contain metaphors and other poetical figures. Carbuncles are like the purple reddish gems of the same name, icterus (Greek ^ixzepoz) is the name of the yellow bird, while iliac passion is a phrase which recalls the spear thrust and the tragic sufferings on the Cross. History is found everywhere illustrated in words, calculate and testify take us back to the days when men told members with pebbles, calculi, and cast their votes with shells, testae. Gefttianus of Illyria is said to have discovered the virtues of the plant named after him. Magnets were first known in Magnesia, chalk, creta, in Crete.
We all know what cretinism is, yet few are aware that cretin and Christian were originally the same w^ord. The Arian refugees of the Pyrinees were anciently called Christaas, in French Chretiefis or Christians. Long resi- dence in the dim valleys with frequent intermarriages of blood relations in time developed a peculiar form of idiocy associated with enlargement of the thyroid gland. People afflicted with this malady are still called Chris- tians under the name cretins, while cretinism means etymologically Christianity.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 5
Idiocy also has a historical origin. The ancient Athenians were a nation of politicians. Those who did not hold office were designated as iduovac, private citi- zens, to distinguish them from the office holders. In time a man who was not a public servant and had never had an opportunity to serve the state as such, was looked upon as a person of very inferior mental capacity, and finally idiocy assumed a meaning among the Ancient Greeks quite similar to that which we now assign to it.
There is in mankind a tendency to call impure things by better names than they deserve. This custom, called etiphcmisvi is frequently illustrated in medical nomenclature, and we find the names pagan divinities who once tuned the harps of poets and inspired the genius of artists, applied to parts or functions of the body whose vulgar names we would be ashamed to write. Venus in our art is not the goddess of love, but of lust, Priapus has nothing to do with the fertility of gardens, but is distinguished only for his enormous mcmbriim virile in a constant state of erection ; satyrs and nymphs no longer sport by babbling brooks on vineclad hills, revelling in choral dances with Pan and Bacchus, but are famed only for their salacity, and Hymen, the god of marriage and of nuptial songs is remembered only by a delicate female membrane supposed to be ruptured on the wedding night.
When we recall the numerous allusions in our science to the heathen deities of old, the " sacred disease," epilepsy, the "sacred fire," erysipelas, the "sacred muscle," transvcrsalis liimborum, and the "sacred bone," OS sacru7n, we feel that our art is still redolent with the paganism and superstitions of antiquity. When we think of " St. Anthony's fire," " St. Vitus' dance," and St. Ignatius' bean, we wander to mediaeval shrines
6 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
more pious but not less superstitious. But with all these relics of vagaries and past errors, our science is still advancing to a higher plain, and the day may come when the comma bacillus, the gonococcus, and many other terms will likewise be classed among words mark- ing the delusions of the past; for many a hypothesis supported by the ablest of physicians, has disappeared from the pages of our medical books leaving only a few words, like fossils, to tell future generations the story of their rise and fall.
CHAPTER II.
The Historical Sources of the Language OF Medicine,
IN tracing the history of the English language we learn that the earliest known inhabitants of Britain were the Celts whose language has left but few traces in our vernacular. Then came the Saxons, sweeping all before them and forcing their vocabulary upon the origi- nal inhabitants who were not destroyed or driven into the mountain fastnesses. A few centuries later the Nor- mans conquered the Saxons, and, although they could not abolish the vocabulary of these Teutons, they forced many words upon them, and the language of England became a Normanized Saxon. The Christian Church, with its Latin tongue, and the revival of Greek learning, in their turn brought many erudite terms from these sources into the English language, while the Crusades, commerce, and Continental wars have introduced many more foreign terms, making the English language what it is to-day.
In a similar manner we may trace the developmental history of the language of medicine, which, like the language of a nation, has a story and a dictionary of its own. The art of medicine was born with the Aryan race, but the language of the Aryans, like that of the Celts, has had only an indirect influence upon the subsequent vocabularies. The Greeks cultivated medical science until it attained a high degree of development; then, as the Normans conquered the Saxons, so the Romans conquered the Greeks, and the language of
medicine became a Latinized Greek, as, in the former 2
8 THE LANGUAGE OF AIEDICINE.
case, it became a Normanized Saxon. For half a mil- lennium in the middle ages the true science of medicine dwelt with the Arabs, and when it came back to Latin- speaking countries it brought some Moorish w^ords and notions in its train. Then, when Greek learning was revived in the fifteenth century, many of the older terms, which had been lost, were again restored, and Greek has remained the favorite source from which we derive medical terms at the present day, although, of late, many words from various modern languages, especially the French, have found their way into our medical literature.
We will now discuss the sources of our medical terms in a more detailed manner.
An eminent comparative philologist has devoted considerable attention to the language and civilization of the primitive Aryans. Although there are no written specimens of their tongue, and no tabulated history of their nation, he has been able to gather a great deal of interesting information from the roots of Aryan words found in other languages, thus reconstructing their vocabulary and grammar, much as the geologist, from a single fossil bone, will picture to you the antediluvian animal of which it formed a part. He thus discovers that this ancient people rode in carts drawn by oxen, wore clothes made of wool, had a religion with a priest- hood, and employed physicians.
Sanskrit, the sacred language of the Hindoos, is the elder brother of the Indo-European linguistic family, and of this we possess some very ancient books on medicine and other sciences. Long before the days of Homer, at least a thousand years before Christ, these Hindoos possessed a knowledge of medicine which was not surpassed by that of the Greeks in the days of Hippocrates. The Aynr Veda,
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 9
with the commentaries of CJiaraka and Sttsruta, were probably in existence at that early date, and there is con- siderable evidence that the Ayur Veda, the oldest medical treatise in the world, is an abridgement of a still older and larger work. The dignity and ethics of the medical profession of that ancient race have never been surpassed. Before the young Brahmin was allowed to study medi- cine, he must pass a special examination in regard to his moral and intellectual attainments. In his final exami- nation, so various and extensive were the qualifications desired, that, it is said, " they were never found combined in a single mortal on earth, and but rarely in heaven." There were laws enforced by the Rajah regulating the practice of medicine and the suppression of quackery. " The charlatan may be known," says Susruta, " by his vanity and his ill-will toward the good physician. He flatters the patient's friends, takes reduced fees, is hesi- tating and doubtful in performing difficult operations, and pretends that his want of success is caused by bad attendants. Such persons avoid the society of the learned physician as they would a jungle." *
The ancient Hindoo physician was familiar with practical anatomy. All the larger viscera of the body were known and named. Susruta says : " A holy man (physician-priest) should dissect, in order that he may know the internal structure of the body." He also gives minute directions for the selection of a subject. Seven kinds of joints were known and described, nerves were distinguished from tendons, and the different layers of the skin had been discovered. Pathology, like that of the Greeks at a later period, was based upon humors. Indeed, this humoral pathology remained in medical science until the last century, and traces of it still exist
* Dr. H. T. Wise, "History of Medicine," Vol. I.
10 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
in our language. " Salt rheum," from ptofxa, a humor, is a common expression with the laity. What does it mean ? Merely that there is a salty humor in the blood. Rheumatism meant, originally, to be full of humors, from the Greek pvj^ari'^io. The proper mixture of the humors produced temperaments, from teinpero, to season or restrain. Thus there are bilious, lymphatic, sanguine and mixed temperaments, depending upon the prepon- derating humor. When we say that a horse has the distemper, we mean, literally, that the equilibrium of humors has been impaired.
So much for this diversion from our subject. In materia medica the Hindoos had made great discoveries. The properties of many plants were known; leeches were used; common salt, borax, sul- phur, four kinds of mercury, antimony, zinc, iron and arsenic were all administered in a remarkably intelligent manner. Surgery was also highly developed. Susruta gives directions for performing lithotomy, laparotomy, hysterotomy, and various autoplastic operations, particu- larly rhinoplasty. Physicians from India traveled through the world performing operations and attending the sick. It is probable, though not certain, that they visited Greece, and it may be that the lithotomists whom Hippo- crates mentions as being the only ones who should per- form the operation for removing stone, were Indians, and far better surgeons than the Father of Medicine himself We know that when, shortly after the death of Hippo- crates, Alexander the Great invaded Asia, Indian physi- cians possessed of wonderful skill, even being able to raise the dead, were mentioned by Arrian. It is also claimed that many of the Hippocratic treatises are mere translations of Hindoo w'orks. In scarcely any other way can we account for the remarkable knowledge of
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
11
anatomy displayed by the Greeks at this time, for we know that practical anatomy was unknown to Hippo- crates. Another evidence that Greek medicine was indebted to that of the Hindoos may be deduced from the fact that many drugs employed by the Greeks have Hellenized Sanskrit names. The following may be mentioned :
GREEK.
Kaazopcou
Kdarava
KdpdapLOv
Mfjxqp
Mbayo^
nirczpc
I!dvza?.ov
ZdxyapoiJ
Zi^Cj^epi::
SANSKRIT.
kastiiri
fr. kasta '"S„^"^ castanea ciradamun '^l^'^
LATIN. ENGLISH.
castor musk
chestnut cardamomum cardamom
cana mahira
mUSchka testicle
pippali caiidana shining carkara
cannabis
macis
moschus
piper
santalum
saccharum
hemp
mace
musk
pepper
sandal wood
sugar
ginger
gringavera: ^^"aped zingiber
Some anatomical names, also, are either taken directly from the Sanskrit or, what is more probable, both the Sanskrit and the Greek are derived from the primitive Aryan. Examples : —
SANSKRIT.
GREEK.
LATIN.
ENGLISH.
Ciras
xdpa
caput
head, kopf Germ,
Hrid
xapoia
cor
heart
Nauree
psopou
nervus
nerve
Medhara
H'j-Xo^
medulla
marrow
Osthi
^oariou
OS
bone
Pitta bile
zcT'jcra
pituita
spittle
Vasti
x'jffTn;
vesica
bladder
Some words have found their way into Latin and English from the Sanskrit which are not observed in the Greek. For example sulphur, often spelled sidfur, is
12 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
from the Sanskrit cidvari. In Greek the word for sul- phur is duov divine, because it was supposed to have a purifying power, prophetic of its use as a disinfectant on earth and in Hades. This Greek word appears in the nomenclature of the sulphur compounds, dithionic, bisidpliuric , trithionic, etc.
The student will observe that these words chang-e form in passing from one language to another, just as many of the lower animal and vegetable organisms undergo morphological changes when the medium which surrounds them is altered. On this account it is very difficult to trace many words to their birthplace, and our knowledge of the influence of Hindoo medicine upon that of the Greeks is very obscure. We may state, how- ever, that the art, much more than the language of medicine, was affected by Eastern influence.
The same may be said of Egyptian medicine in regard to its influence upon the Greek. We know that many Greeks visited Egypt and studied their sciences. Indeed, it was the custom with historians, at one time, to derive all the sciences from Egypt. Yet, with the possible exception of nupaiii^, pyramid, and the names of a few divinities, there are scarcely any Egyptian words to be found in the Greek language. The Egyptians were famed for their specialties. Herodotus tells us that they had " one physician for the eyes, another for the head, and another for the parts about the belly." They were the first dentists of whom we have any knowledge, for false teeth and gold fillings have been found in the mouths of mummies. They were able to operate for cataract suc- cessfully, could remove stone from the bladder, knowing both the supra-pubic and perineal operation, and yet, with all their skill and all their intercourse with Greece, few, if any, Egyptian words found their way into the
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 13
vocabularies of medical writers. The Greeks prided themselves upon the purity of their language, regarding all foreign words as barbarisms, and, accordingly, avoided the importation of words to represent the ideas acquired abroad.
The Greek element is the foundation of the language of medicine, and it is of great importance that the scien- tific student should know at least the first principles of this tongue. In the works of Homer, who is supposed to have lived some 900 years before Christ, we find fre- quent references to the healing art. There were no surgeons who devoted themselves especially to that branch of practice. Podalirius and Machaon, the sons of iEsculapius, were called larpoi, or dvdp£(: larpoi, healing men, but they fought in the ranks like the other heroes, and there are many instances in which other leaders extracted darts and applied styptic herbs to the wounds. The word laxpbc, is derived from idopac, to heal, and is always used by Homer for surgeon, there being no evidence that medicines ((fap/jtaxa) were given internally. The word carpoi;, or io.rp'ia, healing, curing, is preserved in the technical terms psychiatry, mind healing, the cure of mental diseases, and in pcediatry, child healing, the treatment of children's diseases, derived from (p^X^^ ^^ mind, and tjuq, a child, respectively. The pharniaca were always of a vegetable nature, and were styptic and anodyne in their action. The word '/^s.cpoopjoQ is of later origin, and means, literally, hand tvork, from ydn, the hand, and epjov, work; whence we have y^ecpoopjio., handi- work, Latin chirurgia, a word which, with slight modi- fication, means surgery in nearly all modern languages ; thus, in Italian and Spanish cirngia, German and French chirurgie. Old English chirurgery; whence the modern form, surgery. When men became afflicted with non-
14 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
surgical affections, the disease was looked upon as a punishment sent by the gods, just as our Western Indians, and some other people not so barbarous but quite as superstitious, regard bodily disorders at the present day. When the pestilence Qmiioq, from which our word loimology is derived) appeared among the Grecian hosts at Troy, it was explained by the anger of Apollo, who was wreaking vengeance upon the offenders :
" He came as comes the night. At first he smote The mules and the swift dogs, and then on man He turned his deadly arrows, while all around Glared evermore the frequent funeral pyres."
In this case the Greeks did not imitate Asa, of Old Testament fame, who " sought not to the Lord in his affliction, but to the physicians," and, as a consequence, " slept with his fathers." But neglecting Podalirius and Machaon, they piously consulted the priest of Apollo, to help them appease the anger of the infuriated god. He ordered a general ablution of the Greek army — very good advice in its way — and a sacrifice of a hundred oxen, and soon the pestilence disappeared. The word physician comes indirectly from the Greek through the Latin physicianus. The Greek ifuaabc, means pertaining; to nature or growth {tpuat^. From this our \v ox diS physic, ' physics, and many others are derived. The (foacxol, physici, were not physicians as the word is understood to-day, but natural scientists; and as these scientists understood medicine, the science most appreciated by the people, the word finally came to be applied to medical practitioners alone. During the early centuries of our era the physici were sorcerers, and physic, za <poacxd., meant drugs of magical origin.
The Homeric surgeons had no knowledge of anat- omy except such as was acquired from the treatment of
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 15
wounds and the evisceration of animals, as was practiced in making sacrifices. All the external parts of the body and the principal internal organs were known and named, the words employed by Homer being found in scientific medical works at the present day,*
But the true science of medicine, as we now under- stand it, came into existence with Hippocrates, wlio Jived 460-377 B. c. WitlL-tlie-exceptiQrioflarL-a.ccurate-.knowl- edge ^fosteology, Hippocrates was not much ipore intimately acquainted with anatomy than were the HTomeric heroes. He mentions, with considerable satis- faction, the existence of a human skeleton in one of the temples of .^sculapius, and it was from this source that his accurate knowledge of bones was derived. To him, muscles were but flesh, and veins (cpXiih^) were only gushers (from ^/iw, to gush, cf. the Latin flco to weep). The word artery {aprr^pKi) is restricted to the windpipe, while vvjpa (jteiira), in the Hippocratic age, represented both nerves and tendons. The brain was a gland secret- ing mucus; the heart, a muscle containing four cavities, two for the reception of air, and two fountains of life; the lungs were for the reception of air to cool the inter- nal fires.
But the Hippocratic descriptions of diseases and symptoms are quite accurate. He was a true artist in portraying the signs and symptoms of disease. The
* The following medical words are found in the Iliad and Odyssey, with meanings identical with those of the present day : Carpus, chole, cleido, coma, corona, crocus, cranium, cyanic, cystis, encephalon, entera, hidrosis, ischium, omphalus, ophthalmos, omo-, picric, phrenic, phyton, phthisis, splanchna, sternum, stethos, and syringe.
Besides these, there are many words which are similar in form in Homeric Greek and in modern medical works, but have different meanings. The following may be taken as examples: ./T.ther, amnion, amoeba, astragalus, clonos, corymb, didymi, ephialtes, gastro-, iris, ichor, melissa, mesodme, meconium, molybdenum, narcosis, nymphae, pleura, phial, phlebs, phalanges, sponge, trachea and troche.
16 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
Hippocratic countenance, fades Hippocratica^ has be- come a classical phrase. The names given by him to diseases, in many instances, remain in the nosologies of the present day, and his method of forming words to represent pathological processes has served as a model for all succeeding generations.
The next great name which has had a lasting influ- ence upon the language of medicine is that of Aristotle, who was born 384 b. c. He was the inventor of com- parative anatomy. His classification of animals, based upon anatomical peculiarities, was so excellent that Cuvier, more than 2,000 years afterward, found no occa- sion to seek a better. Aristotle gives the first reliable description of the brain, and the word aorta {adprij, from decfjco, to rise up) was probably invented by him. He was familiar with the whole alimentary canal and the surrounding viscera. He divides the intestines into parts quite similar to those described in modern works, the terms now used being, in many cases, mere transla- tions of the Greek words used by Aristotle.
The foundation of the Alexandrian Library by the Greeks of Egypt, 380 b. c. and the legalization of human dissection gave a new impetus to the study of anatomy and physiology, and a few years later we observe the names of Erasistratus and Herophilus, the first Greek anatomists. Erasistratus described the valves of the heart, the cranial nerves, and perhaps distinguished motor from sensory nerves. Herophilus whose name is
* A sharp nose, hollow eyes, collapsed temples ; the ears cold, contracted, and their lobes turned out : the skin about the forehead being rough, distended and parched ; the color of the whole face being green, black, livid or lead-colored. — //>)>- pa crates' Prognostics.
Shakespeare, in describing the death of FalstafT, seems to have been familiar with this description of the /^cicics Hippocratica : " For after I saw him fumble with the sheets, and play with flowers, and smile upon his fingers' ends, I knew there was but one way ; for his nose was as sharp as a pin, and he babbled of green fields. So he bade me lay more clothes on his feet ; I put my hands into the bed and felt them, and they were as cold as any stone." — Henry F., //., j.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 17
commemorated in torcular Herophili, the wine press of Herophilus, was the first vivisectionist, and was even accused of vivisecting condemned criminals. He gave the names to the clwroid plexus and calamus scriptorius^ xdXafxo^ Xpa(fcx6z tvriting pen. These two physicians were rivals and founded rival schools. Herophilus was a close follower of Hippocrates. Erasistratus was more independent and explained diseases by mechanical theo- ries, but employed a large number of drugs. His school was followed by the empirics, (Greek ifiTzecpcxo^, skilled experienced) who believed that all knowledge of medi- cine was obtained from clinical experience. A rival school, the mctliodists (Greek fitdoidiazai followers of a definite track bobi) soon gained the ascendency and the empirics were looked upon as charlatans, so that the word, though honorable in its origin, is still applied to quacks.
We meet with no more epoch marking names until the time of Galen (130-209 a. d.) a ^physicianjDf the Alexandrian School who stands _next tQ_Hipp£>crates in the ancient medical world. He was an ardent admirer of the older medical writers and an enthusiastic investi- gator in unexplored regions of medical science. The veins of the brain substance, venae Galeni, commemorate his name. Previous to his time, a speculative tendency had crept into all the sciences. Physicians were more interested in elaborating theories of disease, than in applying inductive methods of thought to medical mat- ters. Galen saw that scientific medicine must be based upon a thorough knowledge of anatomy and physiology, that the normal must be known before its abnormal could be explained and corrected. He devoted much time to these elementary branches and made some important discoveries. He demonstrated the existence
18 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
of the periosteum and described the nutrition of bone ; he showed that symphyses were in early hfe articulations. He discovered that muscles were the organs of locomo- tion and not mere inert masses for covering bones and viscera ; that arteries contained blood and not air as was / formerly supposed ; and finally he showed the distinction v between nerves and tendons.
The rise of Christianity now arrested the develop- ment of medical science which came to be looked upon as a black art. Anthropotomy was prohibited and the general belief in daemoniacal possession, as taught in the New Testament, encouraged the existence of a host of impostors who claimed to cure disease by invoking divine aid. The Cross that brought light to religion, cast a gloom over philosophy and the sciences which soon lulled them to sleep in monasteries or sent them into exile among the Arabians. Thus we find few Greek writers on medicine after Galen who added anything to the science.
Oribasius, court physician to the Pagan Emperor Julian the Apostate, compiled a work of great historical value but evincing little original research, unless we may ascribe to him the discovery of the saliv^ary glands. Soranus wrote the first work on gynaecology and describes the speculum rediscovered in modern times. Alexander of Tralles advanced some new views on pathology, while Paul of Aegina wrote on surgery and obstetrics. We have thus a series of Greek writers on medicine extending from 450 b. c. to 700 A. d. During all this time no discovery of any moment was made by a Latin writer, and even after the decline and fall of Greek learning, the true science of medicine did not pass to the Romans but to the Arabs.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 19
To sum up the influence of Greek science upon the language of medicine we may state that in anatomy the names of the majority of organs requiring careful research for their discovery are taken from the Greek. Thus the names of the external bones of the^ cranium are Latin, e. g. frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal, while those requiring dissection for their discovery are Greek, e. g. ct/unoid dind sphenoid. From the Greek, also, come the names of nearly all_diseases and symptoms. SoTeadllyare compounds formed in Greek which express exactly the idea named that scientific men turn instmct- ively to that language to form the symbols of their thoughts^ For this reason we find almost the entire nomenclature of bacteriology to be of Greek origin although the words have nearly all been coined within the past decade. Thus we h3.YQ •.-r-ScJiisomycctes Si-Qro- ayj^co to split and /rjxr^^ fungus; Micrococciis, from /i«/>oc small and xbrMZ a seed or berry ; Saprophyte, from oarzfjb:; rotten and (forov plant, all being words which designate accurately the thing described. The names of many surgical instruments, such as lithotrite, stone pulverizer, from UQoq, a stone and xpzt^to to pulverize; crainoclast a skull crusher, from xpdvtov cranium and x/d^co to crush, and of the great majority of operations, e. g. thoracentesis boring the thorax from Qcopaq the chest and xsuzdco to bore, are also mere Greek words in an English dress.
The Latin Element. The student will naturally enquire why the language of medicine is, in structure, Latin^ when it is so largely derived from the Greek. Circumstances having no direct bearing upon the devel- opment of the science have accomplished this result. The first and only work on pure Roman medicine is from the pen of Cato the Censor, who lived some two hundred years before Christ. It is included in a treatise on rural
^
I}.
V
20 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
affairs, '' De Re Riistica," and contains about as much scientific medicine as a similar work composed by " Sit- ting Bull," or "Tippoo Tib" might be expected to dis- play. It abounds in superstitious nonsense and slanders of the regular physicians who were coming to Rome from Greece ibout that time. Nevertheless, Cato's work is significant from a literary point of view. The words "7^ employed by him to express mariy~rrr6rbid cbnditTons and parfs^Tthe body were used in the subsequent translation of Greek works into Latin.
After the fall of Grecian independence, 146 b. c, many Greek physicians found their way to Rome. Some were slaves, others were freemen who came to try their fortunes. In fact, all the arts anci sciences, good and bad, so highly developed by the Greeks, gained a foot- hold in Rome, and this sturdy race of warriors was made effeminate by their captors. As Horace relates, in his Ars Poctica : ' — ^
" Grcecia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artes Intulit agresti Latio.^'
There was some opposition on the part of the Roman populace to the new art of medicine, which,^to a certain extent, antagonized their religious notions. Arca- gathus, the first Greek physician, was dubbed carnifex, meat-maker or butcher, as some surgeons are called by , unappreciative people at the present day, and later ' Cato accuses the Greek doctors of having formed a con- -^ spiracy to poison the Roman nation. But the art of ^ medicine, thus established on Latin soil, soon took root, ^.^ and, for many centuries, maintained a sickly existence in a Romanized form. ^
The Roman mind possessed but little originality ^ except in politics and war. Even the most famous of 'y \ the Latin writers were often little more than good trans-
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 21
lators. Virgil, in his Eclogues, makes a fair translation of the Idyls of Theocritus, and, in the ;^neid, the thoughts, the form, and the poetical figures are, as a rule, / taken bodily from Homer, So in medicine the Romans xo ^/ merely copied from the Greeks. When a convenient ^^tP] Latin word was wantiiigV m'inaking their translations, ^ J they never stopped to coin one of their own, but took .- '^ — the Greek word and dressed it in Roman type and ^
terminations. For example, the first section of the small intestine was called in Greek, dcodzxaddxzo/.ou, twelve fingers, meaning that this organ was, in length, equal to the width of twelve fingers. In Latin this was translated diiodemim, by twelve. But ileum, the name of the third portion of the small intestine, is identical with that used by the Greeks, viz : — zlltbv or xh iuzefwp echSv, the (^^~iC6^f^ twisted gut. Sometimes the Greek word found its way into Latin, even when there was a good Latin word in existence. Thus, for liver, there are both the /^^L old Latin word, j'eciir, and the Greek, Jiepar, r^-ao ; for spleen there is the Latin lien and the Greek splcninni, arJcrp.j ; and for amber there is the Latin succimmi, from succus, juice, and the Greek electrum, rfKzxzpov. The names of diseases and of obscure organs were, almost without exception, borrowed and not translated.
The two most distinguished Latin writers on medi- cine were Celsus, who flourished from b. c, 53 to 7 A. D., and Pliny the Younger, 23-105 A, d. Perhaps neither of these men was a physician. The second speaks in a very deprecatory manner of the art of medi- cine, but the first displays much practical knowledge. But their works are encyclopsedias of the medical knowl- edge of their time, and Celsus is regarded as the perfec- tion of medical Latmity, even at the present day, Coelius AureTianus wrote" on acute and chrOTrit
f
22 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
Celeris Passionibns" and " De Tardis Passionibus." He is noted for the purity of his Latin, and his attempt to avoid, as far as possible, the introduction of pure Greek words. The monastic physicians, a few years later, read his work to the exclusion of all others, and, in this manner, his influence upon the subsequent medical Latin was very great.
Celsus, Pliny and Aurelian are the only important Latin medical authors of the classical period. They were much read by the Latin writers who lived after the revival of learning, and thus have had a lasting influence upon our language, if not upon our methods of practice.
When the Roman Empire fell, it dropped into the lap of the Church, which straightway proceeded to despoil it of its system of government, thus becoming, for many centuries, the greatest of temporal powers. The old pagan literature and philosophy were locked up in cloisters or destroyed by papal command. The arts and sciences, with the exception of war, theology and law, were, to a great extent, suppressed. The scientific medi- cal works composed by heathen writers, and filled with allusions to strange gods, were among the first to dis- appear, and physicians who showed any familiarity with them were regarded as being in league with the evil one.
But the monks began to cultivate, in a rude way, the arts and sciences. Some whiled away their lonely hours in the perusal of medical works, and often on their frequent begging expeditions, in a very unscientific man- ner-, they practiced the healing art. Surgery fell into the hands of barbers, and not until the tenth century, when' the monks of Salerno began to teach medicine, was there a medical school in Europe outside of Moorish Spain. In this school at Salerno surgery was again taught, and there is some evidence that animals were dissected, for
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 23
about this time a work was written on the anatomy of the hog, "Anatoniia Porci." In the twelfth century the Crusades brought the nations of Europe into contact with Saracenic culture, and medical works were translated from Arabic into mediaeval Latin. Medicine. then became a purely Arabic science, and so con- tinued until, in the latter part of the fifteenth century, the ancient medical authors were again studied in the origi- nal Greek. About this time practical human anatomy was revived. Achillini, Berenger, Fallopius, Arantius, Eustachius, and Varolius of Italy, with Sylvius and Vesalius of France, form a galaxy of anatomical investi- gators who have given their names to many of their dis- coveries. Their works were all published in the six- teenth century, and in Latin, the language of the Church and State in all Western Europe at this time. Their style was far purer than that of their monkish prede- cessors, who had corrupted the language of medicine by the introduction of numerous Arabic and ^loorish-Greek terms, such as incri for oesophagus, sioiiac for the umbilical region, niyrac for the abdomen, sipliac for the peritongum, xr//-Z';/j' for omentum, and wz/r/^^ for cervix. This word nucha is almost the only Arabic-Latin word still remaining in anatomical nomenclature, as seen in ligamentum nuchce, the ligament of the nape of the neck. In the latter part of the sixteenth century, medical men in England began to write in their own language, although the great majority of the text-books in all the sciences were Latin, and professors in the schools lectured in that language. The first English work on anatomy was compiled by John Banister, in 1578, and was entitled, "The Historic of Man, from the most Approved Anath- omistes in this Present Age." In other countries of
Europe, Latin was still the only language of the physi- 3
1
24 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
cians, and so continued far into the eighteenth century. Even at the present day, in Italy, Germany, and Spain, monographs are occasionally composed in Latin, although as a literary language it is fast disappearing. In Ger- many there is now a tendency to abolish Latin and Greek terms and substitute pure German words. Thus we find them using krcbs for cancer, kchlkopf for larynx, inagen- cntziiendiing for gastritis, fraiienhcilkiinde for gynae- cology, etc. In the German language this change is possible, though, perhaps, not advisable. In English, however, it would be very difficult to form words to take the place of our scientific technical terms derived from the Classic tongues. "Windpipehead," "womanhealing- art," and " straightgutinflammation," would certainly be no improvement upon the learned words now em- ployed. Moreover, our colloquial vocabulary is in a constant state of change, as will be shown in a future chapter, whereas, scientific truths, once established, should have names to designate them in all times and in all countries. Where there are several common names for the same thing, much confusion would, in a short time, be introduced into the language of medicine, were the Classical terms to be dropped. What one of the hundred vulgar names for the male organ of generation, which Rabelais has taken the trouble to record in French, could we substitute for the Latin penis?
Before leaving the discussion of the Latin element in medicine, we must call attention to the fact that many of our technical words belong to Low Latin, and would not be found in the works of Cicero or Celsus. For example, scorbutus, scurvy, is derived from the Teutonic schaar, torn, and biiiik, belly, and embrocatio from Greek if^iiieyziv, to soak in, both being Mediaeval Latin. Sometimes we have both the Classical and Mediaeval
^^
^\
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 25
Latin word for the same thing, as the following illustra- tions will show :
CLASSICAL LATIN. MEDIEVAL LATIN. ENGLISH.
pila bulla ball
anthemis chamomilla chamomile
OS frontis glabella frontal bone
OS bucca mouth
equus caballus horse ^
Sometimes we have adopted in medicine the later meaning of words instead of the signification found in ^
the classics. Thus ciiratio, from euro, to care for, has ,
come to mean cure, just as from the Greek depazcov^ who ,■ V\/JIA' was originally a slave or menial who waited upon a mas- n ter, is derived the modern therapeutist who is_guite a different person. The ancient word tor healing "WdisCmedi-y i^atw^rom medeor to heal, and a medicus was a healer, at first_of wounds, afterward of aU_dippat;ps, jn'^t as was the casewith the Greek iarpo^ Our word heal has a simi- lar Kistoiy. It is deriveofrom a root hel meaning cover, and from it heal, heel and Jiell are all formed. To heal meant originally, to cover a wound with skin ; the heel is covered by the leg, and Jiell is a covered place somewhere below.
Latin words are still being formed, and it is anything but a dead language. Antimonium, potassium, and tannicum are words unknown to the Ancients, The^ / recently formed Greek words all wear Latin dresses ; we ^ )iZ. do not write youoxoxxo:; but gonococcus, nor fiupiyylTtzC^ but myringitis. Many of the medical words imported fronT^e modern languages are, when it is possible, promptly turned into Latin. - Although we do not inflect tolu as a Latin word, we form from it the adjective tohi- tamis. Spanish, Portuguese and Italian words, like cas-
20 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
carilla, ipecacuanha, and scarlatina, are usually treated as if they were Latin, forming a genitive in <z.
The nomenclature of a recently-developed branch of our science, medical jurisprudence, is almost exclusively Latin. The rudiments of forensic medicine are found in that mine of legal knowledge, the " Institutes of Jus- tinian," where such subjects as prolonged gestation, sterility, impotence and hermaphroditism are discussed. The technical terms employed by the Latin legal writers have passed through Norman French, and into the English codes, from which our laws are so largely derived.
The Arabic Element. While philosophy and the sciences in Christian countries, during the middle ages, were in a state of slumbering decay, the Arabs, imbued with the wisdom of Indians, Egyptians and Greeks, kept the sacred flame of knowledge burning. Their sages made translations of the Aynr Veda, the commentaries of Charaka and Susruta, and cultivated the occult sciences of that mysterious race, the Egyptians. Much of their medical knowledge was derived from the works of Hippocrates and Galen, and, as the Arabic language does not possess that capacity for word-building whfch belongsTdThe~Gfeek, man\- Greek words, slis^litly modi- fied, were adopted into their vocabularies. The Arabs did not permit the dissection of animals or human bodies. V In their manuscripts no drawings of any living thing <7" were permitted, and, as a consequence, there could be no discoveries in anatomy, physiology or surgery. But in i:he departments of chemistry, materia medica, pharmacy and nosography, great advances ^vere made, which have exerted an influence on medical science felt even at the present day.
4 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 27
Chemistry, or rather alchymy, is distinctively a science of Arabic origin. Many have supposed that the Saracens obtained it in a rudimentary state from Egypt, and, to support this view, claim that the word is derived from Chemi, the Egyptian word for Ham, who was, according to the Old Testament, the first settler in Africa. This word CJicmi was converted by the Greeks into Amnion, as seen in Zt~K "Aufxcov.^ although this word may also be derived from dmio^, sand, Jupiter Ammon thus meaning "Jupiter of the Sands." The majority of philologists, however, claim that alchymy is derived from the Arabic al, the, and the Greek yyinia, pouring or mixing, from /iw, to pour, thus shutting off the et>'mo- logical argument in favor of the Egyptian origin of this science, making the word mean "the mixing science," instead of the Egyptian or Hamitic science.
The alchemists had two objects constantly in view, first, to discover " the philosopher's stone," which would convert the baser metals into gold, and, second, to find the source of life, or compound a mixture which would enable mankind to retain perpetual youth. In order to accomplish this, they sought for a universal solvent, alkahest, which w^ould reduce substances to the four primitive elements of which they believed all things composed. This word alkahest was sometimes translated qidntesseniia, fifth essence, by the Latin alchemists, and the word still survives in this form, with altered meaning, in nearly all European languages. Many of the works of the alchemists were composed in cipher, in order that the uninitiated might not learn of their discoveries, and it is now quite impossible to translate them. This custom led an old Latin writer to say: "Alchymy is a great science, for few can understand the language thereof" Wild as were their schemes, and obscure as
28 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
were their methods, great discoveries were, nevertheless, made. They invented the method of preparing the mineral acids, calling nitro-hydrochloric acid the " royal water," aqua rcgia, as translated in Latin, because it would dissolve gold, the royal metal. Brandy also, was, first prepared by them, and, for a long time, was regarded as the elixir of life. Aqiia vitte, it was called by the Latin writers, a name which it still retains in France and Italy as eau de vie and acqua vita. It also had this name among the Spaniards at one time, but is now called aguardiente, burning water, being nearly a literal trans- lation of the German brandy, i. c., burning.
The classic period of Arabian medicine began with Rhazes of Persia, 920 a. d., who was the first to describe small-pox and measles in an intelligent manner. In fact, it is to him that we owe our first knowledge of the exanthematous diseases.
Messua, who lived in the eleventh century, wrote an extensive treatise on materia medica, which was trans- lated into Latin in the fifteenth century, passing through twenty-six editions, and finally becoming the basis for the formation of the first London Pharmacopoeia, in the reign of James I.
Avicenna, "the prince of physicians," was born 980 A. D., and wrote his " Canon of Medicine^' in the first part of the eleventh century. A hundred years later his work was translated into Latin, and continued to be used as a standard text-book until about 1650. He was the first to mention the use of the obstetric forceps.
Albucasis wrote on surgery and invented the pro- bang. Of the Moors of Spain, Avenzoar and Maimonides the Jew, were the principal authors, and their works were read throughout the civilized world.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
29
The Arabian influence was much greater upon the art than upon the language of medicine. Arabic, belong- ing to a family of languages quite distinct from the Indo- European, could not easily be Latinized. Arabic words were, therefore, rarely adopted to designate ideas or dis- coveries, whatever may have been the defects in the Latin vocabulary. The great majority of the words that were transferred before the revival of learning were dropped by the medical writers of the sixteenth century. We give below a list of the principal Arabic words still found in medical literature:
WORD.
ARABIC.
SIGNIFICATION.
Alkali
al the, qali ash
j" the ashes of glasswort, \ abounding in soda.
Alcohol
, ^ , T 7 r 1 r a fine powder used to ^/ the, /CW/rt/ eye-wash | paint eyebrows.
Amber
anbar
a rich perfume
Barberry
barbaris
barberry tree
Benzoin
benzoah
a balsam
Borax
buraq
borax
Caraway
carvi
caraway
Carmine
qirmiz
crimson
Cubebs
kubabah
bitter plant
Elixir
el the, iksjr quintessence
( the (juintessence, phi- ( losopher's stone.
Myrrh
murr
bitter
Nitre, natron
nitrun
r an alkahne earth, from \ Nitria
Naphtha
naft
bitumen
Sherbet
sharbat
a drink
Sumbul
sumboul
a spike
Syrup
sharab drink
sweet wine
Senna
Sana
senna
Sumach
summaq
a shrub, sumach
30 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
Saffron za'faran yellow
Taraxacum tarasacon succory dandelion
Tartar ^Z/n//V dregs f because it is obtained
•^ ' o (. irom dregs of wine.
Tamarind tamrhind, tamr, palm, and hind, Indian
Zero sifr through Italian zefiro
As the mediaeval translators of the Arabic medical authors were ignorant of philological science, several words derived from non-Arabic sources were introduced into Latin. In these cases the Arabic definite article al, or cl, was, through a mistaken notion, prefixed to words, thus forming hybrids. We have alembic, from al d[i[^c^, the cup or vessel for distilling. In some of the older English works we find the word alcmbroth for ammoni- ated hydrochlorate of mercury. This word is derived from the Arabic al, the, and the Chaldaic evibroth, " the key to knowledge," because the alchemists expected to determine the final composition of matter from this salt. This method of transferring the definite article as a pre- fix is occasionally observed in words derived from other languages. Thus, the word alligator is merely a corrup- tion of el ligarto, Spanish for the lizard. The English sailors who heard the word knew nothing of Spanish grammar and would naturally speak oi alligartas, a word found in the language of that erudite scholar, Ben Johnson.
Elements Derived from Other Ancient Languages. The study of the Old Testament and the commercial rela- tions with the East have introduced a few Hebrew and Persian words into the language of medicine.
From the Hebrew we have: —
Cassia, Heb. qatzah, to cut, because the bark was cut off
Cinnamon, Heb. qinamon, from qinch, a reed.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 31
Mdiina, Heb. vtan hu, What is this?
Bedlam, a corruption of Bethlehem, where Mary was in child-bed. Afterward applied to the Asylum of St. Mbxy of Bethlehem.
From the Persian we have : —
Azedarach, from a::a, a gum, a plant with anthel- mintic properties.
Asafoetida, from aza, name of gum, and 'L^.\\nf<rtida, stinking.
Bezoar, Persian padzaJiar, from pad, against, and zahar, poison ; whence, —
Bezoardics, remedies used for the prevention of disease.
Cinnabar, from Persian zinjarf, red lead.
Jasminum, from Persian j«.y;«/«, jasmine.
Jujube, corrupted from Pers. zizafiai, the jujube tree.
Julep, from Pers. gulab, rose-water, a sweet drink.
Laudanum, Greek Ir^oavov, from Persian ladan, the gum of the herb, lada.
Limon, from Pers. limun, lemon or lime.
Orange, Latin aiirantmm, from Pers. naranj.
Nard and spikenard, Pers. nard, an odor.
Elements Derived from the Moderii Languages. Dur- ing the present century, and, especially, since the Napo- leonic wars, a large number of foreign words, especially from the French, have found their way into the language of medicine as used by English-speaking authors. In- creased facilities for travel, the telegraph, and the host of medical journals, afford remarkable advantages for the interchange of scientific thought. So rapidly are new discoveries heralded throughout the civilized world that we do not stop to translate new terms but adopt, without change, the word coined by the inventor or discoverer.
32 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
Thus words from the French, German, Spanish, and even from, the far distant countries of the Orient have found a place in our medical literature. When Piorry wrote his work on percussion, and Laennec published his dis- coveries in auscultation, English writers did not, at first, stop to frame new words for the terms used to designate these discoveries and, as a consequence, we find the nomenclature of physical diagnosis replete with French words. In neurology, obstetrics, and venereal diseases, branches of medicine carefully studied in France, we also have a number of French words. From Germany and the Scandinavian countries we derive the names of some minerals and of a few diseases. From the Spanish and Portuguese we have obtained the names of many plants and of a few pathological conditions. From the Italian, also, a few words are derived, although this language is so much like the Latin that we generally prefer the Latin equivalents.
Commerce has brought words into our language, as well as merchandise into our markets. From Turkey we have coffee, Turkish qalivch, Latinized into caffea. From Hindoostan we have shampoo, Hindoostani cliampna to rub or press. From the Malay Peninsula we have gutta-percha, Malay ^rt/^//, gum, and percha, the tree from which it is obtained ; camphor, Malay kap7ir barns, barous chalk, Latinized into camphora; rum, Malay rtim booze, good drink, and mango, Malay mangga. From China we have tea, Chinese te. Latinized into thca. From Annam we ha\^e gamboge, derived from the name of the Province Cambodia, where the plant grows. From a common African personal name we have Quassia. QuasJii was a West Indian slave, and a " medicine man," who first pointed out the uses of this plant. In slavery days the name Quashi was frequently met with among
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 33
our Southern negroes. We have the plantation song :
" Quaski scrapes the fiddle string, And Venus plays the flute."
From the Abyssinian we have kousso or kiisso and kamala. From the Tartar koumiss or kiimyss. From the Fijian, kava-kava, a word meaning intoxication.
From the American Indian languages through the Portuguese, we have ipccacua?iha, from ipccaagiien, "the roadside sick-making ^Xzni " jcquirity ox jeriquiiy, and jaborandi. From the Indian languages through the Spanish, we have boldo, coto, guaiac, jalap from the Province of Xalapa in Mexico, kiiw, quebracho, qui)ii?ie from kina, bark, tobacco from the name of the island of Tobago, tolu, the name of a place, and tonga, or tonka.
From this brief history of the sources of our techni- cal terms, we learn that the language of our science, like the science itself, is truly cosmopolitan, all nations and all ages having contributed to our knowledge and our vocabulary.
CHAPTER III.
The Origin of Words.
WORDS are the symbols of ideas, not mere arbi- trary signs such as those used by the mathema- ticians, but mental pictures addressed to the imagination and recalling the exact relations of the thought symbol- ized. To be sure these pictures are, in many cases, faded, or as Goethe expresses it, like the images on coins they are worn away by long continued use or obscured by the rust of ages.
Mankind instinctively shrink from the use of words of which they have no accurate knowledge. When foreign words, replete with meaning, are forced upon the common people, they often reform or deform them into words with which they are familiar. The Latin word carbuncidus means "a little live coal," and was applied to a bright sparkling gem. When these brilliants were introduced into Germany, the Teutonic genius, though obliged to accept the Latin name, converted it into karfunkely from funkcbi, to sparkle. Many other words have been similarly modified. The German hausenblase, fish or sturgeon bladder, has been converted into ism- glasSy the Arabic carui into caraway, and benzoin into benjamin. The French dent de lion, lion's tooth, has become dandelion ; ros marimis, sea foam, has become rosemary; salpetra, rock salt, has become saltpetre ; verd de gris, Fr., green of gray, verdigrease ; wcrmiith, Germ., mind preserver, wormzvood ; cinguluui, the girdle, a Latin name for herpes zoster, has been converted into shingles, and stapldsagria, from azaffii;., a vine, and dypca, wild, has become stavesacre. The Spanish dengue, a kind of fever
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 35
common in the Southern United States and Mexico, was called by the English, danggy fever, and then ''dandy fever," a name now found in our medical works. We are also reminded, in this connection, of the physician who told an Irish woman that her husband had pneumonia. " You're right he has no mo7iey," was her reply.
Words that do not speak to the imagination are things without life. The attempt has been made to form such words in chemical nomenclature, the names of the organic series of compounds being distinguished by the vowel in the final syllable, thus, sext^a-ne, sext^ne, sextme, sext^ne, sextzme, and the terminations ate and itc, have no inherent meaning. The word sepal used in botany, it is said, has no etymological signification, having been devised by Neckar, but in this case his mind was influ- enced by the word petal, and, perhaps, by the Latin sepio, to divide. Bulwer has modeled his language of the "Vrilya," as given in "The Coming Race," largely after the Greek, and Volupuk, "the universal language," contains the majority of the Indo-European roots.
It is quite probable that the earliest words in all primitive languages were formed by ojiomatopaiia, that is, the sound expressing the thing by some peculiar adapta- tion. When we wish a person to stand we instinctively say St. This sound is found as the root of words express- ing the idea of immobility in all the Indo-European languages; Aryan sta, Greek lazT^ixt., Latin stare, Ger- man sta7iden, etc. The first cry of the infant on its entrance into this world is ma-ma, and, as its lamentations cease when it is applied to its mother's bosom, our im- aginative ancestors employed the word mamma as the name of the female breast; thus we have the Greek ixdp.iia, and the Latin mamma, etc. This same root, ma, is found in the word for mother in all the Indo-European
36 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
languages ; Sansk. matri, Greek /Jtr^Tr^p, Latin mater, French juere, German mutter, Russian mate, Anglo-Saxon, moder, Icelandic modhcr, etc. Animals were named from their peculiar inarticulate sounds. The Greek word for frog is ^dzpayo':, from " batr-r-r-ach," the sound which he utters. From the sound made by the cozv we get the Sansk. gao. Germ, hih, Greek ^06:;, and Latin bos. Names of animals that cannot thus be explained are probably of late origin and are derived from other char- acteristics. But even when there are such words we find among the people, and especially with children, a tendency to frame onomatopoeic synonymes. The regular Latin word for cat was felis, but cattus, the first syllable of which is the sound made by the cat when spitting, is found in colloquial Latin. So we have ^/^«/ (pronounced sha) in French, katze in German, all being preferred to words derived from other characteristics.
When people are in strange lands they often go back to the primitive method of word-forming in order to make themselves understood. A story is told of an English- man who, on dining in China, wished to know the com- position of a certain dish. Pointing to it he said, " Quack? quack ? " The answer received was, " Bow-wow ! "
The sounds made by animals were soon applied to other things. The winds and torrents roared, as well as the lion. The Palatine Hill takes us back to the days when the shepherds watched their bleating (balatans) flocks upon its grassy slopes. The palate, Latin palatum, is the balatans organ. The Latin word for tongue, lingua, is derived from the licking sound of the tongue. Compare English lick, Greek /s^X^o, German lec/ien, Italian Ice care.
The language of the passions is largely onomato- poeic. The Greek yt/Aaim., Latin cacchinatio, German
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 37
laclufi, and English laugh, will serve to illustrate this point. In a similar manner words were made to express the sounds of bodies colliding or passing through the air, of ringing, breaking, cracking, splashing, and many- others.
These sounds, we believe, were the basis of speech, and were learned by the primaeval man as the parrot imitates the sounds he hears. But man has a higher faculty than speech, namely, that of reason, and through this he was enabled to remember, compare and express relations. If he had been created without a larynx, he would undoubtedly have found other means than speech, of communicating his thoughts. As Nodier has aptly said, " Man speaks because he thinks."
From the radical words thus formed by onomato- poeia, a host of new expressions may be developed by the addition of prefixes and postfij^s. It is said that in the German language there We'^ly about 250 roots, and many of these can be traced to earlier forms ; yet, from this comparatively small number of original words, a vocabulary 80,000 strong has been elaborated. To illustrate the formation of words from onomatopoeic roots, we may take the radical ach, which originally denoted pain, like our ouch! In Greek we have avcq^ a point, dxav&a, a thorn, o.-^fQoz, a burden, etc.; Latin acuo, to sharpen, acus, a needle, aculeus, a spur, acer, sharp, etc.; and the same root may be traced throughout the Indo-European family of languages, always having this primary signification of pain, but modified by inflections into a thousand different shades of thought. Indeed, these onomatopoeic roots seem to be the true protoplasm of speech, and from a single one, a thousand words often so unlike the original that their relation cannot be detected, are developed. Take, for example, the sound of the initial in of viuvi,
38 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
denoting silence. In Greek alone there are nearly a hundred words containing this radical. There is //'jw, to close, as seen in myopia, in which a partial closing of eyelids is a symptom, mydriasis, from fi^jooioz, a hot iron which caused the eyes to close and the pupils to dilate, muscles, which enclose the viscera, mucus {ji~r/.oz), phlegm, which is enclosed in the body, ii~jao-, hatred which one conceals in his mind, /i'jx^jc, a mushroom which grows in dim, concealed places, and the mysteries of a society are the things that are kept "mum." Mutiis, dumb, con- tains the same root, as do, also, the English words muzzle, mummery and mumps.
Words having meanings very different from the original root are often formed. Thus, from the root xa^., call, we have the Greek 'a/Jjco, to hear. The word " dear" has two meanings, "prized," because you have it, and "expensive," because you want it. The Latin word sacrum and Greek o-jiov have the meanings of sacred to the gods and accursed by the gods. Os sacrum means ''the accursed bo?ie,'' because it was not offered up in sacrifices, and not " the sacred bone," as usually translated. Words are also formed by changing their meaning, neologisms of meaning, they are sometimes called. To illustrate this, we may look at the etymology of the words for man, mankind, and woman. Man is derived from an Aryan root, ma, meaning to think or measure, as seen in the Sanskrit manu, and Brahmana, holy man. Kind is from the Saxon ge-cynd, nature. Manki?id is man nature. Woman was, in Anglo- Saxon, wifman, wifeman, becoming in Old English, wimman, plural wimmen, as pronounced to-day. The origin of wife is not known, but probably referred to her reproductive capacity, as in the sound of the modern wom(b)man. In Greek the word for man, the male, is
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 39
d.vrip, root {and), from an Aryan word meaning testicle. Woman fjvr] (root gyficBc), from yei'udio, to bring forth, produce. Mankind is di^dpco-o^, ^'■^^Pt man, and a*/', looking. The etymology avw, upward, and rpizo), to turn, indicating that the primitive man worshipped the sun and stars, is probably a pure fancy. In Latin we have vir for man, referring to his strength, ins, allied to Greek f'c, (root i7i) fibre, strength; for woman we have feviina, from an old word, feo, to produce, as seen in foetus, fertile, fecund, and some other terms; for mankind we have homo, allied to humus, the soil, because man was formed according to the ancient myth from the earth.
We thus see that language is, as Richter truly says, a dictionary of faded metaphors, using the word meta- phor in a generic sense and not subdividing it into the specific rhetorical figures, syncchdoclie , metonymy, simile, etc. In the recently-developed sciences, such as organic chemistry, figurative language is almost entirely wanting, but in medicine, an ancient art, with a history as old as the human race and bearing in its vocabulary the records of a thousand triumphs, struggles and mistakes, there is an abundance of the poetical method of word formation.
In regard to the metaphorical formation of words, we have : —
I. The nanie of a part or symptom applied to the whole, and conversely. In scrofida, for example, the neck of a child often swells until it resembles that of a pig, hence the name scrofula meaning, literally, a little pig. In many cases of idiocy the motor apparatus is affected and the patient is obliged to walk with a staff or cane; hence we have imbecile, from iji bacillnm, upon a staff or cane. We now use the word /^w^^r which means the thigh for os femoris, the thigh bone. In the Hindoo
40 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
word beriberi, we have the symptom for the disease. The Hmbs in this affection become rigid, and the patient feels as though he were shackled, hence the name from beri, a fetter.
2. TJie name of a quality or characteristic of an object for tlie name of the whole. This method of form- ing new words is exceedingly common. Aconite is so named because it grows upon sharp projecting rocks, kv axovac^. Hydrargyrum is a watery or fluid silver, "jouii} water, dpyopov silv^er. Paraffin was so called because it had little affinity, pariun affinis, for any other chemical substance. Apocynuni was named from the fact that dogs keep away from it, arzo away, x'jcov dog. Calomel is a beautiful remedy for black bile, xalbz. beautiful and /ii/ac black. Sarcophagi were originally made of a stone which was supposed to consume the body, odij^ flesh, (fdyco to eat. The bregma is that part of a child's head where sweating or moisture is first observed, from ^l>s.y(.o to moisten. We speak of the vagus or wandering nerve, and call the windpipe the trachea because it is rough, z<jayzla.
3. The cause for the effect. In this class of words we have such as intertrigo, to rub together, designating the disease caused by such friction; nausea, literally ship sickness, from vojjz^ a ship; and we now hear of people having iiinLu-ijii^ \vhpn they mean they have a disease caused b/ malarja or bad air.
4. The place for the thing. In this class of words we have copper, cuprum, from Cyprus ; colchicum from Colchis, KohfjZi in Asia; magnesia and magnets from Magnesia a district in Thessaly; chalybeates, named from the Chalybes (Aa/y^?sc), who dwelt in Pontus; coco from the province Choco in Mexico ; rhubarb from Rha bar-
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 41
bartini, so called because it grew on the wild banks of the river RJia or Volga. Charlatan comes through the French from the Italian ciarlatano, an inhabitant of Ccrrcto. The people of this town were notorious for their boastful language, and we find in Italian the verb cialarc, mean- ing to brag. Fom Tarcnto we get tarantula, a spider whose bite was supposed to cause the dancing mania of the middle ages, the affection being called tarantism, for which about the only remedy was a peculiar variety of music which is still known as the taratitella.
Clap, the vulgar word for gonorrhoea is derived from the name of a part of Paris, Le Clapicr, the word meaning literally a rabbit burrow. This quarter con- tained numerous houses of ill fame and soon the com- mon French word for brothel was clapise, hence the name of the disease acquired in such places.
5 . TJie name of the inventor or discoverer for the name of the tlmig. Every student of human anatomy has observed the common practice of naming a newly dis- covered part of the body from the person first describing it. Thus we have the fissures of Sylviiis, Rolando, and Glasser, the lobus Spigelii, the formanina of Monro and Thebesius, and many other similar expressions. In physics Voltais7n, Galvanism, and Faradism are named after Volta, Galvani and Faraday who first observed these varieties of electrical phenomena. Nicotine and pelleticrifte are derived from the names of Nicot and Pelletier. Davyiim was named after Sir Humphrey Davy, krameria after the botanist Kramer, the guillotine immortalizes the name of the supposed inventor Dr. Guillotine, and Dr. Condom has a " moniimentum aere perennius " in the appliance which commemorates his name.
42 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
There is also a large number of plants named in honor of distinguished persons. Asclepias, Greek WaxUrua^, is the botanic name of the milkweed. Jug- lans butternut, is the nut of ]ovq, Jovisglans. Valerian is named in honor of the Roman Emperor, cincJio7ia is named after the countess of Chinchon who is said to have been cured by the use of this plant. Asagraca is derived from the name of the distinguished botanist, Dr. Asa Gray.
6. The name of the tiling derived from something re- sembling it. This is pure metaphor and is the commonest way in which words assume new meanings. Coleridge has compared words to some of the infusoria which increase by fission, continually splitting themselves up into new organisms. This method of growth in language is remarkably exemplified in tongues having but a com- paratively small number of words. The Chinese for example have only 1500 words and yet these have at least a 100,000 meanings, and if you will turn to the word zug in your German dictionary you will find over thirty English words given as equivalents. It is not necessary to make any extended search to illustrate this method of word formation.* The vomer is the plough- share, the tibia, a flute; the clitoris, from Greek -/.Izl^, a key, is the door tender; the testes are evidences of virility; theobroma is the food of the gods, Qtoq, god, ^pcofia food. The little tumors which form in the eyelids are hail-
* It is a remarkable fact that synonymes for vulgar or obscene things are always most numerous, a fact which does no great credit to the natural bent of the human imagination. Thus we find in the Latin medical writers some 200 names for the anus, perns and vulva. Among the Latin names for the male organ of generation are : — Clava, Cauda, columna, gladius, penis, pyramis, radix, ramus, trabs, vas, Z'ena, and vomer.
For the external female genitals we find among a hundred others : — Annulus, cava, delta, foUiculus, /o-oea, fundus, hiatus, mesa, ostium, porta, sinus, sulcus, irema and vulva. These nomina impudica all illustrate the formation of meta- phorical neologisms.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 43
stones, from the Greek ^oJd^cou, while pannus is a clotJi growing over the eye.
Sometimes these comparisons are expressed in the form of the words, and not impHed as in the above cases. The Greek termination oid, from zldoz, an image, and the Latin termination fonnis, form, being employed. This constitutes a figure of speech denominated by the rheto- ricians as simile. We have anthropoid, manlike, apes, and cuneiform, wedge-like, bones, as illustrations of this method of formation.
Many words in common use have strange and often obscure etymologies. Many of the dictionaries give no derivation of syphilis, yet it plainly comes from <tDc, a hog, and (fcXico, to love. In a poem published by the Italian Fracastoro, Syphilis was a swine-herd, very appro- priately named, for he certainly ought to have been a lover of hogs. But he unfortunately acquired the mor- bus Gallicus, French disease, as the venereal affection was then designated in Italy.* The French called it mal de Naples, the Neapolitan disease, and no nation cared to claim it as their own invention, a fact that induced Voltaire to say: ''The pox, hke the fine arts, owes its origin to no particular race." As it soon became necessary to have a common word to designate the affection, the name of Fracastoro's swine-herd was adopted into nosology by Sauvage, being peculiarly appropriate, for by a slight change in meaning syphilis means a tendency to have scurfy skin like a hog, just as hcemaphilia, blood loving, means a tendency to have hemorrhages.
* Quotations from the ancient writers are often given to prove that syphilis existed long before the fourteenth century. We find the following passage in the poems of Perseus, who lived 32-62 a. d. :
" Tentemus /auces : tenero latet ulcus in ore Putre, quod haud decent pleheia radercbeta .' " But this "putrid ulcer in the swollen throat " might apply as well to scarlatina anginosa, diphtheria, or noma, as to syphilis.
44 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
The French word enceinte, now meaning pregnant, is derived from the Latin incincta, girded in. The Roman matron wore a girdle of a peculiar pattern to inform people that she was pregnant and her person sacred. At a later period incincta was applied to designate pregnancy, although the women went z^z/girdled when in that inter- esting condition.
The word dexter, the right hand, takes us back to the infancy of the Aryan race. This ancient people worshipped the sun, bhog, and the south was on the right while thus performing their orisons. The Sanskrit word for south was dekkan, allied to dim, shining, and the early meaning of dexter was the south or shining hand. As the sun-god kept to the south, things seen in that direction were looked upon as of good omen as were afterward all things seen on the right hand. Things observed on the left, or north, the region of cold and darkness, were looked upon as unlucky, and so great has been the influence of this myth that many a cultivated lady at the present day feels more comfortable if she first sees the new moon over the right shoulder instead of the left. A sinister look is still literally a left-handed, that is, an ill-omened look. Moreover, the right hand is the skillful hand, and dexterity, right-handedness, is skillful- ness. Among the Romans sinisteritas, left-handedness, was awkardness.
The common Aryan word for God was dyaus, shining, a word found in the genitive of the Greek Zeus, il'.bz, and ^soc a god, the Latin dens and y>/piter, that is, Z^///pater, shining Father, the Italian Dio and the French Dieu, all meaning our bright Heavenly Father. It is quite possible, moreover, that our God is only a modifi- cation of the Sanskrit bhos", the rising; sun.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 45
The word used for soul or spirit in various Indo- European languaij^es, is almost uniformly the same as that for breath. The Greek Tivz'jfia {^pncumci), meaning a gas or the soul, is derived from nvku)., to breathe, and the New Testament phrase, xo 7:vz~jaa d.ycov, usually ren- dered " Holy Ghost," might from an etymological point of view be translated "sacred wind." So the Latin spiritus and our spirit are derived from spiro, to breathe. The ancients, observing that the soul winged an eternal flight with the cessation of respiration, applied a common word to both.
Van Helmont is said to have invented the word ^^.y, and yet, whether conscious of the fact or not, he has made it resemble ^m/, the German word for soul.
In nightmare we still see the old Norse demi-god, Mara, who was said to strangle people in their sleep.
The risiis Sardoiiiais, observed in cases of lock-jaw, is derived from the tradition that in Sardinia there grew a plant which, when eaten, caused people to die of laughter or at least to die laughing.
Delirium is derived from the Latin de, off, and lira, a furrow or track. When a man is delirious, he has wandered from his normal mental track. The same poetical figure is observed in the slang phrase, " off his base."
We have given a sufficient number of examples to prove that imagination and poetry have played an important part in the building and remodeling of words. Sometimes when the origin of words is very obscure men have invented fanciful or legendary derivations. Such etymologies are seen when formica, an ant, is derived ixova ferens micas, carrying crumbs; mors, death, from amarus because it is bitter, or from Mars because
46 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
he is the god of war and death. Cadaver,^ a corpse, has been derived by taking the first syllables of the words caxo data, trrmibus, flesh given to the worms. Even the scholarly Archbishop Trench seems to favor the derivation of crypt, which evidently comes from xrj'j~Tco, to hide, from ** crypit," because sinners in doing penance were placed in pits from which their cries were heard. In this case the cart has evidently been placed before the horse, for cry pit is but a corruption of crypt. We are reminded of the peasant's explanation of the word Jew: " They will jew you and jczv you, and that is why they are called Jews."
Antimony, also, has a legend connected with its name. Basil Valentine was an abbot of a scientific turn of mind. He gav^e antimony to the hogs upon the monastery farm, and found that they thrived upon it, but when he dosed the monks with the same chemical he learned that it acted with well-nigh fatal violence. On this account he named it antiuioninm, not good for monks, from dvW, against, and p.6\^ayo:^, a monk, or more directly from the French inoine, a monk.
The word crystal is derived from the Greek xp'jazalXoc, through the Latin crystallum, which meant, originally, ice. Michaelis in his work entitled, " The Influence of Language on Opinions, and of Opinions on Language," shows how this word brought a ridiculous error in its train. Pliny tells us that crystals are ice which has been frozen so long that it has forever lost its fluidity; and in St. Augustine, one of the Church Fathers, we read:
* I. Mors is derived from Aryan root, mar, meaning to die ; c/. Sansk. Tnurtis, body, marasmus, etc.
2. Formica is cognate with the Sanskrit vamraka, an ant, from the root vam, meaning to vomit. So named because the ant, when held in the hand, discharges
/ormic 3lC\A. Formication is the name of a symptom in which the patient has the sensation of ants crawling over the skin.
3. Cadaver is derived from cado, to fall, and was first applied to the bodies of those who had fallen in battle. Cf. Greek ptoma, a corpse, from pipto, to fall. From ptoma, the v.Qrd, piomaine, a cadaveric alkaloid, is derived.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 47
"What is a crystal? Snow hardened into ice for so many years that it cannot readily be dissolved by sun or fire."
We still employ the word gonorrhcea, from yovrj, semen, and pica, to flow, although we know it is a flow of muco-pus.
As an example of the manner in which ideas in- fluence language we may cite the notion of the alche- mists who believed that there was sex in metals. Arsenic is derived from dpatvcxoc: masculine, from apa-qv a male. Silver was feminine and was sacred to Diana or the moon, Luna, a myth which has influenced medical prac- tice even down to the present day. Dr. Martin tells us that nitrate of silver, still called lunar caustic, was first administered in epilepsy because it was supposed that epileptics were under the malign influence of the moon, as were all lu)iatics. It followed by a natural course of reasoning that the moon's metal, silver, must be the specific for all moon blasted patients, and this remedy continued its popularity until a few years since, the bromides became the fashionable drug in this affection.
Pliny tells that '' sordes liominis, sudor ct oleum" that is, "the dirty sweat and grease of man," are sovereign remedies for angina. As a consequence of this fallacy how many a quinsied youth has had a dirty stocking wound about his neck at night by his anxious but not over-scientific mother.
The nomenclature of the brain, moreover, shows how ideas may influence language. Our anatomical fathers believed that in the encephalon the homologues of all the parts of the body, both male and female, could be found in miniature; and if you will turn to your text book on anatomy to the description of the brain you will find arms brachia, legs crura, knees corpora geniculata,
48 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
breasts corpora mammillaria, five stomachs ventriculi, one of which was anciently called the womb, iitricultis, a vulva cerebri, buttocks nates, testicles testes ; a penis, clava; a vulgar name for the pubic \i2AX, fioc cuius ; a veil, velum interpositum, and a marriage bed, thalamus. With all this procreative apparatus before us, we are not sur- prised to find a union fornix, and numerous offspring, quadruplets, corpora quadrigemina.
CHAPTER IV. The Life and Death of Words.
IT is a common error to suppose that words, especially scientific terms, are born, as was Minerva from the head of Jove, complete, eternal and unchangeable. One of the advantages claimed for Latin in scientific nomen- clature is that, being a "dead" language, the words will not be subject to those continual alterations observed in all modern tongues. The language of Homer is quite different from that of Sophocles who lived five hundred years later. Piers Plowman and Chaucer are unin- telligible to the average English student of to-day. Italian is but a modified Latin, and in the language of medicine the student would find considerable difficulty in com- prehending Banister in his "Anathomy of Man."
To be sure, many of our medical terms are identical with those employed 1800 years ago by Celsus, whose style has served as a model for medical writers down almost to the present decade. Jonathan Pareira, in a work published as late as 1870, advises the student to read Celsus in the original in order to acquire an elegant and accurate medical Latin style.
The alterations in the form of medical words may be traced most readily by studying a few terms which have found their way into the language of the people and have thus undergone changes corresponding to those of their vulgar lay associates.
Home Looke, in his work entitled "Winged Words," has called attention to the fact that words in their pro- gress through the ages, like regiments of soldiers on the march, are liable to lose letters and syllables as the
50 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
latter are liable to lose soldiers by sickness, casualty and desertion. The word eleemosynary, from the Greek llmioabvTi^ consisting originally of twelve letters and seven syllables, has become ahns, in which only four letters and a single syllable remain.
The classical medical word hcmicrayiia, from the Greek -fjiicxpavia, half a skull, became in Low Latin migrcBua by a process of clipping and alteration, just as in the vulgar English of to-day we hear people saying "morphydite" for "hermaphrodite," "janders" for/rt?^;/- dice, which is itself a corruption of the YxQ.Viz\\ jamiisse, yellowness, and "anguintum" for ungiienUim hydrargyri. From this mediaeval Latin word migrcsna the French migraine, often used in medical works, was formed, and migraine, when it traveled across the English Channel, was changed into megrim, a word recognized in all our medical dictionaries.
The Greek rji'dyyri, cyanche, from xixav, a dog, and dxyji^, to choke, that is, to choke like a dog, became in Low Latin esqidnantia from which the French esqni- nancie and our quinsy have been formed.
Paralysis, Greek -andhac^, an abnormal loosening, or loosening on the side, became in middle English, parlesy, and in modern English palsy. Hydrops, Greek udftcoil', a watery appearance, became hydropisie in Old French, ydropsie in Old English, and dropsy in the modern vernacular.
Rachitis, Greek payjzt^, an inilammation of the spinal column, has become rickets in the vernacular, although it has been claimed that rachitis is derived from rickets and that rickets is derived from the Anglo-Saxon wringan, to twist. Cataract, as applied to opacity of the crystal- line lens, is commonly derived from xaTanpcixTr^:^, a rush- ing down, a word which is not at all suited to the nature
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 51
of the disease. The word was probably catarapt, from the Greek xarappd-zr^^, a covering over, the crystaUine lens having the appearance of being covered over with a white film or cloth. But as people could see no real meaning in catarapt it was changed, according to the law mentioned in the preceding chapter, into cataract, a word with which they were already familiar.
Glycyrrhha, from the Greek yhx'jo^i^^a, sweet root, was early corrupted into the Latin liqiiiritia, and in Eng- lish into liquorice and licorice. Trench, however, inclines to the belief that liquorice is derived from liquor as Fuller uses the expression "glycyrrhize or liquoris." But this may have been due to Fuller's ignorance of the origin of the word. Tansy comes to us through the Latin tanacetum, which, in its turn, is a corruption of athanasia {adavaaia) immortality.
Many Latin words used in medicine have undergone similar changes. Inula campana has become elccampaiic : lactucarum, lettuce; bipemiiila,pimpinella; And barbascuut is now known as verbascum. Eglantine is only a modifi- cation oi aculcjitinus, and the Spanish cebadilla, a diminu- tive of cebada, barley, is now found in our works on materia medica as sabbadilla.
We have only to glance at the last American Phar- macopoeia to convince ourselves that changes are con- tinually taking place in the language of medicine. The gender of the Latin terms for the salts ending in as and is was changed in 1880 from feminine to masculine. From 1 860- 1 880, calcii carbonas precipitata was the proper officinal name for precipitated chalk; now it is written calcii carbonas prccipitatus. The names of all the alkaloids previously ending in ia, such as morphia, strychnia and qiunia, were modified so that the ending is now ina; thus, viorphi?ia, strychnina and quinina. The
52 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE,
names of neutral principles had their terminations changed from ina to mum, being made neuter instead of feminine. SulpJmretum was changed to sulpliidiim. Arsenicum, mangancsium, brominium, iodhiium and clilorinium were contracted into arscnium, manganum, bromum, iodum and cJdorum. Chirctta was changed to chirata, assafcetida to asafcetida, gambogia to cambogia, glyccrina to glyceri- num, and pyroxylon became pyroxylinum.
Adjectives derived from words thus changed were also remodeled; thus, cJdorinatus became chloratus, and arseniatus, arscnatus. Redactum was supplanted by reductum. The gender of rhus was changed from neuter to feminine. Similar changes have been made in the nomenclature of diseases, and in other departments of medical science.
Your attention has already been called to the fact that words, like the cells of animals, die when their natural functions have been fulfilled. In Greek the older word for gold {(/.'jfto^) was early dropped for yjrjao^, the necessary, and thousands of words in the older English works are never heard in conversation to-day. During the last half century there has been a great decline in the use of Latin in medicine. Only fifteen years ago Dr. Pareira mentions in one of his works that he knew an eminent hospital surgeon who confessed his inability to write directions to the patient in his prescriptions in cor- rect Latin, while at present it would be quite as remark- able to discover a surgeon who could truthfully admit the contrary. A host of terms connected with blood- letting have disappeared from our medical works. Such words as mclanagoguc, acopa, antiloimica, antiscolica, bezoardic, pJitliciroctonia and aloephangi7ia seem strange to the modern practitioner. Directions to the patient are, in America, no longer written in Latin, for our drug-
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 53
gists could not translate them. Even the common expression, ''pro re nata'' has been rendered "for the baby just born." '' Mane at in lecto" "let the patient remain in bed," has been translated, "to be taken in milk in the morning," while "inane in lacte'' has been ren- dered "remain in bed."
But a few years have elapsed since the pharma- copoeias of various nations and colleges were uniformly printed in Latin. The first United States Pharmacopoeia was printed in both Latin and English. The modern Greek Pharmacopoeia is printed both in Latin and the vernacular, but with this exception, Latin has been quite generally abandoned except in nomenclature.
Moreover, old remedies and names for diseases are constantly disappearing. Lyssa gave way to hydro- phobia, and this is now very properly being abandoned for rabies. The once popular remedy, a pilula perpetiia, a pill made of metallic antimony, which had perpetual virtues of a cathartic nature, and could be used by any number of patients, is no longer employed, and we hear as little now of arteriotojny, first practiced by Arataeus, as we do of Bishop Berkeley's tar water cure or of " Perkins' tractors."
Turning again to the last edition of the U. S. Phar- macopoeia, we observe that although the names of many remedies have been changed, at least as many more have been dropped in ten years. We do not mean to say that the board of scientific gentlemen who have charge of the revision of the Pharmacopoeia once in ten years are endowed with verbicidal powers, yet they give stunning blows to many words which at first cause them to fall into disuse and then into decay. After the lapse of a few decades, such words will be brought to light only by the aid of historical research, being lifeless objects, mere
54 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
skeletons which remind us of a past vitality. It is on account of these numerous mummy words that the student finds so much difficulty in understanding the works of the ancient and mediaeval medical authors.
Sometimes the old words remain with altered mean- ing. Mctria no longer means womb disease, but puer- peral fever, and hysteria has far more to do with the nervous system than with the female reproductive organs. Aristolochia, from dpcazo^, best, and Xoyeia, child-bed, was formerly applied to an entire class of oxytocic remedies, but is now limited to the name of a single plant, birth- wort, or Virginia snake root.
Still more frequently words become old and decrepit, losing the vigor with w^hich they were once so pregnant. We meet with such archaic expressions in the language of the aged. Syncope is now preferred to deliqidum animi, intussusception to ileus, and so on.
We thus see that the component parts of a language are in a constant state of change, coming into existence, changing their form, and dying of old age, like beings endowed with life.
PART II.
THE LATIN ELEMENT LN THE LANGUAGE
OF MEDICINE.
CHAPTER I.
Orthography.
THE letters employed in medical Latin are the same in number, power and character as those used in modern English. In classical Latin there was no j, v, n or w, while k, x and z were used only in w^ords derived from the Greek. In writing Roman numerals the final i was written J, thus viij, a custom still practiced in writ- ing prescriptions. In the fifteenth century this final / was employed instead of z to indicate the consonant sound oiy, and we now ascribe to J a sound indicated by dsh.
Falso is of recent origin and is used to indicate the consonant sound of u; and w, i. e. 2m, is merely a new symbol to indicate another consonant sound of u before a vowel, as in equus, now pronounced ekwiis. W is found in several medical Latin words derived from proper names, e. g. Corpora Wolfiana, Ossa IVormiana, Walthcria, Wintera and Wrightia. In classical Latin k was found only before a, but in medical Latin it is found in other positions, for example before r in Kravieria, a word derived from the name of the celebrated Dr. Kramer.
Initial x, y and z are found only in Latin words of foreign origin, thus: xeroderma, from ?£/>6c dry, and oipfia skin; Yttrium {roxn F//6'r/^j, a Swedish town, and zymosis, from ^jiiiico, to ferment.
56
THE LANGUAGE OE MEDICINE.
The letter y was borrowed by the Romans from the Greek to designate the sound of the Greek upsilon which differed from the Latin u.
The letters are divided into classes as follows : — I. Vowels: a, e, i, o, u,y.
liquids, /, ;;/, 7i, r.
( labials, /, d,/, pJi and v. mutes < palatals, c, ch g, k, q and 7.
( linguals, t, tJi and d. sibilant, s. aspirate, li.
double consonants, x and z. X is equivalent to cs, ks, gs, or chs. Z is equivalent to ds or ts.
2. Consonants-;
CHAPTER II. Orthoepy.
ORTHOEPY is the art of pronouncing words cor- rectly. The ancient pronunciation of Latin has to a great extent been lost and it is extremely doubtful if it can ever be recovered. Numerous attempts have been made to discover and restore the classical pro- nunciation but all such efforts are based upon hypotheses incapable of demonstration. The English method* of pronouncing Latin should be learned by every student contemplating the study of medicine.
1. Because many Latin words used in medical literature have become thoroughly Anglicised and the use of any other than the English method of pronuncia- tion would sound pedantic, affected, and ridiculous. Such familiar words as vapor ^ cicatrix and vagina would scarcely be recognized if pronounced wah' por, kee kah'- treex and wall ghee'nah. according to the so-called Continental method.
2. Other Latin words have long been pronounced by the medical profession strictly in accordance with English methods, and the introduction of any other system would only serve to introduce fresh confusion
* The literary schools and colleges of this country are about equally divided be- tween the three pronunciations of 'LnUn, English, Continental Tind Roman. A small majority of the schools, however, in 1885, still adhered to the English method, while not one educated man in ten would pronounce Latin in accordance with the rules of the Continental or Roman methods. Allen and Greenough, in their Latin grammar, direct the student to pronounce familiar Latin phrases m accordance with the English method, although they advocate the Continental method for use in schools.
Furthermore, every European nation pronounces Latin according to the sounds of the letters in its own language. Why, then, should the English make themselves ridiculous by pretending to restore the ancient pronunciation of the Roman tongue ?
A few physicians, displaying more pedantry than good sense, propose to give the Continental sounds of the vowels and retain the English sounds of the con- sonants in pronouncing Latin medical terms! This method (?) of pronunciation is beneath criticism. Medical technical terms should be regarded as English words borrowed, for convenience sake, from the classical languages.
58 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
into medical orthoepy. Not one medical man in a
thousand would pronounce biceps bee'kapes, or cilium ke'le oom.
3. A study of the rules of pronunciation, as applied according to the English method, will be of material assistance to the student in determining the pronuncia- tion of all words found in his text-books, whether they be of Latin or other origin.
For these reasons we advocate the use of the Eng- lish method of pronunciation of all words used in medi- cal works with the exception of those recently transferred to our vocabulary from the modern foreign languages, such as the French, German and Italian.
In order to pronounce correctly in accordance to the rules of the English method a knowledge of the fol- lowing particulars is requisite: —
1. Of the sounds of the letters in all their com- binations.
2. Of the quantity of the penultimate syllables of words.
3. Of the place of the accent, both primary and secondary.
4. Of the mode of dividiitg ivords into syllables.
SECTION I. — THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.
/. Of the Vowels:
Rule I. A vowel at the end of an accented syllable has its long English sound. Examples: Ma'nia, ve'na, vi'num, o'ra and tu'ba, in which the accented vowels are pronounced as in Jane, m^^te, w/ne, go and cz^be.
Remark. This rule is often violated, in fact usually violated, in the names of inflammatory diseases ending in itis. Bronchi''tis is the correct pronunciation, not bronche'tis. You should certainly have a uniform system of pronunciation, and if you use bronche-'tis you should also use kl^koom for ccccum.
THE LANGUAGE OE MEDICINE. 69
A at the end of an unaccented syllable has the sound of a in father; thus co''ca, mistu''ra.
E, 0 and ti at the end of unaccented syllables have about the same sound as when accented, but shorter and less distinct ; thus re''t<f, pt^tas-'sa, ge^n«.
/final, always has its long English sound; thus mus-'cull, auM.
/at the end of an unaccented syllable, not final, has its short sound as in if, ex. tib^ia.
Except at the end of the first syllable of a word, the second of which is accented, when the long sound is the rule; thus viteFlus, si al''''a gO''ga.
Y is pronounced like i in the same situations.
Rule II. A vowel has its short English sound when followed by a consonant in the same syllable, e. g. cas'sia, men ta'Iis, vis cus, vom'ica, bulla, in which the vowels are pro- nounced as in Q.a\., m^t, vz'm, f(?x, and b«t.
Exceptions. I. A, before r and a consonant, is pronounced as in English ; thus pa7-s, as in pa7-t.
2. Es final is pronounced like ease; thus pubes.
3. Os dX the end of plural cases is pronounced like ose in dose; thus ocuIot, equt;^.
//. Of the Diphthongs :
1. Ae and oe are always diphthongs unless separated by a diaeresis. They are pronounced as e would be in the same situations; thus tic^vus (\\q'\\\s), hcematox'ylon (hem"atox'ylon), fceniculum (fenic'ulum).
2. Ai, ei, <?/ and _y/ usually have the vowels pronounced
separately ; thus ma'ys, die'l, co'itus.
3. All when a diphthong is pronounced like aw in saw;
thus, aura (aw'rah), haustus (haws'tus).
4. Eu when a diphthong is pronounced like long u \
thus, eucalyp'tus, euthana'sia.
Observation. Eii at the termination of Latin nouns and adjectives are pronounced separately; thus, nu'cle us, au're us.
5. Ua, ue, ui, uo and me are pronounced like wa, we, etc.; thus, a^/ua (a'kwah), quercus (kwer'cus), liquor (li'kwor), equus (e'kwus). They are always diphthongs after q and g, and sometimes after s.
60 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
III. Of the Consonants.
The consonants in Latin are usually pronounced like the corresponding English letters in the same situations. Par- ticular attention, however, should be paid to the following rules and cases : •
Rule I. C has the sound of s and g the sound of J, be- fore e, i and y and the diphthongs ce and oe ; thus, ^erium, ^icu'ta, q:ydo'nium, gae'sium, q:celi'aca, gena, gingi'va, g>Tus, Gaeta.
Observation I . It is reasonably certain that c and g were always hard in the language of the ancient Romans, and furthermore, it is probable that g had a sound quite as much like ^ or ^ hard as the sound which we now ascribe to it. ■ - ■
Observation 2. A few medical scholars are in the habit of giving the hard sound of c and g before e and y in words of Greek origin, on the ground that we should assign to these letters the same sounds found in the original language; thus, gymzcology, cyanogen and hyoscyamus are pro- nounced ghine coKogy, kyanoghen and hyosky'a mus. But this method of pronunciation is inconsistent with general usage and incorrect, for upon this principle geometry, genesis, and cylinder should be pronounced gheometry, ghenesis, and kylinder.
Rule II. C and g before consonants, the vowels a, o, and u, and diphthongs with the exception of cb and oe, have their hard sounds, i. e., c has the sound of k, and g the sound of g \x\. gay ; thus, cadmium, corium, galbanum, guaiacuin, etc.
Remark I. C following or ending an accented syllable before i followed by a vowel has the sound of sh ; thus, acacia (akashea).
Remark 2. G before g soft is assimilated to it in sound ; thus,
agger (ajjer).
Remark 3. C hard before c soft is not thus assimilated. We fre- quently hear micrococci pronounced, by those ignorant of this rule, as if it were spelled microcossi or microcokki.
Rule III. Ch in all pure Latin words and in words of Greek origin has the sound of k ; thus, charta, chalazion, pro- nounced kar'tah, kala'zion.
Observation. This rule is frequently violated. We often hear chian pronounced tchian, catechu, catlchew, and colchicum has been so generaliy
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. Gl
mispronounced that any attempt to restore its proper sound would be vain. The word should be koFkikum, not koltch^ikum, as we usually hear it, although the latter is more euphonious.
Ckiretta, or chirata according to the revised Pharmacopoeia, is an exception to the above rule because the word is not properly Latin but Hindustani, in which language it is pronounced as if spelled tchira'ta.
Rule IV. Cm, en, ct, gm, gn, nm,tm, ps, phih, and pt, at the begififiing of words are pronounced with the first letter silent ; thus, cnicus (ni'kus), gmelin (melin), gnome (nome), mnemonics (nemonics), tmesis (mesis), psora (sora), pterygoid (terygoid), phtheiri' asis (thiri'asis).
Rule V. 6" has usually its hissing sound, as in so, e. g.,
somnus.
Exception i. Si followed by a vowel and immediately succeeded by a consonant m an accented syllable, has the sound of sli in she; thus, xanthopsia (zanthop^shea).
Exception 2. Si followed by a vowel and immediately preceded by an accented vowel, has the sound oi zhe ; thus, aphasia (apha''zhea).
Exception 3. S final, after e, a', me, b, m, n and r has the sound of 2; thus, res (rez), trabs, lens. S also has the sound of 2 in rosa, catisa and residuum.
Rule VI. T following or ending an acce?ited syllable before i followed by a vowel has the sound of sh ; thus, fortius (for'sheus), Arantius (aran'sheus).
Exception, After s, t or x, in the above situation, t retains its hard sound; \hus, piTcieras'ia, sextius.
Rule VII. Xat the beginning of words has the sound of z ; thus, Xylophylhon (zylophyl'lum), Xanthina (zanthi'na). X at the end of syllables has the sound of ks ; thus, axis (ak'sis).
Exception I. When ex or jix are followed by a vowel in an accented syllable, the x has the sound oigz; thus, cxeniplum (egzem''plum).
Excepiion 2. X ending an accented syllable before i followed by a vowel has the sound of ksh ; thus, noxius (nok''sheus).
SECTION II. OF THE QUANTITIES OF THE SYLLABLES.
The quantity of a syllable is the relative time occupied in pronouncing it. But little attention is paid to quantity in
62 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
the pronunciation of Latin prose. It is necessary, however, to know the length of the penultimate (next to the last) syllable in order to place the accent correctly.
The sign of the long syllable is ( — ), of the short syllable (^), and of a common syllable, /. e. one that is sometimes long and sometimes short ( — ). The student should disabuse his mind of the idea that quantity has anything to do with the sounds of the vowels. For example, liquor in Latin has the quantity of the / short, but is pronounced li'quor. Spiritus has the first / long in quantity, but is pronounced spiritus. This same remark will apply to Latinized Greek words.
The last syllable of a word is called the tiUwiate, the next to the last the penult, and the third from the last the ante- penult.
Rule L All the diphthongs except those beginning with u are lojig.
Rule IL A vowel before a double consonant (x, z or j'), or before any two consonants, except a ?ntite followed by a liquid, is always long, although it has the short English sound ; thus, extrac'tum, metal'lum, pyrex'ia, but short in cer'ebrum, Per'icles.
Rule IIL A vowel before another vowel or diphthong, or before h followed by a vowel or diphthong, is short by nature; thus, al'lium, ret'rahens.
Exception. There are numerous words of Greek origin used in medical works in which a single vowel represents a diphthong or the long
vowels Oi^ or 'Q', thus, we have astheni^a, from <xautVZt.(/. where /is equiva- lent to the Greek ZC, achille^a, from the Greek aj^M/£i«, and hydrozo''a, from UOpO^O'CX. In these cases the vowel representing the diphthong or long letter is always long in quantity regardless of position.
In other cases, where the above rules are not applicable, it is neces- sary to learn the quantity of the penultimate syllable. The student, for example, must know the ?' in the termination ina applied to the names of alkaloids in long ; thus, quinl''na, morphi''na ; but the i is the termination ution in short ; thus brom^idum, iod'idum. A in the termination as is long; thus phospha''tis, nitra''tis, etc.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 63
SECTION III. OF THE ACCENT.
Rule I. In words of two syllables the penult is always accented. Examples, fe'mur, ul'na. ra'phe.
Rule II. In words of more than tivo syllables, if the penult is long in quantity it is accented, but if short, the accent is on the antepenult. Examples, ace'tum, hydras'tis, orchi'tis, ac'idum, ce'rium, an'themis.
Words of more than three syllables may have two accents, a primary and a secondary, as hyf'drocyan'idum. The rules for determining the place of the secondary accent are as follows :
Rule III. If only two syllables precede the primary ac- cent, the secondary accent is placed upon the first syllable; Ex- amples, hae"matox'ylon, pros" tat' i'tis.
Rule IV. WJien more than two syllables precede the primary accent, the secondary accent is placed sometimes on the first and sometimes on the second syllables. Examples, per" itoni' tis , ventri<f'uldrum.
SECTION IV. DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES.
Every Latin word is divided into as many syllables as there are separate vowels and diphthongs, thus differing from the English in which there are numerous silent vowels. Ex- amples, re'te. Pom pe'i i.
1. // between two vowels is joined to the vowel following it, as tra- here.
Ch,pk, and th are treated like single letters equivalent to the Greek,
/, (p, and d.
2. Gl, tl, and thl, when standing alone between two vowels, are always separated unless the first vowel be ti. Examples, ncurog'lia, at' las, ath let'ictis.
3. X between two vowels, is united to the vowel preceding it, but in pronunciation its elementary sounds are separated ; thus ax it' la pro- nounced ak-ziPla.
4- A single consonant or a mute followed by / or r between the last two vowels of a word or between the vowels of any two unaccented syl- lables must be joined to the latter vowel ; thus ae ther, rtt bcr.
64 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
5. A single consonant or mute with / or r after the vowel of an accented syllable, whether that accent be primary or secondary, is joined to the accented vowel; ihus funic' ulus, helleb'm-tis, lig"a7nen'tum.
6. Two consonants between two vowels must be separated ; thus cor'pus, aph'tha.
7. WTien three consonants are placed between two vowels, the last, or if that be / or r preceded by a mute, the last two are joined to the latter vowel; thus trans versa' lis, fenes' tra, emplas'irwn.
8. In dividing compound words into syllables, the component parts are to be separated, if the first part ends in a consonant. But if the first part ends in a vowel or has dropped its termination, it is to be divided like a simple word. Examples, ambi dex''ter, semper^virens.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXERCISES IN PRONUNCIATION.
In the following sentences the signs — and — indicate, the English sounds of the vowels :
In fig'i mus prae ter'e a cQ cur'bi tas le'ves, quae Grae cl cu'phas vo cant, scil'i cet si'ne scar"'i f 1 ca"ti o'ne. A ren'tes et sic'cas cu cur bit'u las di'cit, quae ad mo ven'tur cum flam'ma. In ter'dum e'nim cum a'qua cal'i da app6n"eba'- tur, quern ad'mo diim scrip'sit Al bu ca'sis, ca pit'ulo, "De u'so cu'cur blt"u la'rum. CAE'LIUS A URELIANUS.
De in'de in ip'sa ar te'ria ve no'sa, in spi ra'to a'e rl mis ce'tiir et ex spl ra"ti o'ne a fulig'ine expurga'tur; at'que I'tem tan'dem a. sin is'tro cor'dis ven tric'u lo to'tum mix- turn per dl as'to len at tra'hi tur, ap'ta su pel'lex, ut f I'at spir'i tus vl ta'lis. Quod I'ta per pul mo'nes fi'at com mu'- ni ca'ti o et praep a ra'ti o, do'cet con junc'ti o va'ri a et com mu ni ca'ti o ve'nae ar ter'i o'sae cum ar ter'i a ve no'sa in pul mon'i bus. Con fir'mat hoc mag ni tu'do in sig'nis ve'nae ar ter"i o'sae, quae nee ta'lis nee tan'ta es'set fac'ta, nee tan'tam a cor'de ip'so vim pu ris'si mi san'gui nis in pul mo'nes e mit'te ret, 6b so'Iiim e o'rum nu tri men'tum ; nee cor pul mon'i bus hac ra ti o'ne ser vi'ret, cum prae ser'- tim an'te a in em bry o'ne so le'rent pul mo'nes ip'sl al"i un'- de niitrl'rl, 6b mem bran'u las il las seu val'vu las cor'dis us'que ad ho'rum na tiv i ta'tem ; ut do'cet Ga le'nus, etc.
SERVE' TUS.
CHAPTER III. Words Commonly Mispronounced.
NO class of professional men mispronounce the tech- nical words of their calling more commonly than physicians. This is sometimes due to defective element- ary education, but more frequently it results from the blunders and bad example of medical orators and college professors, who, under the influence of the American spirit of freedom, declare themselves independent of all orthoepical and etymological rules. There is, however, but little excuse for these errors so commonly committed by men who place themselves before the profession as teachers, whether it be in the class-room or the medical society. Almost without exception our technical words are pronounced strictly in accordance with well estab- lished rules, but these rules are violated occasionally even by the makers of medical dictionaries. Thomas, for example, the most accurate of the medical lexicog- raphers, pronounces neurog'lia, nctirogW a. Dunglison commits frequent errors, pronouncing ancsnt'ic, ance'mic, thus violating one of the primary rules of English ortho- epy;* and in a small "pronouncing medical lexicon" a
* Many people have the erroneous idea that the pronunciation of English words is a purely arbitrary matter, being determined by common usage and not depending upon any fixed rules. In words derived from the Latin, both the accent and the sounds of the vowels and diphthongs are determined by the Eng- lish pronunciation of the Latin word. The Latin for aniemic is anipmicus, which must be pronounced anem' icus. Cutting off the termination us, we have anem' ic, the proper English pronunciation.
In polysyllabic words of Latin origin, the place of the accent is determined in a different manner, the secondary accent of Latin words having the primary accent on the penult becoming the primary accent in English. For example, vag' i-na' lis h^comes vag' i }tal, nol va gi' nal ; cer' e bra' lis becomes cer'ebral, not cer e' bral.
We cannot, however, entirely ignore the influence of custom in the pronun- ciation of words. The Latin word ver ti' go is almost universally pronounced ver' - tigo in English, and common usage has made this pronunciation correct, although it was, at first, an error due to ignorance of the quantity of the penult. These occasional exceptions to the established rules of orthoepy do not prove that pro- nunciation is a purely arbitrary matter any more than the birth of an occasional monstrositj- in the animal world would prove that species are not reproduced in accordance with fixed natural laws.
66 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
cursory examination has detected no less than forty of the most palpable errors.
In order to illustrate the frequency with which words are mispronounced, we will make use of an excellent method adopted by Dr. L. P. Meredith in his little book on " Errors of Speech."
The study of orthoepy was so highly developed among the ancient Greeks that the mispronunciation of a single word by an orator was greeted by jeers and hisses. Let us imagine Prof Blowmuch, of the X. Y. Z. Medical College, addressing the ancient class of Dr. Hippocrates :
"Gentlemen: — The subject of our dis'course (hisses) to-day will be vario'la (/u'sses), rubeo'la (hisses) and varioloid' (hisses). The etiol'ogy (hisses) of these affections is not well known. Some regard micrococ>^i (hisses) as the primum (hisses) causa, others seek for fomi'tes (hisses). It is quite certain, however, that the det'ritus (hisses) of the pustules and the fe'tid (hisses) odor of the disease contain an infectious principle. When occurring in ad'ults (hisses) each vario'lous (hisses) pustule leaves a cic'atrix (hisses) especially in the fac'ial (hisses) tissues, but the ab'domen (hisses) of a patient with much adipose (hisses) tissue may escape. With regard to treatment, use ammo'nii (hisses) ag'etas (hisses) for a res'- piratory (hisses) stimulant when rals (hisses) and broo'ys (hisses) are heard in the lungs. Car'minatives (hisses) are sometimes indicated. Correct constipation with podoph'yllum (hisses) and hyoscya'mus (hisses), removing s/^ybalae (hisses) by means of an ene'ma (hisses). For local antisepsis, I prefer io'doform (hisses) and weak solutions of hydrarg'yrum (hisses), chlori'dum (hisses) corro'sivum (hisses). When there is much asthe'- nia (hisses), a suppository of digital'is (hisses) and co'nium (kisses) may be inserted in an'o (hisses). When death occurs the clothing and even the cadav'er (hisses) should be sent to the cre'matory (hisses),^' etc.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 67
Such blunders as the above are of daily occurrence; in fact the majority of the words in the following list were collected at medical meetings and in the class-room.
Although this chapter is, for convenience sake, placed under the head of the Latin element in the language of medicine, many words not derived from that source have been inserted.
The following are the signs indicating the pronun- ciation :
a, e, I, o, u, as in ale, mete, kite, dote and cube.
a, e, i, 6, u, as in mat, bet, bit, bot and but.
a as in father.
66 as in goud.
6o as vcifool.
c as in cat.
<; as in cider.
ch as in chapter.
g as in gad.
s as in hiss.
A.
abdomen, ab do'men, not ab'do men. abducens, abdu'senz, not ah' doo sens. aberrans, ab ar'ranz, not ab'er rans. abluens, ab'lu enz, ?iot ab loo'ens. abomasus, ab o ma'sus, not a biim'a sus. acacia, a ka'she a, not a ka'se a. acanthus, a kan'thus, not ak'an thus. acarus, ak'a rus, not a ka'rus. acaulis, a kawl'is, not ak'aw lis. accelerator, ak sel le ra'tor, not as sel'e ra tor. acclimated, a kli'ma ted, not ak'li ma ted. accouchement, a'koosh'mong', ;/<?/ a koosh'ment. acephalus, a seph'a lus, ?iot a se pha'lus.
68 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
acephalic, a se phal'ic, not a seph'a lie.
acetum, ase'tum, ;;(?/as'etum.
acetas, a se'tas, 7iot as'e tas.
acetic, a set'ic, not a se'tic.
acetone, as'e ton, not a se'tone.
acetyl, as'e til, not a se'til.
achaenium, a ke'ni um, not a tche'ni um.
achillea, ak il le'a, not a kil'le a.
acia, a'she a, not a'se a.
acidum, as'i dum, not a si'dum.
acies, a'shi es, not a'ses.
acinus, as'i nus, not a si'nus.
aconitum, ak o nl'tum, not a kon'i turn.
acotyledon, a kot y le'don, not ak o tyl'e don.
acromion, a kro'mi on, not a krom'i on.
acyesis, a si e'sis, not a sy'e sis.
adenia, a de'ni a, 7iot a den'i a.
adeniform, a den'i form, not a de'ni form.
adeps, a'deps, not ad'eps.
adipose, ad'i pos, not ad'i poz.
adonis, a do'nis, not a don'is,
adult, adult', ;/(?/ad'ult.
adynamia, ad i na'mi a, not a Jl nam'i a.
adynamic, ad i nam'ic, 7iot a di na'mic.
aegophony, e gof'o ny, not eioCo ny.
aerobic, a e rob'ic, not e ro'bic.
aestus, es'tus, fiot ez'tus.
aetiology, et i ol'ogy, not e ti ol'o gy.
afferens, af'ferens, wt*/ af fe'rens.
agamous, ag'a mus, not a ga'rnus.
agave, a ga've, not ag'ave.
ala, a'la, not al'a.
albinism, al'bi nizm, not al bl'nism.
aletris, al'e tris, not a le'tris.
algae, al'je, not a.Vge.
algoid, al'goid, not al'joid.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 69
alienist, al'ye nist, 7tot a li e'nist, allantoic, al Ian to'ic, not al lan'to ic. allantois, al lan'to is, 7iot al lan'toy. allopathic, al lo path'ic, not al lop'a thic. allopathy, al lop'a thy, 7iot al'lo path y. allotropic, al lo trop'ic, not al lot'ro pic. allotropy, al lot'ro py, not al'lo trop y. alloy, alloy', not al'loy. aloe, al'oe, not aVo, (Latin). aloes, al'oz, not al'o ez, (English). alveolus, al ve'o lus, not al ve o'lus. amara, a ma'ra, not am'ara. amarin, am'a rin, not a ma'rin. amine, am'in or am'en, not a.' mm. ammonia, am mo'ni a, not a mo'ni a. amnion, am'ni on, not a.mnl'on. amphora, amfo ra, not am po'ra. anaemic, anem'ic, nota.ne'mic. anaemia, a ne'mi a, not a nem'i a. analgesia, an al je'si a, not an alge'si a. anconeus, an co ne'us, not an co'ne us. anemone, a nem'o ne, not an'e mon. anethum, ane'thum, ;w/ an'e thum. angina, anjl'na, notan'gina.. anilin, an'i lin, not an'i lin. anisum, a m'sum, not an'i sum. anticus, an ti'cus, not an'ti cus. antithenar, an tith'e nar, not an ti the'nar. antitragus, antit'ragus, ^t*/ an'ti tragus. anus, anus, not a.n' us.
aphrodisiac, a fro dizh'i ac, not afro dis'si ac. aphthae, af'the, not ap'the. apocynum, apos'inum, «i7/aposy'num. aqua, a'kwa, not ak'wa. arable, ar'abic, «^/ara'bic. archebiosis, ar ke bl'o sis, not ar ke bl o'sis.
70 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
areola, a re'o la, not ar e o'la. argemone, ar jem'o ne, not ar'ge mon y. arthritis, arthri'tis, «^/ iir thre'tis. arytenoid, a rife noid, not ary te'noid. ascaris, as'karis, w^/aska'ris. asthenia, as the m'a, not as the'ni a. atropa, afro pa, not a tro'pa. attoUens, attoliens, «(^/af tollens. atrahens, afrahens, wt^/a tra'hens. atrophic, a trof 'ic, not a tro'fic. azote, az'ote, not a. zot'. azygos, az'i gos, notdiZl'gos.
B.
balanus, bal'a nus, ?tot ba la'nus. balsamum, bal'sa mum, not bawl sa'mum. barbadoes, barba'doz, ?/<?/ bar'ba doz. baryta, ba ri'ta, not bar'i ta. basilic, basil'ic, «6'/bas'i lie. bdellium, del'li um, jiot be del'li um. benzoin, ben zo'in, not ben'zo in. benzoinum, ben zo'i num, or ben zo i'num. beriberi, ba re ba're, not ber'ry berry, bifurcate, bi fur'cate, 7iot bi'fur cate. bimanous, bim'a nus, not bi ma'nus. binary, bi'nary, nothm'dixy. bismuth, biz'muth, «^/biss'muth. biternate, bi ter'nate, «^/ bit' er nate. bitumen, bi tu'men, ?/^/bifu men. blastema, bias te'ma, not blas'te ma. boletus, bo le'tus not bol'e tus. bougie, boo'zhe', not\)oo]tt'. brachial, bra'ke al or brak'e al. brassica, bras'si ca, not bras si'ca. bromidum, brom'i dum, not bro mi'dum. bronchitis, brong ki'tis, not bron ke'tis.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 71
bruit, brwe, not broo'y. buchu, boo'koo, ;/<?/ bu'tchew. butyric, butir'ic, /?<?/ bu ti'ric. butyrin, bu'ti rin, /?<?/ butter en'.
C.
cacao, ca ca'o, not ca'ka o.
cachexia, ka kex'i a, not ka tchex'i a.
cadaver, ca da'ver, not ca dav'er.
caducus, ca du'cus, 7iot cad'u cus.
caffeina, caffei'na, «^/caffe'na.
calabar, cal a bar', not cal'a ber.
calcaneum, cal ca'ne um, not cal ca ne'um.
caligo, ca ll'go, not cal'i go.
calomelas, ca lom'e las, 7iot cal o mel'as.
caulophyllum, cawl o phil'lum, not cau loph'il lum.
calor, ca lor, notczMox.
camphora, kam'fo ra, not kam fo'ra.
cancelli, kan sel'll, not kan'sel li.
canine, kanin', ;z^/ka'nln nor kanen'.
cannabinum, kan nab'i num, not kan na bi'num.
capillary, kap'il lary, preferable to kapil'lary.
carminative, kar min'a tive, //i?/ kar'mi na tive.
carotid, ka rot'id, not ka ro'tid.
caryophyllum, kar i o fil'lum, not ka ri of'il lum.
cassava, cas sa'va, not cas'sa va.
cayenne, ka en', not kl en'.
cephalic, se fal'ic, notseCal ic.
ceratum, se ra'tum, not ser'a turn.
cerebral, ser'e bral, not se re'bral.
cerebrum, ser'e brum, not se rehrum.
cerebro-spinal, ser'e bro-spi'nal, not se re'bro-spi'nal.
cervicis, ser vi'cis, not ser'vi cis.
cervical, ser'vi cal, /?<?/ ser vl'cal. — Webster gives latter.
chalazion, ka laz'ion, not sha laz'ion.
chartula, kiir'tu la, not tchar'tu la. 6
72 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
chemosis, ke mo'sis, not tche mo'sis. chenopodium, ken o po'di um, not tche no pod'i um. chirata, tche ra'ta or kl ra'ta. chiropodist, ki rop'o dist, not tchi rop'o dist. chloridum, klor'i dum, not klo ri'dum. chorion, ko'ri on, not ko ri'on. chorea, ko re'a, not kor'e a. chyle, kil, not tchll. chyme, kim, not tchim.
chymification, kim i fi ka'shun, not kl mi fi ka'shun. cicatrix, si ka'trix, not si kat'rix nor sik'a trix. cimicifuga, sim i sif'u ga, not sim i si fu'ga. citras, sl'tras, not sit'ras. citrate, sit'rate, ;;<?/ si'trate. clematis, klem'atis, «i?/ kle mat'is. cloaca, klo a'ca, not klo'a ca. cocaine, ko'ca in or co'ca en, not co ca'in. .cocci, kok'si, ;;^/k6k'kl. coccyx, kok'six, not kos'six. COCCygis, kok si'jis, not kok'si jis. cochineal, kotch'i nel, not ko'ki nel. cochlea, kok'lea, ;/c;'/ ko'kle a. codein, ko'de in, not ko de'in. codeina, ko de I'na, not co di'na. coitus, ko'i tus, not ko i'tus. comedo, kom'edo, wt'/kome'do. condom, kon'dom, not kun'diim. conduit, kon'dit, 7iot kon'du it. condyle, kon'dil, «<?/k6n'dil. conein, ko ne'in, not ko'ne in, COnium, ko nl'um, not co'ni um. conjunctiva, kon jQnk ti'va, not kon junc'ti vii. conoid, ko'noid, not kon'oid. conserve, con'serve, not conserve'. contour, kon toor', not kon'toor. copaiba, ko pa'ba, not copl'ba nor co pe'ba.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 73
coracoid, kor'akoid, z/*^?/ ko'ra koid. corium, ko'ri um, not ko ri'um. corolla, ko rol'lah, tiot ko ral'lah. corona, ko rO'nah, 7iot kor'o nah. coronoid, kor'onoid, ^z^?/ ko ro'noid. corpora, kor'po ra, not kor po'ra. cotyledon, kot i le'don, not ko til'e don, cranium, kra'ni um, not kran'i um. crematory, krem'a to ry, not kre'ma to ry. cricoid, kn'koid, not kre'koid. crotalus, krot'a lus, not kro'ta lus. crureus, km re'us, not kroo're us. cubeba, ku be'bah, not ku'be bah. culinary, ku'Ii nary, not kul'i nary, cuneiform, ku'ne i form, not ku ne'i form. curare, ku ra're or koo rah'ra, not ku ra're. curator, ku ra'tor, not kur'a tor. cyanidum, si an'i dum, not si a ni'dum. cyanosis, si a no'sis, not si an'o sis. Cyclopean, sy klo pe'an, not sy klop'e an. cynanche, si nang'ke, ^w/si'nake. cytoblast, sit'o blast, not sl'to blast.
D.
decubitus, de cu'bi tus, not dec u bl'tus. demodex, dem'odex, /z^/ de mo'dex. dengue, dang'ga, ^^/deng'gu. depilatory, de pil'a to ry, not dep'il a to ry. deprimens, dep'ri mens, not de pri'mens. depurant, dep'u rant, not de pu'rant. detritus, de tn'tus, not det'ri tus. detrital, de'tri tal, not de tri'tal. diabetes, dl a be'tez, not de a bet'es. diabetic, dl a bet'ic, not di a be'tic. diachylon, dl a kl'Ion, preferable to di ak'i Ion, diaphanous, dl afa mis, not di a fa'nus.
U THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
diaphragmatic, dl a frag mat'ic, not di a fram mat'ic. diastole, di as'to le, not dl'as tol. diastase, dl'as taz, not di as'tase. digitalis, dij i ta'lis, not dij i tal'is. diphtheria, dif the'ria, preferable to dip the'ria. diploe, dip'lo e, not di plo'e. discutient, dis ku'shent, not dis ku'ti ent. distoma, dis'to ma, not di sto'ma. dulcamara, diil ka ma'rah, not dul kani'a rah. duodenal, du od'e nal, not du o de'nal. duodenum, du o de'num, not du od'e num. dynamite, din'amit, ??(?/ dl'na mit. dyspareunia, dis pa ru'ni ah, not dis pa roo'ny. dyspnoea, disp ne'ah, not dis'ne ah.
E.
ecdysis, ek'di sis, not ec dl'sis.
echinococcus, e kl'no kok'kus, not ek'i no kok'kus.
ecthyma, ek thl'mah, not ek'thi mah.
eczema, ek'ze ma, not ek ze'ma.
efferens, efferens, ;/<5'/ ef fe'rens.
elaterin/ e lat'e rin, not el a te'rin.
elephantiasis, el e phan ti'a sis, not el e phan ti a'sis.
elytron, el'i tron, not e ll'tron.
embryo, em'bri o, not em bri'o.
emesis, em'esis, ;/^/eme'sis.
emmenagogne, em men'a gog, not e men'o gawg.
emphysema, em fi se'mah or em fi ze'mah.
empyema, em pi e'mah, not em py e'mi a.
enchondroma, en kon dro'mah, not en kon'dro mah.
endocarditis, en do kar dl'tis, not en do kar de'tis.
enema, en'e ma, not e ne'ma.
enteritis, en te ri'tis, not en ter e'tis.
entozoon, en to zo'on, not en toz'o on.
ephelis, efe'lis, 7iothi'Q\\%. — Thomas gives latter.
epiphora, e pif'o ra, not ep i fo'ra.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 75
epiploon, e pip'lo on, not ep i plo'on. epizootic, ep i zo ot'ic, not ep i zoo'tic. epulis, e pu'lis, not ep'u lis. ergota, er go'ta, not er'go ta. erigeron, e rij'e ron, not e righ'er on. errhinum, errhl'num, «<?/ er rhe'num. erythema, er i the'ma, not eri them'a. esoteric, es o ter'ic, not e sot'e ric. ethyl, eth'il, not e'thil. eunuchus, u nu'kus, not u'noo kus. eustachian, u sta'ki an, not u statch'i an. exanthema, ex an the'ma, not ex an'the ma. excretory, ex'cre to ry, preferable to ex cre'to ry.
F.
facet, fas'et, not (a. set'. facial, fa'shal, not fash'al. faradic, fa rad'ic, not fa ra'dic. farcimen, far sl'men, not far'si men. farina, Eat. fa ri'nah, not fa re'nah. fascia, fash'i ah, not fas'si ah. febrile, fe'bril or feb'ril, not fe'bril. fetid, fet'id, not fe'tid. fetor, fe'tor, not fet'or. filix, fl'lix, not fe'lix. flaccid, flak'sid, not flas'sid. flatus, fla'tus, not flat'us. fomites, fom'i tez, not fo ml'tez. foramen, for a'men, not fo ram'en. formica, formi'ca, ;/<?/ for'mi ca. fornicis, for'ni cis, not for nl'cis. fourchette, foor'shet', fiotfoorket'. fraxinus, frax'i nus, 7tot frax I'nus. fremitus, frem'i tus, «<?/ fre mi'tus. fungi, fun'ji, not fung'ghi.
76 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
G.
galbanum, gal'ba num, 7iot gal ba'num. gamboge, gamboj', ;/<?/ gam'boj. gangrene, gang'gren, not gan gren'. gaseous, gaz'e us, not gas'se us. gastritis, gas tri'tis, not gas tre'tis. gelsemium, jel se'mi um, not ghel sem'i um. gelsemine, jel'se min, not ghel sem'en. gemellus, je mel'lus, not ghe mel'lus. geranium, je ra'ni um, not]^ ren'i um. gingiva, jin ji'va, «6'/jin'ji va. ginglymus, jing'gli mus, not ghin'gly mus. gladiolus, gla di'o lus, not glad i o'lus. glaucoma, glaw co'ma, not glow'co ma. glenoid, gle'noid, not ^h\\' oidi. gluteus, glu te'us, not gloo'te us. gomphosis, gom fo'sis, not gom'fo sis. granatum, grana'tum, «<?/ gran'a turn. guaiacum, gwi'a cum or gwa'a cum, not gwack'um. gutta-percha, gut'ta-per'tchah, 7iot gutta-per'kah.
H.
haematemesis, hem a tem'e sis, not hem a te me'sis.
haemoptysis, he mop'ti sis, 7iot he mop ti'sis.
haloid, ha'loid, ;';<?/ hal'oid.
helleborus, hel leb'o rus, not hel lebo'rus.
heracleum, heracle'um, /z^*/ he rak'le um.
hiatus, hiatus, ;;<?/ hi'a tus.
hippocampus, hip po cam'pus, not hi po cam'pus.
hippocrates, hip p6c ra tez, not hi poc'ra tez.
hippuris, hip pu'ric, not hip'pu ric.
hirsute, hir'sut, «<?/ her soot'.
hirudo, hi ru'do, not hir'u do.
homceopathic, ho me o path'ic, not ho me op'a thic.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 77
homcEOpathy, ho me op'a thy, not ho' me o pathy.
hordeolum, hor de'o lum, not hor de o'lum.
humulus, hu'mQhis, //t?/ hum'u h'ls.
hydatid, hi'da tid or hid'a tid, not hy dat'id.
hydatis, hid'a tis, «^/hydat'is.
hydromel, hi'dro mel, not hy drom'el.
hydropathy, hy drop'a thy, not hi'dro path y.
hygiene, hi'gien, not\v\g&\'.
hyoides, hi oi'dez, not hi'oi dez.
hyoscyamine, hi 6s si'a min, not hy os cl am'en.
hyoscyamus, hi 6s si'a mus, not hy os sy am'us.
hyperinosis, hi per i no'sis, not hi per in'o sis.
hyphomyces, hi fom'i sez, not hi fo mi'sez.
hypochondriasis, hi po k6n drl'a sis, not hy po kon dri a'sis.
hypospadias, hi po spa'di as, 7iot hi po spad'i as.
1.
iatria, i a tri'a, not i afria.
ichor, rk6r, ;z^/ik'6r.
ichthyosis, ik thi o'sis, not ik thi'o sis.
icteric, ikter'ic, «f/ik'teric.
icterus, ik'te rus, not ik te'rus.
ileus, il'eus, not\\Q!v&.
impetigo, im pe tl'go, not im pet'i go.
impotence, im'po tence, not im po'Usnce.
infusum, in fu'sum, 7iot in fu'zum.
ingluvin, in'gluvin, ;z^/in glti'vin.
integral, in'tegral, ^^^/ in te'gral.
intertrigo, in ter tri'go, not in ter'tri go.
intestinal, in tes'ti nal, not in tes ti'nal.
intestine, in tes'tin, ;;<?/ in tes'tln.
intestinum, in tes tl'num, not in tes'ti num.
inula, in'u lah, not in ti'la.
iodidum, i 6d'i dum, not i o dl'dum.
iodoform, i od'o form, not i o'do form.
iodum, i o'dum, not I'o dum.
78 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
ipecac, ip'ecac, ;z^/ep'icac. isinglass, I'zing glas, not i'sin glas. isomeric, is o mer'ic, not i som'e ric. isomerism, l som'er izm, not is o me'rizm.
jaborandi, zhaboran'de, ^z^/ jab'o ran'dl. jalapa, ja la'pa, 7iot jal'a pa. jasminum, jas'mi num, «^/ jasmi'num. jaundice, jan'dis, «^/jawn'dis. jejunum, jeju'num, «^/ jej'oo num. juglans, jQ'glanz, not \i\g'\dj\z. jugular, ju'gular, «^/jug'ular. juniperus, ju nip'e rus, not]\x ni pe'rus.
K.
kamala, ka ma'la or ka ma'la, not ka mal'a. keloid, ke'loid, not kel'oid. keratitis, ker a titis, not ker a te'tis. kino, kl'no, not ke'no. kyestein, kl es'te in, not kl'es ten.
L.
lacteal, lac'te al, 7iot lac te'al.
lagopus, la go'pus, lag'o pus.
lamella, la mel'la, not lam'el la.
lanthanum, lan'tha num, not Ian than'um.
laryngectomy, lar in jec'to my. not lar yng ghec'to my.
laudanum, law'danum or lod'a num, «6'/ lavvd'num.
lecethin, les'e thin, w^/ le se'thin.
legumine, legu'min, ;/^/ leg'u min.
leuchaemia. lu ke'mi a, not lu se'mia, unless spelled leucaemia.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 79
lentigo, len tl'go, not len'ti go.
levator, le va'tor, not le vat'or.
lientery, Il'en te ry, not ll en'te ry.
limonis, {gci-^ H mo'nis, not lim'o nis.
Linaean, li ne'an, not lin'e an.
linea, lln'eah, ^zi?/ li ne'ah.
liquor, ll'kwor, 7iot llk'or.
lithotripsy, lith'o trip si, not li thot'rip sy.
lithotrity, li thot'ri ty, not lith'o tri ty.
lobelin, lob'e lin, not lo be'lin.
lobulus, lob'u lus, not lo'bu lus.
lordosis, lor do'sis, not lor'do sis.
lumbricus, lum bri'cus, not lum'bri cus.
luteum, lu'te um, not lu te'um.
lupinus, lu pi'nus, not loop'i nus.
lycopodium, li ko po'di um, not lik o pod'i um.
lycopus, li ko'pus, not lik'o pus.
lyra, ll'rah, not lir'ah.
lysis, li'sis, tiot lis'is.
M.
machina, mak'i nah, not ma she'nah. macula, mak'u lah, not ma kii'lah. magistery, maj'istery, «^/ ma jis'tery. magistral, maj'istral, wd^/majis'tral. malar, ma'lar, not mal'ar. malleolus, mal le'o lus, not mal le o'lus. malpighian, mal pigh'i an, not mal pij'i an, mammillary, mam'mil la ry, not ma mil'la ry. manganum, man'ga num, not man ga'num. marjoram, mar'joram, ;z^/ mar jo' ram. masseter, mas se'ter, not mas'se ter. mastiche, mas'ti ke, 7iot mas'ti tche. mastitis, mas ti'tis, not mas te'tis. matico, ma tl'ko or ma te'ko, not mat'i co.
80 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
matrix, ma'trix, not mat'rix.
maxillary, mak'sil la ry, not mak zil'la ry.
meatus, me a'tus, not me at'us.
meconin, mek'o nin, not me ko'nen.
mediastinum, me di as ti'num, not me di as'ti num.
medullary, med'ul la ry, not me dul'Ia ry.
megrim, me'grim, not me grim'.
melaena, me le'nah, not mel'e nah.
mellitus, mel li'tus, not mel'li tus.
membrana, mem bra'nah, not mem'bra nah.
membranous, mem'bra nous, notx^txa bra'nous.
menstruum, men'stru um, not men'striim.
mephitic, mephit'ic, i'/f/ me phi'tic.
mesmerism, mez'merizm, ;/<?/ mes'merism.
metabolic, met a bol'ic, 7iot me tab'o lie.
meatbolism, me tab'o lizm, wci/met abol'izm.
metamorphosis, met a mor'fo sis, (English), or metamor-
fo'sis, (Latin). methyl, meth'il, not me'thil. metritis, me tri'tis, not met re'tis. metric, met'ric, notx^t'Xxic. mezereum, mezere'um, ^/^Z me zer'e um. microscope, mi'kroskOp, w^*/ mik'ro scop. microscopy, mi kros'ko py, not mi'kro sko py. microsporon, mi kros'po ron or ml kro spo'ron. mimosa, mi mo'sah, not mim'o sa. mistura, mis tu'rah, not mist'u ra. modiolus, mo di'o lus, not mod i o'lus. molecule, mol'ekul, ;w/ mo'le kul. molimen, moli'men, not xaoYivixQn. molybdenum, molibde'num, ;/^/ mo lib'de num. monad, mon'ad, not mo'nad. monomania, mon o ma'ni a, not mo no ma'ni a. morphine, mor'phin or mor'fen, ;;<?/ mor fen'. morphoea, morfe'ah, ;/^/ mor'fe ah. mucilago, musila'go, «(?/ musil'ago.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 81
muscari, muska'rl, ^f/mus'kari. muscarine, mus'karin, «^/ mus ka'ren. musci, mus'si, not mus'ki. myselium, mi se'li um, not mi sel'i um. myoides, mi oi'dez, not mi'oi dez. myoma, myo'mah, /z^/ml'omah. myrrha, mir'rhah, not mer'rha. myxcedema, mix e de'mah, not mix ed'e mah.
N.
nana, na'nah, not nan'ah.
narceina, nar se I'nah, not nar si'nah.
nascent, nas'sent, «<7/na'sent.
nates, na'tez, not nat'ez.
nematodes, nem a to'dez, not nem'a tods.
nephritis, ne fn'tis, 7iot ne fre'tis.
neurasthenia, nur as the nl'ah, not nur as the'ni ah.
neuroglia, nurog'liah, not neurogll'ah. — Thomas gives
latter. nomenclature, no men'kla tur, not no'men cla ture. nosology, no soro gy, not no zol'o gy. nubile, nu'bil, notnodhlX. nucha, nu'kah, 7iot noot'cha. nucleolus, nu kle'o lus, not nu kle o'his. nymphaean, nim fe'an, not nim'fe an. nystagmus, nis tag'mus, not ni stag'mus.
o. .
obesity, o bes'i ty, 7iot o be'si ty.
obliquus, o blik'wus, not 6b ll'kwus nor ob le'kwus. .
obovate, 6b o'vate, not 6b'o vate.
obturator, 6b tu ra'tor, not ob'tu rat'or.
obverse, 6bVerse, «<?/6bvers'.
OCimum, O sl'mum, not os'i mum.
82 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
cedema, e de'mah, not e dem'ah.
oedematOUS, e dem'a tus, not e de'ma tus.
CEStrum, es'trum, //^/ e'strum.
officina, offisl'nah, «^/ of fis'i nah.
officinal, offis'inal, ;z^/6ffi si'nal.
oleomargarine, o le o mar'ga rin, not o le o mar'ja ren.
oleoresina, o le o re zl'nah, not o le o rez'i nah.
oliva, o li'vah, not 61'i vah.
omasum, o ma'sum, 7iot om'a sum.
oophorectomy, o 6 fo rek'tc mi, not op or ek'to my.
ophiasis, o fl'a sis, not of i a'sis.
ophthalmic, ofthal'mic, //<?/ op thal'mic.
opponens, 6p po'nens, 7iot op'po nens.
orchitis, or kl'tis, not or ke'tis.
origanum, o rig'a num, 7wt or ij a'num.
orthopedic, or tho ped'ic, 7wt or tho pe'dic.
oryza, o n'zah, notOT'izah.
osmazome, 6s' ma zome, 7wt 6s ma'zome,
osmosis, 6smo'sis, «^/6s'mosis.
osteoid, 6s'teo]d, 7iot 6s' toid.
ovale, o va'le, 7iotova.\'e.
oxalic, 6ksal'ic, ;^f/ 6k'sal ic.
oxalis, ok'sa lis, not 6k sal'is.
oxide, 6k'sid, not 6k'sid.
oxytocic, 6k si t6s'ic, 7iot oxy t6k'ic nor oxy t6x'ic.
ozaena, o ze'nah, not o zen'ah.
ozone, o'zon, not o zon'.
P.
pacini, patche'ne, not -pasl'm. pacinian, pa sin'i an, 7iot pa tchen'i an. paediatry, ped'i a tri, not pe'di a try. paediatrics, ped i at'rlks, not pe di at'riks. palatine, pal'a tin, 7tot pal'a tin. palatum, pa la'tum, 7iot pal'a tum. paliative, pal'i a tiv, not pal'a tiv.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 83
palmaris, pal ma'ris, not pal'ma ris.
palpebra, pal'pe brah, not pal pe'brah.
paludal, pa lu'dal, not pal'u dal.
panacea, pan a se'ah, not pa na'se a.
pancreatin, pan'kre a tin, 7iot pan kre'a tin.
panis, pa'nis, 7iot pan'is.
papaver, papaVer, ^'z^/ pap'a ver.
papyrus, pa pl'rus, not pap'y rus.
paracentesis, par a sen te'sis, not par a sen'te sis.
parasitic, parasit'ic, «^/par asi'tic.
pareira brava, pa rl'rah bra'vah, not pa re'rah brav'a.
parenchyma, par en'ki mah, not par en kl'mah.
parenchymatous, par en kim'a tus, not par en ki'ma tus.
paresis, par'esis, «<?/ pa re'sis.
paretic, paret'ic, «<?/pare'tic.
parietal, pa n'e tal, not par i e'tal.
paronychia, par o nik'i a, not par o nitch'i a.
parotid, parot'id, /z^^/ pa ro'tid.
partridge-berry, par'tridj-ber'ry, riot pat'ridj-ber'ry.
pathogenic, pathojen'ic, //<?/ pa thoj'e nic.
pathogeny, pa thoj'e ny, not path'o ge ny.
pectoral, pek'to ral, jiot pek to'ral.
pedal, io.dj.') pe'dal, «^/ped'al.
peduncle, pedunk'le, «^/ pe'dunk le.
pellagra, pel'la grab, not pel lag'rah.
pemphigus, pem'fi gus, not pern fi'gus.
pepo, pe'po, not pep'o.
pepsinum, pep si'num, not pep'si num.
perinaeum, per i ne'um, not pe rin'e um.
peristaltic, per i stal'tic, wc/ per i stawl'tic.
peritonitis, per i to nl'tis, not per i to ne'tis.
peroneuS/ per o ne'us, not per o'ne us.
petal, pet'al or pe'tal.
peyer, pi'er, not pa'er.
phagedaena, faj e de'nah, 7iot faj e den'ah.
phagedenic, faj e den'ic, not faj e de'nic.
84 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
pharmaceutic, far ma su'tic, «<?/ far ma ku'tic.
pharmacopcea, far ma ko pe'ah, not far ma ko'pe ah.
phenic, fen ic, not fe'nic.
phrenic, fren'ic, not fre'nic.
phthisis, ti'sis or thi'sis, not te'sis,
phylloxera, fillokse'rah, ;z^/ fillok'se rah.
physostigma, fis O stig'mah, not fl so stig'mah.
phytosis, fi to'sis, not fit'o sis.
pilocarpus, pH o kar'pus, not pi lo kar'piis.
pilula, pil'u lah, not pi loo'lah.
pineal, pin'e al, not pi'ne al.
pisiform, pis'si form or piz'i form, not pe'zi form.
pityriasis, pi ti n'a sis, not pi ti ri a'sis.
plantago, plan ta'go, not plan'ta go.
platinum, plat'i num or pla tl'num.
platysma, pla tis'mah, not plat'is mah.
podagra, pod'agrah, ^o Ak^xdi sometimes given.
podophylline, pod o fil'lin, not -po dof'il len.
podophyllum, pod o fil'lum, not po dof'il lum.
polygala, po lig'a lah, not pol i ga'Iah.
polygonum, po lig o'num, not po ly go'num.
porrigo, por rl'go, not por'ri go.
posterior, pos te'ri or, fiot pos te'ri or.
posticus, pos tl'cus, not pos'ti cus.
posthumous, post'hu miis, not post hu'mus.
prepuce, pre'pus, ;/f/prep'oos.
preventive, pre ven'tiv, not pre ven'ta tiv.
process, pro'ses, not pro'ses.
protean, pro'tean, //<?/ pro te'an.
prurigo, pru rl'go, fiot proor'i go.
pruritus, pru ri'tus, not proor'ri tus.
psammodes, sam mo'dez, not sam'o dez.
pterygium, te rij'i um, te righ'i um.
pterygoid, ter'igoid, «<?/'ter'i joid.
ptomaine, to'ma in, not to'min nor to man'.
puerile, pueril, ;w/pu'erll.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 85
purpura, pur jjurah, //r;/ pur pu'rah. purulent, pu'ru lent, not pur'oo lent. pygmean, pigme'an, ;/^V pig'me an. pyriform, pir'i form, not pi'ri form, pyrethrum, pir'e thrum, ;;^/pi re'thrum. pyrites, pi n'tez, not pI'ri tez. pyrosis, pi ro'sis, not pir'o sis. pyrus, pi'rus, «^/pir'us.
Q.
quadrumana, kwad roo'ma nil, not kwad ru ma'na.
quassia, kwash'ia or kwosh'i a, ??<?/ kwas si a.
quaternary, kwa'ternary, «<?/ kwa ter'na ry.
quebracho, ka bra tcho, not kwe brak'o.
quinate, kwi'nat, ^zt*/ kwin'at.
quinina, kwi m'nah, not kwi ne'nah.
quinine, kwi'nm, kwi'nin or kwinin', «<?/ kwi nen'.
R.
rabies, ra'bi ez, not rab'i ez.
rhachitis, rakl'tis, rake'tis.
radix, ra'dix, not rad'ix.
rale, ral, not ral.
raphe, ra'fe, notrsifaf.
raspberry, raz'ber ry, not ras'berry nor raws'berry,
reflex, (jnoun.) re'flex, not re flex'.
renal, re'nal, «^/ renal.
reniform, ren'i form, not re'ni form.
resina, re zl'nah, not rez'i nah.
resorcin, re zor'sin, not rez'or sin.
retrahens, ret'ra hens, not re tra'hens.
rhinoplasty, rin'o plas ty, not n'no plas ty.
rhizoma, ri zo'mah, not riz'o mah.
rhoncus, rong'kus, not ron'kus.
ricinus, ris'i nus, not ri si'nus.
8G THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
rigor, ri'gor, not rig'or. roseola, ro ze'o lah, not ro ze o'lah. rostellate, ros'tel lat, not ro stel'lat. rubedo, I'u be'do, 7wt ru'be do. rubeola, ru be'o lah, not ru be o'lah. rubigo, ru bi'go, not ru'bi go. rugae, ru'je, not roo'ghe. rupia, ru'pi ah, not ru pi'ah.
S.
sabbatia, sab ba'she a, not sa bat'ti a.
saccharum, sak'ka rum, not sak ka'rum.
sacrum, sa'krum, //c^/sak'rum.
sagittal, saj'it tal, //f;/sa jit'tal.
salicylic, sallsil'ic, //^Vsal sil'ic.
saline, sa lln', not sa'lln nor sa'len.
salivary, sal'l va ry, not sa ll'va ry.
salix, sa'lix, //i7/sal'ix.
sambucus, sam bu'cus, not sam'buk us.
santalum, san'ta lum, not san ta'kun.
sarcina, sarsi'nah, //^/ sar'si nah.
sativa, sati'vah, //ci/sate'vah.
saturnine, sat'ur nin, not sa tur'nen.
satyriasis, sa ti rl'a sis, not sat ir i a'sis.
saxifraga, sak sif'ra gah, 7iot sak si fra'gah.
scabies, ska'bi ez, not skab'ez.
scalenus, skale'nus, //^/ skal'e nus.
scalpel, skal'pel, not skal pel'.
scarlatina, scarlatl'nah or scar la te'nah, (Italian).
schindylesis, skin di le'sis, ;/c?/ shin dil'e sis.
schizomycetes, skiz o mi se'tez, not shiz o mi'se tes.
scilla, sil'lah, not skil'lah.
scirrhus, skir'rus, ;/t;/ shir'rus.
scybalous, sib'a lus, not skib'a lus.
secale, se ka'le, not se kal'e.
sempervirens, sem per'vi renz, not scm per vi'rens.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 87
senna, sen'nah, not se'nah.
sequelae, se kwe'le, not sek'we le,
sialagogue, si al'a gog, not se al'o gawg.
sinapis, si na'pis, not sin'a pis.
sinapism, sin'a pizm, not si'na pizm.
solanum, so la'num, not sol'a num.
sorghum, sor'gum, not sor'jum.
spermaceti, spermase'ti, ?w/sper maset'i.
sphenoid, sfe'noid, «<?/ sfen'oid.
sphygmograph, sf Ig'mo graf, not smig'mo graf.
splenic, splen'ic, «^/ sple'nic.
spongoid, spong'goid, not spiin'joid.
squamous, skwa'miis, ;/^/skwam'us nor skwa'mus.
static, stat'ic, not sta'tic.
strangury, strang'gu ry, 7iot stran'ju ry.
suberic, su ber'ic, not sab'a ric.
sublimis, sub ll'mis, not sub'li mis.
subsidence, sub si'dents, not siib'sl dents.
succinic, suk sin'ic, not siis'i nic.
succinum, suk'si num, ;?c;/suk si'num.
sulphurous, sul'fu rus, 7wt siil fu'rus.
suppurate, siip'purat, ;/^/ sup'per at.
SUtura, su tu'rah, not soot'u rah.
synechia, sin e ki'a, not sin etch'i a.
synizesis, sin i ze'sis, not sin iz'e sis.
synovitis, sin o vl'tis, not si no ve'tis.
syphilides, si fil'l dez, not sif'i lldz.
syringe, {noun.') sir'inj, ;/t'/siir inj'.
syrupus, si ru'pus, not sur'ii pus.
systema, sis te'mah, not sis'te mah.
systemic, sis tem'ic, not sis te'mic.
systole, sis'to le, not sis'tol.
T.
tabacum, to ba'kum, not tab'a kum. tabes, ta'bez, not tab'ez.
88 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
tartaric, tartaric, «<?/ tar tar'ic.
taurin, taw'rin, not tow'rin.
telluric, tel lu'ric, ;/<?/ tel'lu ric.
terebinthina, ter e bin'thi nah, not ter e bin thl'nah.
tetanic, te tan'ic, 7iot tet'a nic.
tetanoid, tet'a noid, not te tan'oid.
tetrad, tet'rad, not te'trad.
thalamus, thal'a mus, not tha la'mus.
thyme, tim, not thim.
thymus, thi'mus, 7iot ti'mus.
tinctura, tink tu'rah, not tink'too rah.
tinea, tin'e ah, not tin e'a.
tinnitus, tin ni'tus, not tin'ni tus.
thracelo-mastoid, tra ke'lo-mas'toid, not trak'e lo-nfias'toid.
trachoma, trako'mah, tz^/ trak'o mah.
tragacanth, trag'akanth, ;/^/'traj'i canth.
tremor, tre'mor, not trem'or.
trichiasis, tri ki'a sis, not trik i a'sis.
trichina, tri ki'nah, not tri ke'nah.
tricolor, trik'o lor, not tri'ko lor.
trigone, trl'gon or tre'gon, (French), «^/ tri'gawn.
tripartite, tri'par tit, not tri par'tit.
triquetra, tri kwe'trah, not trik'e trah.
troche, tro'ke, ?/c/ tro'tchee nor trotch.
trochisci, tro kis'si, not tro kis'ki.
trochlea, trokie ah, not tro'kle ah.
turpethum, tur'pe thum, not tur pe'thum.
tympanum, tim'panum, «<?/ tim pan'um.
tyrosin, tiro sin, tiot ti'ro sin.
tyrotoxicon, tir o tdk'si kon, not ti ro tok'si kon.
U.
umbellate, um'bel lat, not um bel'lat.
umbilicus, umbili'cus, not umbiricus. — Webster gives
latter. unguentum, unggwen'tum, ??(?/ un gwen'tum.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 89
unguinal, ung'gwi nal, not un gue'nal. urachus, u'ra kus, not u rak'us. uraemic, ur rem'ic, not u re'mic. uredo, ure'do, «(?/u'redo. ureter, u re'ter, preferable to u're ter. urethra, u re'thra, not u're thra. urtica, tirtl'cah, w^/ur'ti can. ustilago, us ti la'go, not us til'ago. uterine, u'terin, «^/u'terln.
V.
vaccina, vak si'nah, not vak'si nah.
vagina, vajl'nah, «<?/ vaji nah.
vaginal, vaj'inal, «i?/ va jl'nal.
variola, va n'o lah, not var i o'lah.
varioloid, var'i o loid, not var i o loid'.
vena, ve'nah, not ya.'nah.
venereal, vene'real, ;^^/ ven'e ral.
veratrum, vera'trum, ;^tf/ ve rat'rum.
veronica, ve ro ni'cah, preferable to ve ron'i cah.
vertebral, ver'tebral, «^/ ver te'bral.
verruca, verru'kah, ^/c*/ ve riik'kah.
versicolor, versik'olor, «^/ ver'si co lor.
verumontanum, ve ru mon ta'num, not ve ru mon'ta num.
vesica, vesl'kah, ;?^/ ves'i kah.
vesical, ves'i cal, not ve si'cal.
vesicle, ves'i kl, not ve'sikl.
veterinary, vet'erinary, /;<?/ ve ter'i na ry.
vibriones, vibrio'nez, ;/<?/ vi'bri o nez.
vieussens, ve'us'song', not vl us'enz.
viola, vi'olah, ?2^/vio'la.
vitelline, vitel'lln, ;zd?/ vit'el len.
vomitus, vom'i tus, not vo mi'tus.
vulgaris, vul ga'ris, not viil gar'is.
80 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
W. X. Y. Z.
wintera, win te'rah, not win'te rah. xiphoid, zif'oid, «^/zl'foid. yolk, yolk, not yelk. zoology, zoorojy, not zoobXo\\. zygoma, zy go'mah, not zig'o mah. zygomatic, zig o mat'ic.
CHAPTER IV. Parts of Speech and Declension Endings.
THERE are eight parts of speech in Latin, four of which, noiins, adjectives, pronouns and verbs, are inflected, while the other four, adverbs, prepositions, con- jicnctions and interjections, remain unchanged.
By injlcction we mean the change of form which words undergo to denote their relation to other words. These changes are much more numerous and compli- cated in Latin and Greek than in English, and great care must be taken to learn them accurately. In English the meaning of a sentence depends largely upon the arrange- ment of the words. This, however, is not the case with inflectional languages, for in these nearly all relations are expressed by inflections or terminations; thus, Joseplms OS cani dat, may be translated, "Joseph a bone to the dog gives; " Josepho as cani datur, " By Joseph a bone to the dog is given."
This latter sentence might also have the words arranged in any other order, but the usual method is to place the subject first, the object second, and the predi- cate last.
1 . That variety of inflection which nouns, adjectives and participles undergo is called declension. By declen- sion we express the gender, number and case of words.
2. There are three genders in Latin as in English, the masculine, feminine and neuter, but these have little to do with sex, as we understand it. The ancients believed sex to be an inherent quality in all objects, as at a later period we found the alchemists believing that metals were of various sexes.
92
THE LANGUAGE OE MEDICINE.
3. Number. There are two numbers in Latin as in English.
4. Cases. There are six cases in Latin, viz.: — {a) The nominative , used as in Enghsh.
if) The genitive, denoting origin, possession or partition.
(r) The dative, denoting that to or for which a thing is done.
(^/) The accusative, almost equivalent to the Eng- lish objective.
{c) The vocative, used in addressing persons or things.
(/) The ablative, denoting the relation expressed in English hy from, with, by, or in.
In the following sentence all the cases will be found : Josephe (z'oc), det Henricus {iioin^ os {accusative^ ovis {gen) cani {dat) sylva {abl), Joseph {voc.) let Henry {nom) give a bone {ace) of a sheep {ge7i) to the dog {dat) from the woods {abl)
There are five declensions in Latin, distinguished by the endings of the genitive singular. The following table contains nearly all the case endings arranged according to declensions.
SINGULAR.
DECLENSIONS.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
CASE.
Nominative.
a(e)
us, es, um
es, is, or, etc.
us, u
es
Genitive ....
OS
1
IS
us
ei
Dative
a;
0
i
ui, u
ei
Accusative . .
am
um
em, im, etc.
um, u
em
Vocative . . .
a
e, um
like Nom.
us, u
es
Ablative ....
a
0
e or i
u
e
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 93
PLURAL.
DECLENSIONS.
I.
CASE.
Nominative.
ce
Genitive ....
a'' rum
Dative
i.s
Accusative . .
as
Vocative ....
ic
Ablative ....
i.s
II.
1, a 0''rum
is
OS, a
i, a
is
III.
es, a um, ium
ibus es, a es, a
ibus
IV.
us, ua uum
Ibus, ubus us, ua us, ua
ibus, libus
es e''rum e''bus
es
es e''bus
CHAPTER V. The First Declension.
NOUNS of the first declension usually end in a. They are all feminine except such as denote males.
Costa, a rib, is declined as follows : —
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
N'ofn. cost a, a rib cost ae, ribs
Gen. cost ae, of a rib cost a'rum, of ribs
Dat. cost ae, to or for a rib cost is, to or for ribs
Ace. cost am, a rib cost as, ribs
Voc. cost a, O rib cost ae, O ribs
Abl. cost a, by, with, or from a rib cost is, by, with, or from ribs
VOCABULARY I.
aca'cia, se (fr. Greek dxq, a prickle) acacia.
ala, ae (contraction of axilla) a wing, side.
an'ima, ae (fr, dveiioz, the wind) air, vital principle.
angi'na, ae (fr. afigo, Greek ayyoj, to strangle) sore throat, quinsy.
aura, ae (cf Greek wjo), to blow) a break of air, premoni- tion,
auric'ula, ae (dim. of aiiris, an ear) a small ear, auricle.
bacca, ce ( ) a berry,
bulla, ^ (fr. bnllio, to boil) a bubble, a lump, ball.
bursa, ae (fr. Greek j3-jfj(Ta. the hide of an ox, /9oyc) a leather pouch, a purse.
braye'ra, ae (fr. Dr. Brayer, a French botanist) kooso.
bryo'nia, ae (fr, ^pOw, to grow luxuriantly) bryony.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. fl5
coro'na, ge (fr. Greek xopcovr^, a garland) a crown.
chimaph'ila, ae (fr. Greek X^'^fJ-a, winter, and (fdico, to love) pipsissewa.
cornea, se (fr. comu, a horn) the cornea.
fari'na ae (Jr. far, a kind of grain) meal, flour.
fas'cia, se [c(./asds, a bundle) a bandage, a fibrous mem- brane.
fib'ula, £6 [zi.fibulo, to clasp) a buckle tongue, a brace, fibula, also an instrument used by the Romans for stitching the labia inajora, or the prepuce in the male, to prevent copulation.
fis'tula, se (cf fistuca, a rammer) a pipe, tube, fistula.
fossa, £e {{x.fodio, to dig) a ditch, trench, groove.
gemma, ae (cf Greek yiixoi, to swell up) a bud.
gutta, re (perhaps allied to gusto, to taste) a drop.
althae'a, ae (Greek aXdco, to heal) marsh mallow.
amen'tia, ae {a without, mens, mind) total loss of mind.
ampulla, ae {anibi, about olla, a pot) a two handled jug or jar.
angustu'ra, ae (Angostura, a town in Venezuela) a bitter plant.
antenna, ae (fr. ante, before, and teneo, to hold, lit. a yard-arm or end rope) the " feelers " of insects.
aqua, ae (cf equalis, level) water.
ar'nica, ae (fr. Greek apz, a lamb, fr. the soft leaf) arnica.
artemis'ia, ae (fr. Artemis, Greek " Apxtfiiz, Diana) a plant.
ave'na, se (a, without, vena, vein) oats.
cap'sula, ae (dim. of capsa, a box) small box, capsule.
cera, ee (Greek rr^poz, wax) bleached wax.
char'tula, ae (dim. of charta, a parchment) a powder paper.
cimicifuga, ae (fr. ciinex, a bug, z.wAfugo, to put to flight) black-snake root.
chorda, se {yopdrj, a cord made of intestine) a cord.
et, and.
96 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
EXERCISE I.
A I. Guttae aquae. 2. Fistula corneae. 3. Gem- mae et baccae. 4. Aqua ammoniae. 5. Fossae cos- tarum. 6, Corona et alae. 7. Aura epilepsiae. 8. Bullae et bursa. 9. Farina avenae. 10. Ampulla aquae.
B I. The bandage of the brace (bone). 2. Buds of acacia. 3. Capsules of wax. 4. Althaea and powder papers. 5. Cords and sail ropes. 6. Chalk and water. 7. The crown of the cornea. 8. Angustura berries. 9. Sore throat and cholera. 10. A (leather bag) of water.
GREEK NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION.
A number of Greek words have been taken without much alteration into the Latin language and their declen- sion varies from that of pure Latin nouns.
The majority of these Greek nouns end in e but there are a few in cs. Those ending in e are feminine, the others are masculine.
Pleg'mone, from (pUfto to burn or inflame, an inflam- mation of cellular tissue, is declined as follows: —
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Nom.
phleg'mone
phleg''monae
Gen.
phleg'mones
phlegmona^rum
Dat.
phleg'monae
phleg'monis
Ace.
phleg'monen
phleg'monas
Voc.
phleg'mone
phleg'monae
Abl.
phleg'mone
phleg'monis
In the same manner are declined all nouns ending in cele and such words as the following: — acne, (supposed to a modification dy-nrj, acme, the prime of life, because it affects those in the bloom of youth) an eruptive skin disease. aga've, (fr. ayaimt, to wonder at) the century plant.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 97
al'oe, (fr. illodco, to trample under foot) aloes, anem'one, (fr. dveixoi;, the wind) wind flower, argem'one, (fr. d/tysfioii, an eye disease) thorn poppy, daphne, (fr. Jd<furj, a river nymph changed into a bay
tree) a kind of laurel. mas'tiche, (Greek /iaarc'/y], fr. /mard^w, to chew) a plant
with sialagogue properties, stat'ice, (fr. lavrjiu, to staunch) named from its astringent
properties. The Greek nouns of the first declension ending in es are, as a rule, declined only in the singular. Pyri'tes (fr. 7z\)p, fire, and UQoz, stone), will serve as an example : —
Norn.
pyri^tes
Gen.
pyri^tae
Dat.
pyri^tae
Ace.
pyri^ten
Voe.
pyri^te or a
AM.
pyri^ta or e
VOCABULARY II.
calen'dula, se {xaUvoac, a calender, from the numerous
leaves), marigold. drach'ma, k (Greek dpay^iivj^ a coin), a drachm, dulcama'ra, se {dulcis, sweet ; aniarus, bitter), bittersweet, essen'tia, ae {ex, out of; ois, participle of esse, to be)
essence, forma, oe (allied to fJ-OfxfTj., form), a shape, form, form'ula, ae (dim. oi forma), a small form; a set rule, fran'gula, ^ {{r.frango, to break), buckthorn, galla, ie {Gallia), oak apple; gall nut. gaulthe'ria, ae (fr. name of Dr. Gaulthier), wintergrecn. gena, ae (cf Greek ykx^'Ki cheek bone), the check, glan'dula, ae (dim. of glans, a gland), a small gland, bora, se (Greek oi^oa, an hour), an hour.
98 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
ichthyocol'la, se (fr. Greek l^^'k, a fish, and -Aolla, glue), isinglass.
iner'tia, se {in, without; ars, art, activity), inactivity.
in'ula, 36 (corruption of Helenunn, fr. Helen of Troy), elecampane.
lach'ryma, se (cf. odxpo, a tear), a tear.
lacu'na, oe (fr. /aais, a lake), a small cavity in osseous tissue.
lam'ina, x (fr. same root as i?Mui^io, to drive) a plate or layer.
lappa, se [Zappa, a clitbur), burdock.
libra, vo (cf Greek khfta, a coin), a balance, a pound.
leptan'dra, se (fr. ?.s7:t6(;, slender, and du^p, stamen), Cul- ver's root.
lin'ea, se (cf. linmn, flax fibre), a line.
lingua, se (onomatopoeic, fr. licking sound), the tongue.
lobe'lia, se (fr. Lobel, a Flemish botanist), Indian tobacco.
lupuli'na, se (fr. lupithis, lit. a small wolf; a name for hops), pollen from hops.
lympha, se (lit. pure water), lymph.
macula, se (dim. fr. same root as //ap/ior, to fight), small spot on skin.
mamma, se (Greek /^a/^/ia, breast), breast.
massa, se (cf Greek fid^a., a lump of dough), a mass.
mate'ria, as (fr. mater, a producer), that which is pro- duced; matter.
maxil'la, se (augmented fr. mala, cheek bone), jaw bone.
mamil'la, je (dim. of majuina, the breast), the nipple.
maran'ta, se (named in honor of Maranii, a Venetian botanist), arrow -root.
medici'na, ce(fr. viedcor, to heal), the art of healing; a medicine.
medulla, se (fr. vicdhis, middle, centre), the marrow.
membra'na, se (fr. membnim, a member), a membrane.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 99
mentha, re (Greek fxr^dr^, mint), mint.
mica, ae (fr. inico, to sparkle like the motes in a sunbeam),
particle; a crumb, mistu'ra, ae (fr. misceo, to mix), a mixture, mor'rhua, re (fr. fMOf)o^, stupid), codfish, mu'cuna, x (fr. vntciis), cowhage.
est, is. sunt, are.
EXERCISE II.
A. I. Lacunae et medulla. 2. Libra aloes. 3. Mis- turacretae. 4. Laminae fibulae. 5. Massacerae. 6. Mis- tura marantae et menthae. 7. Lappa est medicina angi- nae. 8. Lympha et lachrymae. 9. Mistura mastiches et myrrhae. 10. Micae et galla. 11. Medulla fibulae.
B, I. Masses, crumbs and mixtures. 2. The spots of the tongue. 3. The line of the fibula. 4. The wing of the balance. 5. The spots on the cheek in acne. 6. The lacunae of the jaw-bone.
CHAPTER VI. The Second Declension.
NOUNS of the second declension end in lis, um, ir, cr, OS and on. Those ending in ti7n and on are neuter, the others are mascuHne. The great majority of the nouns of this declension used in medical works end
m 71 s or tini.
origm.
Those ending in os and on are of Greek
Digitus, a word kindred with oeixvoiic, to point, like indico, is declined as follows : —
SINGULAR.
No?n. dig^it us, a finger Gen. dig'it i, of a finger
dig^it o, to or for a finger dig^it um, a finger dig 'it e, O finger
Dat. Ace. Foe. Ahl.
PLURAL.
dig''it i, fingers dig it o'rum, of fingers dig'it is, to or for fingers dig'it OS, fingers dig'it i, O fingers
dig'it o, by, with, or from a finger dig'it is, by, with or from fingers
Folium, from the same root as (fuXXov, a leaf, is de- clined as follows: —
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
A'om.
fo'Ii um, a leaf
fo'li a, leaves
Gen.
fo'li i, of a leaf
fo li o'rum, of leaves
Dat.
fo'li o, to or for a leaf
fo'li is, to or for leaves
Aee.
fo'li um, a leaf
fo'li a, leaves
Voe.
fo'li um, O leaf
fo'li a, O leaves
Abl.
fo'li o, by, with, or from
a leaf
fo'li is, by, with, or from leaves
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 101
VOCABULARY III.
ac'inus, i (Greek dxrvoc, a grape), a granule; kernel; part of a gland.
alve'olus, i (dim. oialvtcs, the belly), a little belly, cavity, socket.
an'imus, i [dusfio::, the wind), the mind, soul.
an'nulus, i (dim. of an/ms, a circle, a ring), a little ring.
anus, i (fr. annus, a ring; cf. dfi(pc, around), orifice of rectum.
bacil'lus, i (dim, of baciiliim, a staff), a little rod; rod- like bacterium.
bolus, i (Greek ^mIoz, a clod), a lump, mouthful, large pill.
bulbus, i (Greek ^ol^oq, an onion), a bulb.
cal'amus, i (Arabic kalain, a reed), a writing pen.
cal'culus, i (dim. oicalx, a lump of lime), a pebble, a stone
capil'lus, i (cf caput, the head), a hair of the head.
carpus, i (fr. carpo, to pluck), the wrist.
caryophyl'lus, i [xdpoou, walnut ; (p'j?2ou, leaf), clove tree.
clavus, i (cf clavis, a bolt or key), a nail; a corn; sick headache.
con'gius, i (cognate with 'Myy^/j, a shell), a gallon.
morbus, i (allied to viorior, to die), a disease.
natu'ra, ae (fr, nascor, to be born), that which will produce, nature.
neb'ula, se (dim. of nubcs, a cloud), a haze.
nympha, se (Greek wficp-^, a nymph or bride), a nymph; labium minus.
ret'ina, se (fr. rete, a net), belonging to a net; retina.
offici'na, se (fr. opifex, doing work), a work-shop, drug- store.
oleoresi'na, ^[olcu7n, oil; rcsina, resin), oleo-resin.
or'bita, ■x. (fr. orbis, a circle, orb), the orbit, eye-socket,
in, in. a, ab, from.
102 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
EXERCISE III.
A. I. Bacilli morbi, 2. Acini glandulae. 3. Fis- tula in ano. 4. Sunt alveoli in maxilla. 5. Folia cary- ophylli. 6. Congius aquae menthae. 7. Nebula cor- neae. 8. In ofificina sunt oleo-resinae et misturae. 9. Calculi in orbita. 10. Clavus digitorum.
B. In the apothecary shop are mixtures and a gal- lon of rose water. 2. The sockets of the jaw-bones. 3. A ball of arrow-root. 4. Sick headache is a disease.
5. In the orbit there are an artery and a network.
6. The little ring of the cornea. 7. In the retina are small rods. 8. The membrane of the nipple. 9. In the breast are kernels (acini). 10. A pound of cloves.
There are a iow nouns of the second declension ending in er. Cancer (cognate with r-dpxcvo^, a crab) a crab, or cancer, is declined as follows: —
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Norn.
cane er, a cancer
cane ri, cancers
Gen.
cane ri
cane ro'rum
Dat.
cane ro
cane ris
Ace.
cane rum
cane ros
Voc.
cane er
cane ri
AM.
cane ro
cane ris
VOCABULARY IV.
liber, bri, the bark of a tree; a book; cf A. S. ^^^, beach, puer, pu'eri (cf. Greek TraTc, a boy) a boy. puel'la ae (dim. fem. oi pJ(cr) a girl, vir, viri (cf vis, strength) a male; man. pupil'la, se (dim. o{ pupa, a doll) the pupil, palma, ce (Greek naXdirrj, palm) palm of hand or sole, patel'la, ae (dim. oi patma, a pan) the knee-pan. phytolac'ca, ae (Greek (puzoi^, plant, and /Axxo^, pond) poke plant.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 103
pil'ula, ■s. (dim. oi pila, a ball) a little ball ; a pill, planta, ae (cognate with ■Klaxb:^, flat) a plant ; the sole of
the foot, porta, se (cf porto, to carry) the place through which
things are carried; a gate.
ran'ula, se (dim. of rana, a frog) tumor of salivary gland. resi'na, se (cf, pr^rtva, a gum) resin. rose'ola, ae (dim. of rosa, a rose) rose rash, rube'ola, se (dim. of ruber, red) measles, fascic'ulus, i (dim. oi fascis, a bundle) a little bundle. focus, i (fr. an old root, fo; cS.. fovea, to boil) a fire-place, fundus, i [ftmdo, to found) the bottom; lowest port.
funic'ulus, i (dim. oi fimis,2, rope) a string; umbilical
cord, gladi'olus, i (dim, oi gladius, a sword) a part of sternum, globus, i (like glomus, a ball) a ball ; a globe, cer'ebrum, i (cf 7(.dpa, the head) the greater brain, habet, has, habent, have,
EXERCISE IV.
A. I, Pilulae aloes et mastiches, 2. Plantae pueri et viri, 3. Cancer mammae est morbus feminarum. 4. Rubeola et roseola morbi sunt. 5. Quinina medi- cina anginae est. 6. Liber medici est in officina. 7, Eucalyptus . est malariae medicina. 8. Libra folio- rum phytolaccae. 9. Femina neuralgiam orbitae habet. 10. Viri gladiolos habent.
B. I. A little bundle of small rods. 2. Cancer of the brain is a disease, 3, The physician (medicus) has pills of aloes and myrrh. 4. The boys and girls have measles. 5. The books of the men are in the office. 6. Pepsin is a medicine for dyspepsia. 7. In the conjiinc- tiva is the gate of tears. 8. Ranula in the check [mala] of the girl. 9. Rose rash is a disease. 10. The woman has the hysterical {Jiysterician) globe.
8
104 THE LANGUAGE 01^ MEDICINE.
GREEK NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION.
A few nouns of Greek origin ending in os are found
in medical works, used only in the singular The word
asbcs'tos, from d, intensive, a^ivvofu, to quench, because
it will not burn, is declined as follows : —
N'oin. asbes''tos
Gen. asbes^ti
Daf. asbes'to
Ace. asbes'ton
Voc. asbes^te
Abl. asbes^to
A much larger number end in ojt^ such as those derived from (fozov [phyton), a plant, Cwov {^oon), an animal, dsvdpov {dendron), a tree, and aubpov [sporon), a spore.
Gaiiglio)i [GvQ&k ydyy)MM, 2i knot, a tumor) is thus declined: —
PLURAL, gang'lia ganglio''rum gang^liis gang^lia gang'lia gang'liis
VOCABULARY V.
am'nion, or am'nios, i (fr. Greek d/iv6c, a lamb, from its softness) a foetal membrane.
cho'rion, i (Greek yppiov, leather) a tough foetal mem- brane.
epiploon, i (Greek ItiI, upon, t.Uco, to fold) omentum.
haematox'ylon, i (Greek at pa, blood, and cuAoi^, wood) logwood.
hydrozo'on, i (Greek uocop, water, ^Coov, animal) water animalcule.
SINGULAR.
Norn.
gang'lion
Geti.
gang'lii
Dat.
gang'lio
Aee.
gang'lion
Voc.
gang^lion
Abl.
gang^lio
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 105
lirioden'dron, i (Greek Idpcov, a lily, divdpov, tree) tulip
tree, olec'ranon, i (Greek mUvyj, elbow, and xpdvov, head)
head of ulna, pleuron, i (Greek Tzhupov, the side) the serous covering
of the lungs, micros'poron, i (Greek fit^po^, small, cTzopb;;, a spore) a
microscopic spore, sali'va, re (cf Greek aiaXov, spittle) spittle. scap'ula, ce (cf Greek axd(fo^, skiff) shoulder blade, scarlati'na, ae (fr. Italian scarlatto, scarlet) scarlet fever, scilla, oe (Greek axi/la, an onion) squill. serpenta'ria, se (fr. serpo, to creep) Virginia snake-root. Scutellaria, se (dim. oi scutum, a shield) skull cap. spige'lia, ae (fr. Spigelius, the Dutch anatomist) pink root, spina, 36 (contraction oi spicna, a point) a thorn, spine. stria, ae (fr. strio, to groove) a groove, colored line. sutu'ra, ae (fr. siio, to sew) a seam, suture, hu'mulus, i (fr. humus, the ground) hop plant. lob'ulus, i (dim, of lobus, a lobe) a small lobe, lobule. locus, i (originally stlocus, cogn. w. areXXto, to send) a
place. malleus, i (cf Sansk.*;;/^/;, to strike) a hammer; a bone
of the ear. malle'olus, i (dim. of malleus) a small hammer, ankle
tuberosities, mus'culus, i (dim. of iiuis, a mouse, or Greek /ij>c, a
muscle) a muscle, naevus, i (contraction of nativus, fr. nascor, to be born) a
birth-mark, nanus, i (Greek vavoc, a pigmy) a dwarf nervus, i (fr. same root as i^eupov) a nerve, nodus, i (fr. gnodus, a knot) a knot, node, nu'cleus, i (dim. of ?tux, a nut) a kernel.
106 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
nucleolus, i (dim. of micleus) primary nucleus.
pilocarpus, i i^pila, ball, cai'pus, fruit) jaborandi.
ruga, ae (fr. Aryan root rag, rough) a wrinkle.
ruta, ae Greek porrj, rue) rue.
sabba'tia, ae (fr. Sabbati, an Italian botanist) sabbatia.
sabi'na, se (fr. a town in ancient Italy; a Sabine woman)
savine. salici'na, ae (fr. salix, a willow) alkaloid from willow, sanguina'ria, as (fr. sanguis, blood, from color of juice)
bloodroot. sen'ega, ae (fr. Indian Scnckd) corrupted into snake root, silica, ffi (fr. silcx, flint) oxide of silicon.
non, not.
EXERCISE V.
A. I. Musculi strias habent. 2. Scapula fossam habet. 3. Scrofula est morbus puerorum. 4. Corona spinarum. 5. Nervi ganglia habent. 6. Scilla medicina morbis est pleuri. 7. Amnion et chorion sunt membranae. Icterus et scarlatina morbi sunt. 9. Cerebrum lobos habet. 10. Hydrozoa non plantae sunt.
B. I. The physician gives pills of salicin to the boy. 2. Nerves have ganglia but not furrows. 3. Men have muscles, ner\-es, and arteries. 4. Chalk mixture is a medicine for diarrhoea. 5. Pills of sanguinaria and and ammonia for disease of the pleura. 6. Silica is not a medicine. 7. The women have savine and ergot. 8. Glands have nuclei. 9. The nodes of the nerves. 10. The dwarf has a birth-mark.
CHAPTER VII. The Third Declension.
NOUNS of the third declension have various endings in the nominative singular but the genitive singu- lar always ends in is ; sometimes with an increment (z. e. additional syllable) and is, sometimes by the addition of is to the nominative singular, and sometimes, when the nominative singular ends in is, the word is not changed in the genitive. Mctiis, fear, for example, forms the geni- tive singular metoris ; the or being the increment and is the termination. Tremor, trembling, simply adds is, while classis, a class or fleet, remains unchanged.
The student must commit to memory the termina- tion of the genitive singular and the gender of all words of this declension.
Arbor, a tree, is declined as follows : —
PLURAL.
arb^ores
arb^orum
arbor'ibus
arb'ores
arb'ores
arbor'ibus
Nouns of the third declension ending in or are usually of the masculine gender. The words in the fol- lowing vocabulary are declined like arbor.
SINGULAR.
Norn.
arbor (m)
Gen.
arb^oris
Dat.
arb'ori
Ace.
arb'orem
Voc.
arbor
AM.
arb'ore
108 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
VOCABULARY VI.
abduc'tor, o'ris (m) (from ab, away, duco, to lead) an
abductor. aer, a'eris (m) (Greek d.-qp, air) air. anser, an'seris (m) (allied to ansa, a handle, fr. long neck)
a goose. aether, asth'eris (Greek aWrjf), ether) ether. ardor, o'ris i^ardco, to burn with zeal) a burning. calor, o'ris [caleo, to be warm) heat. climac'ter, e'ris (Greek xhixaxx-qp, a round of a ladder) a
critical period. croton, o'nis (Gk. xfiozcov, dog tick) palma Christi plant. dila'tor, o'ris {dis, apart, fero, to bear) dilator, erec'tor, o'ris (fr, erigo, to stand up) erector, exten'sor, o'ris {ex, out, and tcndo, to stretch) extensor, flexor, o'ris {fligo, to bend) bender, fluor, o'ris [Jliio, to flow) a flowing. furfur, fur'furis (reduplication oi far, a cereal) bran, humor, o'ris (cf yj^fJ-oz, a liquid) a moisture, humor, labor, o'ris (cf labor, to slip) labor, parturition. leva'tor o'ris (fr. Icz'o, to lift) a lifter. lichen, e'nis (Greek hc-^rjv), a cryptogamous plant. limon, o'nis (from Portuguese town Limoa or Persian
limini) lemon. liquor, o'ris (fr. liquco, to be fluid) fluidity; liquid, solution. motor, o'ris (fr, moveo, to move) mover, prona'tor, o'ris (from prono, to bend forward) a bender
forward. ren, is (cf. ipp^jV, the diaphragm) the reins, kidneys, rigor, o'ris (fr. rigco, to be numb) a chill, rota'tor, o'ris (fr. roto, to turn) roller. rubor, o'ris (fr, riibus, red) redness, blushing. sal, is (cf. Greek cLX:;, salt) salt, sopor, o'ris (cf, Greek onoz, juice) sleep.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 109
sphincter, e'ris (Greek aif'iyyio, to squeeze) contractor.
stertor, o'ris (onomatopoeic) snoring.
stupor, o'ris (fr. stiipco ; cf. z'jzzu), to strike senseless)
insensibility. sudor, o'ris ( fr. sudo, to sweat ; cf. oocof), water) sweat. tumor, o'ris (fr. tuinco, to swell) a tumor, swelling. trochan'ter, e'ris (Greek xpoyoco. to roll) a roller; process tensor, o'ris (fr. tendo, to stretch) a stretcher. vapor, o'ris (cognate with xdizvoz^ smoke) smoke, steam,
aliquando, sometimes. dat, gives. dant, give.
EXERCISE VI.
A. I. Feminae aliquando anseres sunt. 2. Vir nervos motores habet. 3. Flexores et extensores humeri. 4. Anus levatorem et sphincteres habet. 5. Sunt ali- quando in morbis rigores et calor. 6. Fluor humorum est causa morborum. 7. Motores carpi musculi. 8. Micros- poron furfur planta est. 9. Renes viri lobos habent. 10. Aliquando in morbis sunt stertor, sudor, stupor, tremor, et sopor.
B. I. Vapor of water and salt of ammonia. 2. The trembling, snoring and sluggishness of disease. 3. The liquids of ammonia and potash (potassa). 4. The fluid of the amnion. 5. Women have critical periods. 6. The lifters of the ribs. 7. The sweat and tears of the women. 8. Ether is not air. 9, The stretchers and benders of the carpus. 10. The physician gives a drachm of jalap to the man.
Some neuter nouns of the third declension form the genitive like the above by adding is to the nominative. The accusative and vocative cases in both numbers are like the nominative.
1 1 0 THE LANG UA GE OE MEDICINE.
Sometimes a final / or jt of the nominative is doubled when the termination of an oblique case is added. Vas (from same root as Sanskrit vasti, a bladder, and Latin vesica) is declined as follows: —
SINGULAR. PLURAL,
Nom. vas, a vessel vasa, vessels
Gen. vasis vasum
Dat. vasi vas^ibus
Ace. vas vasa
Voc. vas vasa
Abl. vase vas'ibus
VOCABULARY VIL an'imal, a'lis (n) (fr. anima, vital principle) animal, cada'ver, eris (n) (fr, cado, to fall in battle) a corpse, fel, fellis (n) (kindred with bills, bile) bile, gall. mel, mellis (n) (Greek fxeh, whence, ^leXcaaa, a bee) honey. OS, ossis (n) (cf Sanskrit ostJu, a bone) a bone, pulmo, onis (n) (fr. rtXeuixcov, for Ttueufjicou) the lung, stear, is (n) (Greek ariap, tallow) stiff grease, tallow, tuber, eris (n) (for timber from tumeo) a bulb, tab'ula, se (fr. the root tab, flat surface) a table,
tae'nia, se (Greek racvla, from zeivco to stretch) a tape, ribbon; tape-worm.
terebin'thina, se (fr. Gk. r£/>£/9rv^oc, pine tree) turpentine.
terra, ae (kindred with ton'co, to dry) earth.
testa, se (allied to tosta, parched) a shell.
tib'ia, se (cf tabeo, to waste away) a flute, shin-bone.
tinctu'ra, as (fr. tingo, to dye) a tincture.
tin'ea, -x. (perhaps from zivco, to punish) a bookworm;
ringworm, tu'nica, se, a close-fitting undergarment, tunic, covering, octa'rius, i (fr. octo, eight) the eighth of a congitis ; a. pint, oc'ulus, i (dim. ; cf. Ionic oxxo:;) an eye. pedic'ulus, i (dim. o^ pes, a foot) a small foot; pedicle;
a louse.
THE LANG UA GE OE MEDICINE. 1 1 1
papj/rus, i (Greek -dTzupo^, the paper-reed) parchment, ace'tum, i (fr. past part, of acco, to become sour) sour wine; vinegar. curat, cures. curant, cure.
EXERCISE VII.
A. I. Mistura fellis et mellis. 2. Ossa tubera ct pediculos habent. 3. Chirurgus (surgeon) cancros et tumores curat 4. Medicus rubeolam et scarlatinam curat. 5. Animalia ossa et musculos habent. 6. Octa- rius tincturae zingiberis. 7. Arteriae vasa vas^rum (fr. vasiwi, a vessel) habent. 8. Medicus curat tineam cum terebenthina. 9. Tabulae et laminae ossium. 10. Drach- ma aceti scillae.
B. I. The shell of the earth. 2. The covering of the eyes. 3. The physician gives vinegar to the boy. 4. Tinctures of rhubarb and ammonia. 5. There is gall in the vessel. 6. The corpse is on the table. 7. The shin-bone has lines and grooves. 8. A pint of tincture of squill. 9. There is paper in the book. 10. The ani- mal has bones, tallow, and nerves.
Many nouns of the third declension ending in is in the nominative singular remain unchanged in the genitive.
Avis (f), a bird (allied to Greek dco, to move the air), is declined as follows: —
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Nom. avis, a bird aves, birds
Gen. avis, of a bird a'vium, of birds
Dat. avi av''ibus
Ace. avem aves
Voe. avis aves
Abl. ave, or i av^ibus
All the nouns of the third declension in the follow- ing vocabulary are similarly declined.
112 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
VOCABULARY VIIL
apis (f) (fr. apo, to fasten) the clinging animal; a bee. auris (f ) (fr. same root as Greek ouc, the ear) an ear. axis (m) (Greek d.^cDv, an axle, fr. afto, to carry) an axle- tree; second vertebra. basis (f ) (Greek ^dac^, a pedestal) foundation, base, crinis (m) (fr. cer, as seen in crcsco, to grow) the hair, cutis (f ) (kindred to x'jtoz, a bag of leather) the skin, digita'lis (f) (fr. digitus, a finger, or digitale, a glove
finger) foxglove. febris (f) [h.fcrbis ix.fcrveo, to be warm) a fever. funis (m) (fr. a root meaning to bind) a rope, cord, ignis (m) (Sanskrit ag7iis) fire.
naris (f) (cf tcvso), to breathe, iiasiim, the nose) a nostril. panis (ni) (perhaps fr. Pan, a demigod of the fields) bread, pelvis (f) (allied to Greek izbzlo^, basin) basin, pelvis, pertus'sis (0 (fr./^rintens. and /«.y^w, cough) whooping
cough. piscis (m) (perhaps allied to pascor, feed upon) a fish, sina'pis (0 (Greek ar>az'j, mustard) mustard, sitis (f ) {sitio, to be dry) thirst. taxis (f) (from Greek zdoaco, to draw) reduction by
handling. testis (m) (fr. testa, a shell, because witnesses voted with
shells in determining the guilt of the accused)
a witness ; evidence; testicle. vis, ace. vim, pi. vires {^ci. Gk. i^, fibre) strength, power. ulna, se (fr. Gk. dilhq, the elbow) ulna; elbow bone. un'cia, pe (Greek obyx'ia, 1-12 of a pound) an ounce, urtica'ria, se (from tirtica, a nettle, fr. uro, to burn) nettle
rash. uva, ae (kindred to uveo, to be moist) a grape, uvula, se (dim. oiuva, a grape) small grape; uvula. causat, causes. causant, cause.
THE LANG UA GE OF MEDICINE. 1 1 3
EXERCISE VIII.
A. I. Axis et ulna ossa sunt. 2. In febribus sunt crises et lyses. 3. Tinea et urticaria sunt morbi cutis. 4. Feminae pelves habcnt. 6. Terebenthina ardorem urinae causat. 6. Octarius accti et drachma tincturae digitalis. 7. Calor, aer, et aqua sunt medicinae. 8. Ipe- cacuanha et digitalis fluorem urinae causant. 9. Puer pisces et panem habet. 10. Puclla pertussem habet,
B. I. The wings of the birds. 2. The nostrils have dilators and depressors. 3. A pint of vinegar and water for the thirst of fever. 4. An ounce of tincture of foxglove. 5. Gonorrhoea causes a burning of the urine. 6. Bees have antennae but not ears. 7. The surgeon cures the tumor with fire. 8. A crumb of bread. 9. The woman has fish and mustard in the basin. 10. The power of nature is a physician.
Nouns of the third declension ending in men, a termination originally added to the root of verbs to form nouns denoting the result of the verbal action, are of the neuter gender. They form the genitive singular by changing the e of the final syllable to i and adding the genitive termination is. Cerumen, ear wax, (from cera, bleached wax), is thus declined: —
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Nom.
ceru^'men
ceru''mina
Gen.
ceru^minis
ceru''minum
Dat.
ceru'mini
cerumin'ibus
Ace.
ceru^men
ceru'mina
Voc.
ceru'men
ceru'mina
Abl.
ceru^mine
cerumin'ibus
114 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
VOCABULARY IX.
abdo'men, inis (fr. abdo, to hide) the belly.
albu'men, inis (fr. albiis, white) white of &gg\ albumen.
alu'men, inis (allied to biz, salt) alum.
cacu'men, inis (fr. acumen, a point, with prefix c) top of a
plant. fora'men, inis {{x.foro, to bore) a hole, orifice. gramen, inis (alteration o{ ere amen, growth) grass. inguen, inis (fr. inqiiino, to befoul) the groin. moli'men, inis (fr. molior, to struggle) a bearing down pain. pecten, inis (Gk. ttsxt^v, a comb) comb; os pubis. semen, inis (fr. sero, to sow) seed. stamen, inis (from slo, to stand) a standard; stamen of
flower. tormen, inis (from torquco, to twist) a writhing, twisting
pain, vagi'na, se (kindred with i^d-yoi, to swallow) a sheath,
vagina. valva, se (fr. volvo, to turn) a folding door, valve, vulva, 36 (altered fr. volva, fr. volveo, to wrap) a wrapper;
vulva. variola, se (dim. oivarns, a blotch) small-pox. varicella, £e (dim. oivarix, a pimple) chicken pox. vena, se (possibly allied to (paivco, to be evident because
on surface) a vein. vesi'ca, se cf vas, a vessel) a bladder, via, se (fr. hr, to go) a way, track, viola, se (Greek I'ov, a violet) a violet, vita, se (fr. vivo, to live) life. zona, se (Greek C,ojv^, a belt) a belt, girdle, zone.
EXERCISE IX.
A. I. Renes in abdomine sunt. 2. Cacumen violae. Sphincter vaginae. 3. In tibia sunt foramina. 4. Vena
THE LANG UA GE OF MEDICINE. 1 1 6
portae in abdomine est. 5. Vir cerumen in auribus habet. 6. Tinctura Valerianae est hysteriae medicina. 6. Venae et calculus vesicae. 8. Habet albumen in urina. 9. Feminae molimina et tormina habent. 10. Puer gramen animalibus dat.
B. I. Alum is a medicine for diseases of the nose. 2. The veins and arteries of bones. 3. In diseases of the kidneys there is albumen in the urine. 4. Life is a road of thorns. 5. The accelerator of the urine is the ejacu- lator of the seed. 6. Twisting pains in the belly. 7. The bladder has a squeezing muscle. 8. In the fluid of the amnion there is albumen and salt. 9. The "comb" is the bone of the pubes. 10. The boy gives grass to the cows (vacca).
Nouns of the third declension ending in es usually change es to is in forming the genitive singular; thus, pubes, the pubic hair, genitive pubis, of the pubic hair.
The majority of these words, however, form the genitive by adding is with an increment.
Cap2it (neuter), the head (from same root as Greek xtifa/jj and German kopf), is declined as follows: —
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Nom.
ca^put, a
head
cap'ita, heads
Gen.
cap'itis
cap'itum
Dat.
cap'iti
capit^ibus
Ace.
ca'put
cap'ita
Voe.
ca'put
cap'ita
Abl.
cap^ite
capit'ibus
VOCABULARY X.
ace'tas, a'tis (m) (fr. acetuin, vinegar) an acetate. adeps, ad'ipis (m) (fr. Greek a, im, and root oar:, to tear) . lard; stiff grease.
1 1 6 THE LANG UA GE OF MEDICINE.
aes, a'ris (n) (probably fr. a7c, a copper coin) brass. aetas, a'tis (f ) (fr. cBvitas, fr. (Bvum, an age) age. albu go, albu'ginis (f ) (fr. albus, white) white of eye. anthrax, a'cis (m) (Gk. duOpaq, burning coal) carbuncle. apex, ap'icis (m) (possibly fr. apo, to fasten) a point, top. appen dix, appen'dicis (f) (fr. ad, to, dXidpefideo. to hang)
appendix. atlas, atlan'tis (m) (Gk. "Az/mc, the god who supported
the world on his shoulders) the first vertebra, cory za, se (fr. Gk. -/Apa, head, and ^l^so), to boil) cold in
the head, pilus, i, a hair.
pinus, i (f) (kindred to Greek tAtu^, pine) a pine tree, prunus, i (f) (Greek Tzpo'jvrj, a plum tree) wild cherry, porus, i (Gk. rzopo^, a passage) a pore, pyrus, i (f) (fr. the country Epirus) a pear tree, absin thium, i (fr. Aipii^dtoi, a people in Southern Thrace)
wormwood. ac idum, i (fr. aceo, to be sour) an acid, al Hum, i (probably fr. alms, because imported) a garlic, ammoni acum, i (fr. Eg>'ptian through Greek " Appoiv,
the tree growing near the temple of Jupiter
Ammon) ammoniac, am ylum, i (d, mi, and p'jl-q, mill, not ground) starch, animal culum,'^^ i (dim. oi animal) microscopic animal, ani sum, i (fr. Greek (vAr^tu, to send up an odor) anise, vertebra, ae {verto, to turn) a spindle; a vertebra.
EXERCISE X.
A. I. Libra adipis et uncia ammonii acetatis. 2. Anthrax est morbus animalium. 3. Apices pulmo- num. 4. Fori cutis et pili capitis. 5. Atlas et axis ver-
* Animalcxila is the plural of animalculum. There is no such word as animalcule .
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 117
tebrac sunt. 6. Pinus ct prunus sunt arbores. 7. Urti- caria est morbus cutis et nervorum. 8. Medicus guttam tincturae aconiti puero dat. 9. Amylum et albumen cibus (food) virorum sunt. 10. In aqua sunt animalcula et plantae.
B. I. Tincture of aconite is a medicine for fevers. 2. Animalcules in vinegar. 3. The atlas is not a bone of the head. 4. Lard and starch are foods. 5. Car- buncle is a skin disease. 6. The age of brass,
GREEK NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.
There are many Greek nouns of the third declen- sion, all of which originally formed the genitive singular in OS. The majority of these words end in is, as diuresis, catharsis.
Catharsis, purging, from y.a-d, down, a?/^w, to take, and calomelas calomel are thus declined : —
SINGULAR. SINGULAR.
Nom. cathar''sis calom''elas
Gen. cathar'seos calomeFanos
Dat. cathar^si calomel'ani
Ace. cathar^sin calomeFana
Voc. cathar''sis calom''elas
Abl. cathar^si calomeFane
Pure Greek words like the above are not found in the plural in medical works. Of late there is a tendency to employ the regular Latin terminations of the third declension, but there is no good reason for so doing.
Another large class of Greek words end in tis and ma. These originally made the genitive singular in idos and atos, but now idis and atis are preferred; thus, broii- chitis forms the genitive bronchitidis , and exanthema, cxantJiematis. Those ending in tis are feminine; those ending in ma are neuter.
118 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
Rhus (fern.), sumac, ivy (from Greek pohz, gen. ^ooc) and aleiris, are declined as follows: —
SINGULAR. SINGULAR.
Nom. rhus, ivy aFetris (f ), star grass
Gen. rhois alet^ridis
Dat. rhoi alet'ridi
Ace. rhoem or en alet^ridem or en
Voc. rhus al'etris
Abl. rhoe or i alet^ride
Words like the above are used only in the singular. The nouns of this declension ending in via are used in both numbers.
Enema, a clyster, from Ivirnxt, to inject, is thus declined: —
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Nom
. en'ema, clyster
enem^ata, clysters
Gen.
enem''atis
enem'atum
Dat.
enem'ati
enemat'ibus
Ace.
en'ema
enem'ata
Voc.
en-'ema
enem'ata
Abl.
enem^ati or e
enemat^ibus
VOCABULARY XI.
aVetris, idis (f ) (Gk. aXs-zfuQ, a female slave who grinds
corn) star grass, am'yris, idis (f) (Gk. d, intensive, and fi'jpov, odorous
juice) amyris. aphis, idis (f ) (Greek d^r'c, a louse) a plant louse, arthri'tis, idis (f) (Greek d/^^iO^-^c) inflammation of a joint, as'caris, idis (f ) (Gk. daxapiq, a maw worm) pin-worm, asclep'ias, adis (f ) (fr. 'AaxUTvia^, yEsculapius) milkweed. colocyn'this, idis (f ) (fr. xoXoxuvdfj, pumpkin) colocynth. hamame'lis, idis (f ) (from ILpta, like, and ixf^lov, an apple)
witch hazel.
THE LANG UA GE OF MEDICINE. 1 1 9
coma, atis (n) (Greek yt.oiixa, deep sleep) coma, glottis, idis (f ) (fr. ykozza, the tongue) the glottis, gramma, atis (n) (Gk. ypafx/jta, a letter, a coin) a gram, hepar, atis (n) (Greek r^zap, liver) liver, hydras'tis, idis (f ) (fr. uocop, water) golden seal. juglans, ndis (f ) {/ovis, of Jove, glans, nut) butternut. lapis, idis (f ) (cf Greek ^>aac, a stone) a stone. mias'ma, atis (n) (fr. Greek ludZ^o), to contaminate) an
effluvium, physostig'ma, atis (n) (from Greek (f'jatz,, growth, arijixa
head) Calabar bean, phosphis, i'tis (m) (fr. ^wc, light) a phosphite, plasma, atis (n) (fr. Greek Tz/daaco, to form) plasma, pneuma, atis (n) (fr. Gk. Tz'us.'jua) a gaseous substance. pyr'amis, idis (f ) (possibly fr. zop, fire) a pyramid. rheuma, atis (n) (fr. Gk. psco, to flow) a humor, rhizo'ma, atis (n) (fr. Gk. pi^a, a root) root stock, stigma, atis (n) (fr. Gk. azi^^o), to point) the top of a pistil. sulphis, i'tis (m) (sulphur) a sulphite. sympto'ma, atis (n) [aov, together, zctzzco, to fall) symptom syste'ma, atis (n) (<tvv. together, cazvjpu, to stand) system. theobro'ma, atis (n) (^soc, god, ^poi/m, food) cocoa, antrum, i (Greek duzpou, a cave) a cavity, arca'num, i (fr. arcco, to shut up) a nostrum.
EXERCISE XI.
A. I. Rubor et tumor symptomata arthritidis sunt.
2. Medicus enema hydrastidis puero dat. 3. Morbus
oculorum symptoma syphilidis est. 4. Gramma sodii
phosphitis et uncia theobromatis. 5. Hepar sulphuris
morbis cutis. 6. Fel in urina est symptoma morbi
hepatis. 7. Pyramides renum. 8. Miasmata causae feb-
rum sunt. 9. In corpore sunt arcana naturae. 10. In
exanthematibus sunt maculae, papulae, et bullae, y
120 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
B. I. An ounce of tincture of golden seal. 2. A pound of star grass in a gallon of water. 3. In the cavity of the jaw-bone there is a membrane. 4. A pint of tinc- ture of agave in the shop. 5. The man has cancer of the liver and kidneys. 6. In the bladder there are some- times pebbles, but not stones. 7. The rootstock of ivy is not a medicine. 8. A gramme of sulphite of soda in water. 9. The nerves, veins, and lobes of the liver. 10. Macules and papules are symptoms of syphilis.
CHAPTER VIII. The Fourth Declension.
NOUNS of the fourth declension form the genitive singular in us, the ti being a contraction of the earlier ending uis, and is, therefore, long in quantity; e. g., manus, a hand, genitive mamis, of a hand. The us of the genitive is sometimes written with the circumflex accent in order to distinguish it from the nominative singular.
Nouns of this declension ending in us are masculine with the exception of manus, a hand, acus, a needle, and the names of plants, which are feminine.
Nouns of the fourth declension ending in ti are of the neuter gender.
The genitive plural ends in uum, the dative plural in ibus, except acus, a needle, arcus, a bow, artus, a joint, lacus, a lake, and partus, a birth, which form the dative plural in ubus.
Matius (fem.) a hand (fr. Aryan root ma, to measure) is declined as follows: —
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Nom. manus, a
hand
manus, hands
Gen. manus
man^uum
Dot. man''ui
man^ibus
Ace. manum
manus
Voc. manus
manus
Abl. manu
man ''ibus
VOCABULARY XII. abor'tus, us {aborior, to rise from a losing game) abortion, absces'sus, Os {abs, from, and cedo, go) departure, abscess, afflux'us, Cis {ad, to, and J?uo, to flow) a flowing to, afflux.
122 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
appara'tus, us [ad, for, paratus, ready) instruments, appa- ratus.
aqueduc'tus, us {aqua, water, ductus, a duct) a water way, aqueduct.
audi'tus, fis (fr. audio, to hear) hearing.
co'itus, us [ctim, together, we, to go) intercourse (sexual).
congres'sus, us {cum, together, gradior, to walk) coitus.
cornus, us (f ) (fr. cormi, a horn, on account of its hard
wood) dogwood, cu'bitus, us (fr. cubo, to lie down) lying down, decu'bitus, Gs {de, from, cubitus, lying) position in lying, ductus, us (fr. duco, to lead) a duct, flatus, tts {{x.flo, to blow) gas in bowels, fluxus, fis {it.fiuo, to flow) a flowing; flux, foetus, us {{x.fco, to produce) unborn child.
fructus, us (fr. fruor, to enjoy) that which is enjoyed; fruit.
gustus, ils (fr. gusto, to taste) that which tastes; sense of
taste, hab'itus, Qs (fr. liabeo, to have or acquire) habit, hal itus, <Js (fr. halo, to breathe) breath, vapor, haustus, <is (fr. haurio, to drink) a draught, ictus, Cis (fr. ico, to smite) a stroke, lusus, us (fr. ludo, to play) a sport, joke. motus, Cis (fr. movco, to move) motion.
nisus, <is (fr. nitor, to struggle, bear down) an effort; bearing down.
olfac'tus, fis (fr. olco, to emit an odor, ^xv^facio, to make)
sense of smell, ra'dius, i (cf p't^a, a root) a staff; a spoke; the radius, ramus, i (kindred with radix, a root) a branch, ranun' cuius, i (f) (dim. of ra7ta, a frog) crowfoot, rhamnus, i (f) (Greek pdnvo<:, buckthorn) buckthorn, ric'inus, i (f) (fr. root phric, to rub) castor oil plant, tor'cular, is (n) (fr, torqueo, to twist) a wine-press.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 123
EXERCISE XII.
A. I. Medicus abortum curat. 2. Animal absces- sum hepatis habet. 3. Aqueductus Sylvii et cochleae. 4, In decubitu peritonitidis. 5. Inflammatio artuum manus. 6. Ictus solis est morbus systematis nervorum. 7. Monstrositates sunt lusus naturae. 8. Pronatores radii. 9. Venae et ductus foetus. 10. Foetus nisum feminae causat.
B. I. A draught of tincture of valerian. 2. The branches and buds of the trees. 3. The bones of the head and the joints of the hands. 4. The surgeon has needles and apparatus. 5. The man has sunstroke. 6. The nerves of smell, hearing and taste. 7. Crowfoot and buckthorn are plants. 8. The bodies, arches, and pedicles of the vertebrae. 9. The position of the body in inflammation of the joints. 10. A bad {mala) mixture of the humors is the cause of disease, says [ait) Galen.
It will be observed that the great majority of nouns of the fourth declension ending in 7is are of verbal origin, being derived from the supine or past participle. They denote the action expressed by the verb; thus, audio, to hear, aiiditus, hearing; seittio, to feel or sense a thing, sensus, sensation ; tjo/o, to will or wish, vjdtiis, that which expresses the will and desires, /. e., the countenance.
There are but few neuter nouns of this declension. They are all very ancient, being found in the oldest specimens of Latin. It is quite probable that many nouns originally belonging to the fourth declension were converted into nouns of the second or third declensions.
124 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
Cortm, a horn (kindred with xepac: and German horn) is dechned as follows: —
SINGULAR
PLURAL.
Nom. cornu, a
horn
cor''nua, horns
Gen. corn us,
of a horn
cor''nuum
Dat. cor'nui
cor^nibus
Ace. cornu
cor^nua
Voc. cornu
cor^nua
Abl. cornu
cor'nibus
VOCABULARY XIII.
genu, us (fr. same root as Greek yoi^u, a knee) a knee.
passus, Gs (fr. pando, to pace) a pace, step.
plexus, us (from plecto, to weave) a network of nerves or vessels.
potus, us (fr. poto, to drink) a drink; drinking.
proces'sus, us {{xova pro, forward, and ccdo, to go) a pro- jection.
prolap'sus, us {{x. pro, forward, and labor, to slip) a slip- ping forward.
pulsus, ^^{{x.pello, to drive) a driving; the pulse.
risus, us (fr. rideo, to laugh) a laughing, smile.
sexus, <is (perhaps fr. scco, to divide, distinguish) sex.
sinus, <is {sinuo, to swell out like a sail) a fold, bay, gulf, cul-de-sac.
situs, Cis (fr. sino, to locate) a location, site.
singultus, Cis (from singidi, one by one, because of the broken sounds) hiccup, sobbing.
spir'itus, lis (fr. spiro, to breathe) breathing, spirit.
subsul'tus, us (from sub, up from under, silio, to jump) jumping up, twitching.
tactus, fis (fr. tango, to touch) touching, feeling.
tinni'tus, us (fr. tinnio, to tinkle) tinkling, ringing in ears.
tractus, <is (fr. traho, to draw) a tr-ict, track.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 125
tran'situs, Cis (from trans, across, and ire, to go) a going
across; transit, victus, ^%{ix.vivo, to live) what one lives on; victuals. visus, fts (fr. video, to see) seeing; sense of sight, vom'itus, fis (fr, vomo, to puke) vomiting. arcus, <is (anciently arquiis) a bow, arch, artus, fts (fr. d.pio, to join) a joint. acus, fis (f) (fr, acuo, to sharpen) a needle, lacus, fis (Greek Xdxxoz, a pond) a lake, partus, fis (fr. pario, to bring forth) parturition, birth argen'tum, i (cf Greek d^pyri^, white, shining) silver. arse'nium, i (fr. dfxrjv, a male) arsenic. arum, i (Greek dpov, wake-robin) wild turnip.
EXERCISE XIII.
A. I. Balsamum copaibae est gonorrhoeae medi- cina. 2. Subsultus est symptoma morbi nervorum. 3. Medicus balnea calori febris dat. 4. Quinina tinnitum aurium causat, aliquando vomitum. 5. Chirurgus sinum abscessus apparatu curat. 6. In cerebro est plexus vena- rum, in abdomine plexus nervorum. 7. Viri aliquando cornua in capite habent. 8. Ossa processus et tubera habent. 9. Patella artus genus os est. 10. Medicus potum aquae cum spiritu camphorae puellae dat.
B. I. The joint of the knee and the bones of the hand. 2. The man has a slipping forward of the eyes. 3. Abscesses have sinuses and tracts. 4. The site of the disease is in the liver, 5. The man has hiccup and a twitching of the muscles. 6. Spirits of aether and am- monia. 7. Salicin and quinine cause ringing of the ears. 8. Diseases of touch, vision, and taste. 9. The man gives food and drink to the woman. 10. Gold, silver and barium are metals [inetalla).
CHAPTER IX. The Fifth Declension.
THERE are a few nouns of the fifth declension used in medical literature. They all end in es, and form the genitive singular in ei. All nouns of this declension are feminine except dies, a day, which is masculine. Only two nouns, dies, and res, a thing, are declined in all cases, both singular and plural.
Res, a thing (kindred with /"y^a, that which is spoken of) is declined as follows: —
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Norn, res, a thing res, things
Gen. rei rerum
■Dat. rei rebus
Ace. rem res
Voc. res res
Abl. re rebus
VOCABULARY XIV.
a'cies, ei (cf Greek azr'c, an edge) an edge.
balbu ties, e'i (fr. balbus, stammering) stammering.
calvi ties, e'i (fr. calvits, adj. bald) baldness.
cani ties, e'i (fr. eauiis, gray, kindred with xdco, to burn
to ashes) ash color; grayness of hair, carries, e'i (Sanskrit karkas, cancer) decay, fa cies, e'i {ir.facio, to make) that which is formed; face, inglu'vies, e'i {in, in, gida, gullet) the crop of birds, ma'cies, e'i (fr. maceo, to be lean) leanness, wasting, molli'ties, e'i (fr. mollis, soft) softening. rabies, e i (fr. rabo, to rave) madness, hydrophobia, sanies, e'i (fr, sangids, blood) blood; fetid matter.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 127
sca'bies, e'i (fr. scabo, to scratch) the itch.
species, e'i (fr. spccio, to look) appearance, variety, look.
spes, e'i (fr. spcro, to hope) hope.
superficies, e'i (fr. super, upon, 2X\^ fades, the face) upper
face; surface, aspid ium, i (fr. Gk. aaiiibiov, a little shield) shield fern, aurum, i (old Greek aopov, gold, fr. dco, to glitter) gold, balneum, i (Greek ^a)Mvdov, a bath) a bath, bal'samum, i (Greek i3d?.(Ta/jtou, fragrant gum) balsam. ba rium, i (fr. Greek ^apix;, heavy) the metal barium, benzo'inum, i (from Arabic benzoah, a resin from styax)
benzoin, cad'mium, i (fr. xadixela, calamine, fr. Cadmos, Thebes,
where calamine was first found) cadmium.
EXERCISE XIV,
A, I. Mollities ossium est morbus puerorum. 2. Ossa faciei et manus. 3. Caries ossium causat fluxum saniei. 4. Rabies est morbus animalium. 5. Febris et phthisis maciem causant. 6. Scabies est species morbi cutis, 7. Canities et calvities symptomata setatis sunt. 8. Benzoinum est medicina anginae.
9. Calor ictum solis (sun) causat. 10. Aves pennas, alas, et ingluvies habent.
B. I. He has softening and rottenness of the bones. 2. Grayness and baldness are diseases of the hair. 3. Itch is a disease of boys, rabies of dogs [canis).
4. The surface of the bones of the face and head.
5. Tincture of benzoin and oleoresin of sheld fern.
6. The physician has no cadmium in his office. 7, A variety of animalcules causes itch. 8. Hope is nature's medicine. 9. The bloody matter of rotten bone.
10. Stammering and hiccup are diseases of the nerves.
CHAPTER X.
Indeclinable Nouns.
MANY words from languages having no declensions like those of Latin and Greek have been intro- duced into the pharmacopoeias of European countries. These are necessarily used like Latin words, but undergo no changes in the various cases. Indeclinable nouns are all assumed to be of the neuter gender. Thus, we should write alcohol fortius, not alcohol for tior.
VOCABULARY XV. buchu, ind. (an African word) buchu. cat'echu, ind. (a Malay word, galchkuah, boiled juice). kino, ind. (a word meaning juice) kino. kousso, ind. (an Abyssinian word) brayera. sago, ind. (a Malay word, sagu, pith) sago, sas'safras, ind. (a Spanish word, corrupted from Latin
saxifraga) spleen wort. rubus, i (f ) (fr. ruber, red. " Blackh^xn^'s, are red when
they 2SQ: greeny) a blackberry bush, saccus, i (Greek odxy.oz, a bag) a sac. scirrhus, i(fr. aytppbi;, hard) a stone cancer, scopa'rius, i (fr. scopce, twigs for making brooms) broom
plant, somnus, i (fr. same root as Greek 5>tvoc, sleep) sleep. stim'ulus, i (cf Greek trrr'^w, to prick up) prodding;
stimulant.
stom'achus, i (fr. Gk. axofw., mouth, and ly^io, to receive)
that which receives from the mouth, gullet, stomach.
succus, i (fr. stigo, to suck) juice.
sulcus, i (fr. same root as Greek bh.bz, a trench) a ditch,
groove.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 129
syru'pus, i (Arabic shcrab, rose water) syrup. caecum, i (neuter of adj. ccecus, blind) blind gut. cal'cium, i (fr. calx, lime) calcium, cancrum, i (fr. cancer, a cancer) canker, cap'sicum, i (fr. Greek xdrtzco, to bite) Cayenne pepper, centrum, i (fr. Greek xevrpov, a sharp point) a centre. cera'tum, i (fr. cera, wax) a cerate, ce'rium, i (cf xT^pcrrj^, wax-stone) cerium, cerebel'lum, i (dim. oi cerebrum) the little brain, cervix, i'cis (f) (allied to xdpa, head) neck, ceta'ceum, i [xijzot;, a whale) spermaceti, carbo, o'nis (m), charcoal, carbon.
EXERCISE XV.
A. I. Medicus unciam tincturae catechu diarrhoeae dat. 2. Sago et fructus rubi cibus sunt. 3. Chirurgus succum limonis arthritidi dat. 4. E succo sambuci (sumach) est color ruber. 5. Femina scirrhum mammae habet. 6. Scoparius et buchu sunt medicamenta( medi- cines) renibus et vesicae. 7. Fructus, limones et pyra medicamenta scorbuto sunt. 8. Syrupus papaveris som- num et soporem causat. 9. Alcohol est stimulus cere- bri est systematis nervorum. 10. Vir octarium alcohol
feminae dat.
B. I. Bones have furrows, tuberosities and pro- cesses. 2. Syrup of hypophosphites is a medicine for wasting. 3. The blind gut and the stomach are in the belly. 4. The physician gives sulphide of calcium for carbuncles. 5. Oxalate of cerium is a remedy for vom- iting. 6. Castor and valerian are stimulants of the nerves. 7. There is a gallon of alcohol in the shop^ 8. Flowers of kousso and turpentine are remedies for tapeworm. 9. The man has a gallon of tincture of catechu, a pound of sago, and an ounce of sassafras. 10. The muscles and vessels of the neck.
CHAPTER XI. Derivation of Nouns.
BY means of suffixes new nouns may be formed from the stems of other nouns, adjectives, or verbs. /. Nouns derived from other nouns. Diminutives. Diminutives denote a small thing of the kind specified by the original word; thus, from cauda, a tail, we have caudicula, a little tail. The gender of the derivatives thus formed is usually the same as that of the primitives. The following are the usual diminutive terminations: —
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
-ulus -ula -ulum
-cuius -cula -culum
-olus -61a -olum
-alius -ella -ellum
Examples: Lobus, a lobe, lobidus, a little lobe, a lobule; rana, a frog, ramda, a little frog; ovum, an q^^, ovidum, a little egg.
If the primitive is of the third, fourth, or fifth declen- sions, the diminutive is formed by adding cidus or icidus, a, Jim; thus, auris (f), an ear, auricida, a little ear, exter- nal ear; os (n), a bone, ossicidum, a little bone (of ear); funis (m), a rope, funiadus, a little rope, a string, cord.
-olus and -elius, a, um, are used in forming diminu- tives of all declensions ; thus, gladius, a sword, gladiolus, a little sword; modius, a round measure, modiolus, a little cylindrical measure; hordeum, a barley corn, hordeolum, a little barley corn, a stye; vita, life, vitellns, a little life, yolk of an egg; fons (f), a ionntdim, fontinella, a little fountain {fontenelle).
THE LANG UA GE OF MEDICINE. 1 3 1
Sometimes, when the diminutive makes a very long word it is contracted. The regular diminutive oi corona, a crown, would be coronclla, but that is shortened into corolla, a little crown, the colored part of a flower.
-ariiun added to the root of a noun denotes the place where the primitive abounds; thus, from ovum, an egg, we have ovarium, an egg basket, an ovary.
VOCABULARY XVI.
sac'culus, i (dim. of sacctis, a bag) a little sack, saccule, ventric'ulus, i (dim. of venter, the belly) a little belly, infundib'ulum, i (dim. oiinfiindo, a funnel) a little funnel, mandib'ulum, i (dim. oimando, a glutton) little glutton;
lower jaw-bone, poc'ulum, i (dim. from r.bco, to drink) a cup. retinac'ulum, i (dim. form from re, back, teneo, to hold)
retainer, gubernac'ulum, i (dim. of guberttator, a pilot) a cord
which guides the testis of the foetus to the
scrotum, spec'ulum, i (dim. fr. specio, to look) a mirror, speculum. spirac'ulum, i (dim. fr. spiro, to breathe) a small pore of
the skin, tenac'ulum, i (dim. fr. teneo, to hold) a small hook, tuber'culum, i (dim. of tuber, a tuberosity) a tubercle, vehic'ulum, i (dim. fr. veJio, to carry) a vehicle. vestib'ulum, i (dim. fr. vestis, a garment) the place where
garments are taken off on entering a house,'
vestibule, bicarbo'nas, a'tis (m) (from bis, twice, carbo, charcoal)
bicarbonate, bichro'mas, a'tis (m) (fr. bis, twice, chromium) bichromate.
132 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
bombax,- a'cis (f) (from ^ofji^a^, What the deuce is this?)
cotton tree, bubo, o'nis (m) (fr. Greek j^oOj^wv, the groin) an indurated
inguinal gland, buccina'tor, o'ris (m) (fr. bucina, a trumpet) a trumpeter;
muscle of cheek, cali'go, ig'inis (f) (kindred with halo, a mist) dimness of
vision. calx, calcis (m) (cf Gk. yvlt^, cement) lime, canth'aris, idis (f ) (Gk. xavdafn::, a beetle) Spanish fly. cor, cordis (n) (cf Sansk. hrid, the heart) heart, carbo'las, a'tis (m) (fr. carbolicus, carbolic) carbolate. carbo'nas, atis (m) (fr. carbo, carbon) carbonate, caro, carnis (f) (cognate with Tcpkaz) flesh.
EXERCISE XVI.
A. I. Cor auriculas et ventriculos habet. 2. Renes infundibula habent, mandibulum alveolos habet. 3. Syru- pus aurantii vehiculum est. 4. In foetu sunt guber- nacula testum. 5. Tubercula in pulmonibus. 6. Chir- rurgus specula et tenacula habet. 7. Medicus sodii benzoatem diphtheriae dat. 8. Borax cum melle est medicamentum cancro. 9. Bubones sunt aliquando symptomata syphilidis. 10. Musculi cordis non strias habet.
B. I. The flesh of animals is food for men. 2. Bi- carbonate of soda is a remedy for acid in the stomach. 3. Charcoal is a medicine for dyspepsia. 4. Gonorrhoea sometimes causes buboes. 5. The physician gives borax for aphthae. 6. The skin has hairs and perspiratory pores. 7. The lower jaw is a bone of the face. 8. The ear has a vestibule and small bones. 9, Tiie boy has tubercles in his lungs. 10. A cup of water and a pint of alcohol.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 133
//. Nouns derived from adjectives.
These are generally formed by adding -etas, -itas, -tus or -tudo, all of the third declension, to the stem of the adjective. They are, as a rule, abstract nouns, and denote the condition of being expressed by the primitive like the English suffixes ity, ty, tude, and ncss. Thus we may form from levis, light, levitas, lightness, levity; acetus, soured, acetas, sourness, acetate; altns, high, altitudo, height, altitude; jiivenis, young, Juventus, youth.
///. Nouns derived from verbs.
These are concrete nouns and are formed, usually, by adding -or, -tor, -men or -mcntum to the stem of the verb.
-or, -oris, added to the stem of a supine, denotes that which performs the action expressed by the primitive; thus, from the supine depressum, from deprimo, to press down, we have depressor^ that which presses down.
-me7i, -minis, denotes that to which the action ex- pressed by the verb belongs; thus, ixovafluo, to flow, we \v2NQ. fiumen, a flowing, a current.
-menttim, i, denotes the passive instrument of the action expressed by the verb ; thus, from ligo, to bind, we get ligamentum, that by which a thing is bound, a liga- ment.
-tia ce is added to the stem of present participles and verbal adjectives to denote the quality expressed by the primitive, like English ness, dom; thus from sapiens, knowing, we have sapientia, knowledge.
-lira, added to the stem of a supine, denotes the thing resulting from the action expressed by the verb, or the thing which performs the action expressed by the verb. Thus, from strictum, supine oi stringo, to contract, we have strictura, a stricture, the result of the contrac-
134 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
tion ; from fisstivi, supine of findo, to split, is derived fissura, & fissure; and from cmctiim, s\i^me oi cingo,to gird, we derive cinciura, a girdle, that which girds.
VOCABULARY XVII.
condimen'tum, i (fr. condio, to season) that with which a
thing is seasoned. corpus'culum, i (dim. oi corpus, a body) corpuscle, crassamen'tum, i (fr. crasso, to thicken) a clot, elemen'tum, i (ety. unknown) an element, fermen'tum, i {Sx.ferveo, to ferment) a ferment. frumen'tum, i (ix.fnior, to enjoy) grain; that by which
we enjoy life. herba'rium, i (fr. hcrba, a plant) a receptacle for plants, ju'gulum, i (dim. oi juguni, a yoke) little yoke, neck. linimen'tum, i (fr. lino, to anoint) that with which we
anoint, omen'tum, i (from oininor, to foretell by omens) that by
which we foretell, so called because the
soothsayers examined the omentum and
made their prophesies therefrom. sanita'rium, i (from sanitas, health) a place where health
abounds ; a health resort. *
pigmen'tum, i [{rom piiigo, to paint) paint, sarmen'tum, i (fr. sarpo, to creep) creepers of plants, tegmen, inis (n) (fr. tcgo, to cover) a cover, urna'rium, i (fr. urna, a funeral urn) a place where urns
are kept. vapo'rium, i (from vapor, steam) steaming department of
Russian bath, sanguis, inis (m) (allied to samis, healthy) blood, talus, i, the ankle bone, astragalus, ter'minus, i (fr. zipixa, a boundary) the end.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 136
tarsus, i (Greek rapaoz, a basket) the ankle, truncus, i (unknown) a trunk (of animal or tree), trochis'cus, i (fr. Gk. xpofluo, to roll) a wheel, troche, tu'bulus, i (dim. of tubus, a tube) a small tube, ulmus, i (f) (ety. unknown) an elm tree, umbili'cus, i (of ofupalo^, navel) navel, u'terus, i (fr. uta% a bag made of skin) the womb, ventus, i (perhaps from vettio, to come, because always
coming) wind, virus,* i (n) (Sansk. veshas a filthy poison); virus.
EXERCISE XVII.
A. I. Femina condimenta in cibo habet. 2. Cor- puscula crassamenti et plasma sanguinis. 3. Aurum et cadmium elementa sunt. 4. Medicus spiritum frumenti viro dat. 5. Fermenta alcohol et acetum causant. 6. Linimentum cantharidis et aconiti. 7. Talus est os tarsi, 8. Anus est terminus intestini. 9. Trochisci ipecacuanhae et opii. 10. Levitas animi et sapientia aurum sunt.
B. I. The tubules of the kidneys and of the tes- ticles, 2. The poison of syphilis is in the blood. 3. The foetus in the womb is in the fluid of the amnion. 4. The fibrin of the blood causes the clot. 5. He gives the man a drink of whisky. 6. There are ferments in the stomach. 7. A tumor of the ovary. 8. Troches of charcoal and bicarbonate of soda.
* Virus is the only neuter noun of the second declension, ending in us.
10
CHAPTER XII. Declension of Adjectives.
ADJECTIVES may be divided into two classes, . according to their inflection: i. Those belong- ing to the first and second declensions. 2. Those belonging to the third declension.
Adjectives agree with the nouns which they limit in gender, number, and case, consequently their termina- tions vary with the nouns to which they are attached.
/. Adjectives of the first and second declensions.
Adjectives of this class end in us or er in the nomi- native singular masculine, and are declined throughout in this gender like masculine nouns of the second declension; in the feminine they end in a and are declined like nouns of the first declension ; in the neuter they end in tint and are declined throughout like neuter nouns of the second declension.
Albus, white, is thus declined: —
SINGULAR.
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
NEUTER
Nom.
albus
alba
album
Gen.
albi
albae
albi
Dat.
albo
albae
albo
Ace.
album
albam
album
Voc.
albe
alba
album
Abl.
albo
alba
albo
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
137
PLURAL.
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
NEUTER.
Nom.
albi
albae
alba
Gen.
albo'rum
alba''rum
albc'rum
Dat.
albis
albis
albis
Ace.
albos
albos
alba
Voe.
albi
albae
alba
AM.
albis
albis
albis
In a similar manner are declined all adjectives end- ing in 7is, of this class.
VOCABULARY XVIII.
acer'bus, a, um (fr. acer, sharp) harsh, bitter.
acet'icus, a, um (fr. acetiim, vinegar) acetic.
ac'idus, a, um (fr. acco, to be sour) acid.
acti'vus, a, um (fr, ago, to act) active.
Africa'nus, a, um (fr. Africa) African.
al'gidus, a, um (fr. algeo, to feel cold) chilly, cold.
ama'rus, a, um (fr. Sansk. ainas, raw) bitter.
albus, a, um (cf Greek dlifo^, white leprosy) white.
anella'tus, a, um (fr. audio, to cover with rings) ringed.
anseri'nus, a, um (from anser, a goose) belonging to a
goose. anti'cus, a, um (fr. ante, before, place) anterior, front, antiq'uus, a, um (fr. ante, before, time) ancient, aquo'sus, a, um (fr. aqua, water) watery, cartila'go, inis (f) (cf from caro, flesh) cartilage, gristle, chloras, a'tis (m) (tr. chlortim, chlorine) chlorate, cicatrix, ids (f) (unknown) a scar, bovi'nus, a, um (from bos, an ox) pertaining to cattle;
bovine, calcina'tus, a, um (fr. calx, lime) calcined; burnt to lime, cal'idus, a, um (fr. calor, heat) warm.
138
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
EXERCISE XVIII.
A. I. Uncia acidi acetici et drachma calcii sul- phidi. 2. Cutis algida est cutis anserina, 3. Linea alba abdominis. 4. Status algidus cholerae Asiaticae. 5. Fructus quercus est amarus. 6. Trachea est tubus anellatus. 7. MuscuH antici cervicis. 8. In artubus sunt ossa, cartilagines elasticae, et hgamenta. 9. Hippo- crates medicus antiquus erat (was). 10. Cicatrix ab acie gladioli.
B. I. A drachm of acetic acid. 2. The Spanish fly is an active medicine. 3. The surgeon cures the tumor and causes a scab. 4. Chloride of sodium is a salt. 5. The anterior muscle of the shin-bone. 6. The windpipe is ringed. 7. The body has flesh and white cartilages. 8. In vinegar there is acetic acid. 9. He gives bitter medicine for dyspepsia.
Adjectives of the first and second declensions end- ing in cr in the nominative singular masculine are usually declined like tiigcr, black (fr. root 7iec, to die, as seen in i^txpo::, dead, 7iox, night, etc.: —
SINGULAR.
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
NEUTER
Nom.
niger
nigra
nigrum
Gen.
nigri
nigrae
nigri
Dat.
nigro
nigrae
nigro
Ace.
nigrum
nigram
nigrum
Voc.
niger
nigra
nigrum
Abl.
nigro
nigra
nigro
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
139
PLURAL.
MASCULINE,
FEMININE.
NEUTER.
N^om.
nigri
nigrae
nigra
Gen.
nigro'rum
nigra^rum
nigro^rum
Dai.
nigris
nigris
nigris
Ace.
nigros
nigras
nigra
Voc.
nigri
nigrae
nigra
Abl.
nigris
nigris
nigris
In a similar manner decline all adjectives of the first and second declensions ending in er, except asper, rough, laccr, torn, and tener, tender, which add the regular terminations to the nominative singular masculine; thus, aspcr, aspera, asperiiui ; aspcri, aspcrcs, asperi, etc.
VOCABULARY XIX.
aeger, gra, grum (perhaps fr. a ipyo::, not working) sick. ater, tra, trum (fr. ardeo, to burn, Dcederlein) coal black, creber, bra, brum (fr. cresco, to increase) frequent, dexter, tra, trum (cf Sanskrit dekkan, south, or dhiu,
shining god) right hand. glaber, bra, brum (cf. Greek y/Mifopo:;, smooth) without
hair, smooth, in'teger, gra, grum [i>i, not, tango, to touch or hurt)
unhurt, whole, macer, era, crum (cf. maceo, to make soft or lean) lean,
thin, pulcher, chra, chrum (unknown) beautiful. ruber, bra, brum (cf ipudpo-, red) red. sacer, era, crum (fr. root sac; cf Greek ^y, in, 3.ytO!;, holy)
sacred, cursed, scaber, bra, brum (cf scabo, to scratch) rough, mangy, sinis'ter, tra, trum (perhaps fr. scnii, half, as in sinciput from
semi-capiit, because only half as skillful as the
right) left hand.
140 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
calvus, a, um (cf. Germ. kaJd, bald) bald.
can'didus, a, um (fr. candeo, to be bright and white)
shining white, cani'nus, a, um (from cafus, a dog) belonging to a dog;
canine, canus, a, um (kindred w. xaco, to burn) ash-colored, gray caus'ticus, a, um (fr. Gk. xdio, to burn) burning, caustic, cavus, a, um (kindred with /aw) burnt out hollow, empty, nucha, ee (Arabic nookah, nape of neck) nape of neck, chenopo'dium, i (Gk. yr^v, a goose, ~oDc, a foot) goose foot chlorofor'mum, i (fr. cJdorine and/onnj'/) chloroform, cil'ium, i (kindred with xo/.i^, eyelid) eyelash. corchicum, i (from Greek Xu/.j^c-:, Cholchis, where first
obtained), collo'dium, i (from x6/la, glue) solution of gun-cotton in
ether, collum, i (cf cello, to lift up) the neck, coni'um, i (fr. Gk. xcovziov, hemlock) poison hemlock, corian'drum, i (Greek xopiavvov, coriander) coriander, creoso'tum, i (Gk.x^oiac, meat, <TC(i^«>, to preserve) creosote cuprum, i (fr. KuTzpo^, Cyprus, where first obtained) copper
EXERCISE XIX.
A. I. Virus bovinum vacciniam causat. 2. Super- ficies ossium cranii glabra est. 3. In viris aegris corpus macrum est. 4. Morbus sacer (epilepsy) os sacrum. 5. Os lineam asperam habet. 6. Rabies canina est mor- bus animalium. 7. In aere sunt acidum carbonicum, ammonia et vapor aquosus. 8. Liquor potassae caus- ticus est. 9. Cranium est glabrum et cavum, facies rubra. 10. Chenopodium est medicamentum ascaridibus.
B. I. The chloride of silver is white, sometimes black. 2. Chloroform causes anaesthesia. 3. The liga- ment of the nape of the neck. 4. Cayenne pepper is red;
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 141
the leaves are smooth, 5. Collodion is an etherial medi- cine. 6. The juice of hemlock. 7. In creosote there is carbolic acid. 8. The man has black eyelashes, hoary hair, and a red skin.
Sovie irregular adjectives of the first and second declensions. There are six adjectives ending in tis and three in er in the nominative singular masculine, which form the genitive singular in i'us and the dative singular in i in all genders. In the plural they are regular.
Alius, other, is declined as follows : — •
SINGULAR.
MASCULINE,
FEMININE.
NEUTER
Norn, a^ius (Gk. dXXoq
a^Iia
a''liud
Gen. ali^us
ali'us
ali^us
Dat. ali^i
ali^i
ali^i
Ace. allium
a'liam
a^Iiud
Voc. a^lie
a^ia
a'liud
Abl. aaio
a^Iia
a^io
The irregular adjectives given below are similarly declined, but have icjft regular in the neuter singular nominative and accusative.
VOCABULARY XX,
alter, era, erum (irreg.) (Greek olXaoq, and, hepo^, other)
the other, neuter, tra, trum (irreg.) (non alter) neither, nullus, a, urn (irreg.) [rton idlns, any) no; none. uUus, a, urn (irreg.) (fr. umdiis, a little one) any. unus, a, um (irreg.) (cf. Gk. ev, Ger. ein, Eng. one) one.
142 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
uter, tra, trum (irreg.) (perhaps fr, Gk. br.oztpo:^) which of
the two. solus, a, um (irreg.) (perhaps fr. 67oc, whole) sole, alone. totus, a, um (irreg.) (unknown) whole, aromat'icus, a, um (fr. Greek diJcop.a, an odor) aromatic. cine'reus, a, um (fr. ciiiis, ashes) ash-colored, ashy, clarus, a, um (fr. same root as Ger. klar) clear, renowned, clin'icus, a, um (fr. Greek xXiv/^, a bed) clinical. complex'us, a, um (from ami, together, and plccto, to
weave) woven together; complex. compos'itus, a, um (from aim, together, pono, to place)
composite, compound. conca'vus, a, um (from aim, completely, caviis, hollow)
completely hollow; concave, contu'sus, a, um (from aim, together, tiindo, to break)
bruised, cauda'tus. a, um (fr. cauda, a tail) having a tail; caudate, corrosi'vus, a, um (from con, intensive, I'odo, to gnaw)
corrosive, crit'icus, a, um (fr. xn'ivco, to decide) deciding; critical. crucif erus, a, um (fr. crux, a cross, fcro, to bear) bearing
a cross. pars, partis (f ) (fr. pario, to divide) a part, portion. par, is (n) (unknown) equal; a pair.
hilum, i (cf nihiliim, nothing) a little thing; a seed point, hydrar'gyrum, i ['jocoo, water, dpyupou, silver) quick- silver, mercury, il'eum, i (fr. Gk. eiAeu^, twisted) third part small intestine. irium, i (same as ilciuii) haunch bone.
EXERCISE XX.
A. I. Medicus drachmam hydrargyri chloridi cor- rosivi habet. 2. In ofificina est nullus acetas sodii. 3. Ileum pars intestini parvi. 4. Sunt duo (two) renes.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
143
alter in dcxtra est, alter in sinistra. 5. Octarius tinc- turae gentianae compositae. 6. Spiritus ammoniac aro- maticLis est clavo medicamentum. 7. In abdomine est axis coeliacus arteriarum. 8. Syrupus codeinae clarus est. 9. In sanitate, color pulmonum cinereus est. 10. In hepate sunt lobus caudatus et lobus Spigelii.
B. I. The body is not the whole man. 2. Some [nowmllus) things are of neither sex. 3. No man has two lives. 4. One ounce of aromatic spirit of ammonia. 5. A gallon of carbonic acid. 6. The haunch-bone is a part of the basin. 7. Bichlorides are corrosive salts. 8. The brain is a complex part of the body. 9. In the head are pairs of nerves. 10. The whole body is the work of nature.
//. Adjectives of the third declension.
Adjectives of the third declension may be divided into three classes, according to the number of endings in the nominative singular.
I . Adjectives having three endings in the nominative singular : er masculine, is feminine, and e neuter.
Pnter, rotten (from pnteo, to stink) is declined as follows: —
SINGULAR.
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
NEUTER
Nom.
puter
putris
putre
Gen.
putris
putris
putris
Dat.
putri
putri
putri
Ace.
putrem
putrem
putre
Voe.
puter
putris
putra
Abl.
putri
putri
putri
144 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
PLURAL.
MASCULINE
FEMININE,
Nom,
putres
putres
Gen.
pu^trium
pu'trium
Dat.
pu^tribus
pu^tribus
Ace.
putres
putres
Voc.
putres
putres
Abl.
pu^tribus
pu'tribus
NEUTER.
pu^tria
pu^trium
pu'tribus
pu'tria
pu''tria
pu'tribus
VOCABULARY XXI.
palus'ter, tris, tre (fr. pains, a swamp) marshy, salu'ber, bris, bre (fr. salus, safety) safe, healthy. sylves'ter, tris, tre (from sylva, a forest) growing with
woods; sylvan. vol'ucer, cris, ere (fr. volo, to fly) winged; flying, curvus, a, um (fr. same root as xupro^, crooked) curved, despuma'tus, a, um (from de, out from, spuma, froth)
clarified. dilu'tus, a, um (fr. dis, apart, and luo^ to wash) dilute, diur'nus, a, um (fr. dies, a day) diurnal. domes'ticus, a, um (fr. dovms, a house) domestic, dras'ticus, a, um (fr. Greek diiaco, to be active) active, durus, a, um (Sansk. dn, to grieve, hurt) hard, elas'ticus, a, um (from Greek ilwjvo), to drive) stretching,
elastic. elec'tricus, a, um(fr. iqlvKzpov, amber, in which electricity
was first observed) electric. equi'nus, a, um (fr. eqniis, a horse) belonging to a horse;
equine. cydo'nium, i (from Kudwuca, Cydonia, a city of Crete) a
quince. decoc'tum, i (fr. de, from, coqiico, to cook) a decoction.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 145
deliq'uium, i (from dcliquo, to be lost) loss of conscious- ness; fainting.
delphin'ium, i (fr. Greek dEXtpii;, a dolphin) larkspur.
dorsum, i (cf rctrorsum, backward) the back.
dracon'tium, i (fr. dfidxtou, a dragon) skunk-cabbage.
effluvium, i (fr. ex, out, and J?no, to flow) a miasm.
elate rium, i (fr. i?M'JV(o, to drive) elaterium.
emplas'trum, i (from iv, upon, and n/Aaaio, to mould) a plaster.
extrac'tum, i (fr. ex, out, and traho, to draw) an extract.
cinis, eris (m) (cf zaw, to burn, and xb)>iz, dust) ashes.
citras, a'tis (m) (fr. citrus, a citron or lemon tree) citrate.
cortex, icis ( m or f ) (kindred with yopiov, leather) bark;
crus, cruris (n) (cf //>£«c, flesh) the leg.
dens, tis (m) (from same Aryan root as bboo;;, a tooth) a tooth.
mors, mortis (m) (fr. viorior, to die) death.
EXERCISE XXI.
A. I. Decoctum corticis cinchonae rubrae. 2. Del- phininum est planta palustris, 3. Fluxus sanguinis deliquium animi causat. 4. Terra palustris non salubris est. 5. Elaterium est medicamentum drasticum. 6. Ace- tum est acidum aceticum dilutum. 7. Viola et arum sunt plantae sylvestres. 8. Cauda equina est terminus meduUae. 9. Emplastrum belladonnae, emplastrum can- tharidis. 10. In mandibulo sunt dentes, in crure, musculi.
B. I. Syrup of bitter orange peel. 2. Death is the end of the heart's labor. 3. The flexor muscles of the leg. 4. The "hard mother" is a membrane of the brain. 5. The cartilages of the vertebrae are elastic. 6. Dilute nitric acid and mustard plaster. 7. Clarified honey is a vehicle for medicine. 8. The bloody matter
146
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
from rotting bone is putrid. 9. The ashes of the man's body are in the urnarium. 10. In swampy land there are effluvia and miasms.
2. Adjectives of the third declension with two end- ings i?i the 7iominative singular. Nearly all the adjectives of the third declension found in medical works are of of this variety, having is, for the termination of the nominative singular masculine and feminine, and e for the termination of the nominative singular neuter.
Dulcis, pleasant (from same root as Greek di?.y(o, to please), is declined as follows: —
SINGULAR.
MASC. AND FEM.
NEUTER.
A^om.
dulcis
dulce
Gen.
dulcis
dulcis
Dca.
dulci
dulci
Ace.
dulcem
dulce
Voc.
dulcis
dulce
Abl.
dulci or e
PLURAL.
dulci or e
MASC. AND FEM.
NEUTER.
Nom.
dulces
duFcia
Gen.
duFcium
duFcium
Dat.
duFcibus
duFcibus
Ace.
dulces
duFcia
Voc.
dulces
duFcia
Abl.
duFcibus
duFcibus
All adjectives of this variety are declined in a similar manner.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 147
VOCABULARY XXII.
abdomina'lis, e (fr. adojtien, the belly) abdominal, abnor'mis, e (fr. ab, away from, and norma, a fixed rule)
abnormal, aborig'inis, e (fr. ab, from, origo, origin) original, aboriginal acau lis, e (fr. a, priv., and caulis, a stalk) stemless. agres'tis, e (fr. agcr, a field) growing in the fields, ala'ris, e (fr. ala, a wing) winged, or wing-like, alluvia'lis, e (from ad, against, liio, to wash) washed up,
alluvial, angula'ris, e (fr. angtdits, an angle) angular, annula'ris, e (fr. anmdus, a little ring) ringed, areola'ris, e (fr. areola, dim. of area, a vacant place) areolar arsenica'lis, e (fr. arseniciun, arsenic) arsenical, arteria'lis, e (fr. arteria, an artery) arterial, arven'sis, e (from arvum, a cultivated field) growing in
the fields. austra'lis, e (fr. auster, the south wind) southern, auricula' ris, e (fr. aiiricida, an auricle) auricular. ebur, eb'oris (n), ivory. erysip'elas, atis (m) (fr. Greek i()udpb(;, red, rS/laz, skin)
erysipelas. falx, Icis (f) (Greek ifalxr^z) a sickle, hook; process of
dura mater. femur, oris (n) {ix.fero, to bear) the thigh. filix, icis (m) {{x.felix, fruitful, fertile) a fern. flos, o'ris (m) (kindred with (pXoo^, blooming) a flower. femes, itis (m) (from foveo, to kindle) kindling material;
contagium. fens, ntis (m) {ix.fitndo, to pour out) a fountain.
EXERCISE XXII.
A. I. Octarius spiritus a^theris dulcis. 2. Aorta abdominalis est vas arterialis. 3. Plantae agrestes sunt
148 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
aliquando acaules. 4. Os cranii processus alares habet. 5. Terra alluvialis est locus filicibus. 6. Vertebrae pro- cessus arciformes et spinas habent. 7. Liquor arseni- calis est medicamentum choreae. 8. Sanguis arterialis est ruber. 9. Chirurgus tumores abnormes cuiat. 10 Appendices auriculares cordis.
B. I. A portion of a tooth is ivory. 2. The sickle of the brain is a process of the "hard mother." 3. The flexor muscles of the thigh. 4. The edge of the angular processes of the frontal bone. 5. Male fern causes the death of tapeworms. 6. A gallon of tincture of arnica flowers. 7. Arterial blood has no carbonic acid. 8. The crowfoot growing in the fields is a beautiful flower. 9. In the tunic of the doctor is the contagious material of cholera. 10. A drachm of sweet spirit of nitre.
3. Adjectives of the third declensio7i having but one ending for all genders i7i the nominative singular. The adjectives of this class all end in /, r, s, or x, and increase in the genitive. The present participle ending in ns belongs to this class.
Ferox, fierce (from same root as ferns, wild) is de- clined as follows: — ■
SINGULAR.
MASC. AND FEM.
NEUTER.
N'om.
ferox
ferox
Gen.
fero'cis
fero^cis
Dat.
fero'ci
fero^ci
Ace.
fero^cem
ferox
Voc.
ferox
ferox
Abl.
fero^ci or e
fero^ci or e
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 149
PLURAL.
MASC. AND FEM.
NEUTER.
Nom.
fero''ces
fero'cia
Gen.
fero''cum
fero^cum
Dat.
feroc'ibus
feroc'ibus
Ace.
fero^ces
fero'cia
Voc.
fero''ces
fero'cia
Abl.
feroc'ibus
feroc'ibus
VOCABULARY XXIII.
attol'lens (fr. ad, up to, tollo, to raise) raising up. at'rahens (fr. ad, to, and traho, to draw) drawing to. ardens (fr. ardco, to burn) burning; ambitious, astrin'gens (fr. ad, to, stringo, to press) pressing together,
astringent, demurcens (fr. de, from, vmlceo, to strip) demulcent. fervens {{x.fcrvco, to boil) boiling. fragrans [ir.fragro, to emit an odor) fragrant, oppo'nens (from ob, against, pono, to place) opposing ret'rahens (fr. re, back, tralio, to draw) retracting, repens (fr. repo, to creep) creeping, serpens (fr. serpo, to crawl like a snake) creeping. semper'virens (fr. semper, ever, vireiis, green) evergreen, tremens (fr. tremo, to tremble) trembling, bilia'ris, e (fr. bilis, bile) biliary.
borea'lis, e (fr. Dcopzaz, Boreas, the north wind) northern, brachia'lis, e (fr. Greek ^(xr/iiOD, the arm) brachial, brevis, e (fr. same root as [ii)o.yy<:, short) short. bul'liens (fr. bullio, to boil) boiling, campes'tris, e(fr. campus, a plain) growing in a plain, canaden'sis, e (fr. Canada) Canadian, capita'lis, e (fr. caput, the head) capital, castren'sis, e (fr. castra, a camp) of inhabited places. cauda'lis, e (fr. caiida, a tail) caudal.
150 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
cellula'ris, e (fr. cclhila, dim. of cella, store-room) cellular, centralis, e (fr. centrum, a centre) central, cerea'lis, e (fr. Ceres, the goddess of the harvest) belong- ing to grain; cereal, cervica'lis, e (fr. cervix, the neck) cervical. columna'ris, e (fr. columna, a column, fr. cello, to raise)
columnar. communis, e (from co7i, together, and munus, function)
serving together, common, cordia'lis, e (fr. cor, the heart) cordial, comforting, ferrum, i (perhaps kindred with hpbc. {Jiierus), sacred.
We see the opposite change in Spanish hierro,
irovci ferritin) iron. filtrum, i (from Old German Jilt, felt, of which filters
were first made), fluo'rium, i {ix.fiuor, because assisting in the smelting of
other metals) fluorine. fraenum, i (unknown) a check-rein, curb, fulcrum, i {{x.fulcio, to prop) a prop, gelse'mium, i (fr. Persian j^.y«w//^, jasmine) jasmine, gera'nium, i (fr. Gk. yepdvcov, a little crane) cranesbill. gossyp'ium, i (first found in Pliny) cotton root. granum, i (Aryan gar, corn) a grain of corn; i-6o of a
drachm. homo, minis (m) (fr. humus, the ground) mankind.
EXERCISE XXIII.
A. I. In vesica biliare sunt calculi. 2. Musculus brachialis anticus est flexor cubiti. 3. Flexor brevis digitorum est musculus cubiti. 4. Granum extracti ge- ranii. 5. Potus alcohol crebri sunt causa delirii tremen- tis, 6. Typhus est morbus castrensis. 7. Os femoris est fulcrum cruris. 8. Fraenum linguae. 9. Gutta tinc- turae gelsemii sempervirentis. 10. In pulmonibus sunt tubuli bronchiales.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
151
B. I. The leaves of crancsbill are fragrant, 2. Flu- orine is a chemical element. 3. There is boiling water in the filter. 4. A salt of iron in the blood. 5. Tincture of opium is a cordial. 6. The root of the cotton plant causes abortion. 7. The raising muscle of the ear. 8. The scientific name of man is liomo sapiens. 9. The leaves of creeping triticum. 10. Cereal foods.
The present participle ending is its forms the gen- itive in litis.
Dolens, paining or painful, from doleo, to be in pain, is declined as follows: —
SINGULAR.
MASCULINE,
FEMININE.
Norn.
dolens
dolens
Gen.
dolen^tis
dolen^tis
Dat.
dolen'ti
dolen^ti
Ace.
dolen^tem
dolens
Voc.
dolens
dolens
Abl.
dolen^te or e
PLURAL.
dolen'te or i
MASCULINE
FEMININE.
Nom.
dolen^tes
dolen^tia
Gen.
dolen^tium
dolen'tium
Dat.
dolen^tibus
dolen^tibus
Ace.
dolen^tes
dolen'tia
Voc.
dolen^tes
delen^tia
Abl.
dolen^tibus
dolen^tibus
11
CHAPTER XIII. Comparison of Adjectives.
IN Latin, as in English, there are three degrees of comparison : the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.
The comparative degree is regularly formed by add- ing ior to the stem of the positive; thus, from mitis, mild, we have the comparative mitior, milder.
The superlative degree is regularly formed by add- ing issimus, a, um to the stem of the positive. Thus, from mitis, mild, we have the superlative mitissimus, mildest. When the nominative singular, however, ends in er, the superlative degree is formed by adding rimus to the positive ; thus, from ruber, red, we have the super- lative rubcrrimus, a, um, reddest.
Adjectives of the comparative degree all belong to the third declension. For example, fortior, stronger, from fortis, strong, is thus declined: —
SINGULAR.
MASC. AND FEM.
NEUTER.
Norn.
for'tior
for^tius
Gen.
fortio'ris
fortio'ris
Dat.
fortio'ri
fortic'ri
Ace.
fortio'rem
for'tius
Voc.
for^tior
for^tius
Abl.
fortio'ri or e
PLURAL.
fortio'ri or e
MASC. AND FEM.
NEUTER.
Nom.
fortio'res
fortio^ra
Gen.
fortio'rum
fortio'rum
Dat.
fortior'ibus
fcrtior'ibus
Ace.
fortio'res
fortio'ra
Voc.
fortio'res
fortio'ra
Abl.
fortior'ibus
fortior 'ibus
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 153
Adjectives of the superlative degree are declined like those of the first and second declensions.
VOCABULARY XXIV.
falsus, a, um (fr. past part. o{ fallo, to deceive) false, febrif ugus, a, um (from fcbris, fever, and fugo, to drive
away) febrifuge, feli'nus, a, um {ix.fclis, a cat) feline, flavus, a, um (cf ipXo^, a flame) yellow, flor'idus, a, um {{x.flos, a flower) blooming, flu'idus, a, um {{x.fliio, to flow) fluid. fulvus, a, um (allied tofiavus, yellow) deep yellow, tawny, fusus, a, um (fr. part, oifiindo, to pour out) melted, fused, gal'licus, a, um (fr. Galli, the Gauls, or galla, a gall-nut)
French, gallic, gas'tricus, a, um (fr. Greek yaazrjp, the stomach) gastric, gem'inus, a, um (kindred with jafiico, to marry) twin, glaucus, a, um (Greek yla'jxd^, bright) shining gray, gratus, a, um (kindred w. jo-p^z, dear) pleasing, grateful, grav'idus, a, um (fr. gravis, heavy) full, pregnant, hepat'icus, a, um (fr. Greek rj-ap, the liver) hepatic, huma'nus, a, um (fr. ]wvw, a man) pertaining to man. hyber'nus, a, um (fr, hieins, winter) wintry, ili'acus, a, um (fr. ilmni, the haunch-bone) iliac, corona'lis, e (fr. corona, a crown) coronal, cortica'lis, e (fr. cortex, bark) bark or outer layer, costa'lis, e (fr. costa, a rib) costal, crura'lis, e (fr. cms, a leg) belonging to a leg, crural, fornix, icis (m) (allied to fiirca, a fork) arch, connection, frigus, goris (n) (fr. same root as p'tyoz, cold) cold, frons, frondis (f ) (fr. same root ^sfrux, fruit) a stem, frons, frontis (f) (cf. Greek bippba, eyebrow) forehead, genus, eris (n) (kind. w. yv^vico, to produce) a race, genus.
154 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
glans, glandis (f ) (kindred w. ^dlauoz, an acorn) a gland, gluten, inis (n) (fr, ghio, to stick together) glue, gluten. halo, o'nis (f ) (Gk. a/wc, a circle around the sun) areola
of nipple. helix, icis (f) (e/rc, a coil) part of external ear. herpes, e'tis (m) (from l^orrw, serpo, to creep) an eruptive
skin disease.
hiru'do, inis (f) (unknown) a leech.
hydrops, o'pis (n) (from Greek "jooyp, water, oi^, looking)
dropsy.
quam, than.
EXERCISE XXIV.
A. I. Diarrhoea est morbus mitior quam cholera. 2. Alcohol fortius est antisepticum. 3. Spinae vertebra- rum ligamenta flava habent. 4. Extractum cornus floridae fluidum. 5. Potassa fusa est caustica. 6. Spiri- tus frumenti fortior est quam aqua. 7. Nervi craniales in paribus sunt. 8. Uterus abactus (empty) brevior est quam uterus gravidus. 9. In osse frontis sunt cavitates, in cerebro, fornix. 10. Gluten cereale est cibus diabeti- corum.
B. I. The surgeon has leeches and apparatus.
2. Dropsy of the amnion is not a common disease.
3. The "coil" of the ear and the gland of the penis.
4. The cat tribe, the dog species. 5. The bone of the forehead is a part of the skull. 6. There is the stem ot a leaf in the fountain of water. 7. Cold is astringent, heat is antiseptic. 8. The " bark " of the brain and kid- neys. 9. The iliac arteries and nerves. 10. Whisky is more pleasant than compound tincture of gentian.
IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTRTES.
Many adjectives in Latin, as in the modern lan- guages, are compared irregularly; This results from the
THE LANGbAGE OF MEDICINE.
155
use of synonyms, of which a part have been lost, so that the different degrees are often derived from entirely dif- ferent words.
In the following list will be found the principal irregular adjectives used in medical works: —
POSITIVE.
COMPARATIVE.
SUPERLATIVE
Bonus, good
mc'lior.
op''timus
Dexter, on the right
dextc'rior
dex^timus
Ex^'tera (f ), outward
exte'rior
extre^mus
infc'rior, loaver
in-'fimus
intc'rior, inner
in^timus
Malus, bad
pejor
pes''simus
Magnus, large
major
max^imus
Multus, many
plus
plu''rimus
Parvus, small
minor
min''imus
Pos''tera, behind
postc'rior
postre'mus
prior, former
primus
pro'prior, nearer
prox''imus
Su''perus, above
supe''rior
supre^mus
ultc'rior, further
uFtimus
When qiiam, than, is not expressed after the com- parative degree, the noun with which the first thing is compared is put in the ablative case; thus we may say: — Mel dulciiis est quam acetuin, honey is sweeter than vin- egar, or, me I didcius est ace to.
The superlative is often rendered by the positive with very ; thus opthnus vir may be rendered either the best man, or a very good man, an exceedingly good man.
VOCABULARY XXV.
impu'rus, a, um (fr. im, not, 2ind funis, pure) impure.
in'dicus, a, um (fr. India) Indian.
innomina tus, a, um (fr. ijt, not, and nomino, to name)
not named, insa nus, a, um (fr. in, not, ^xvdsanus, healthy) insane.
156 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
lac ticus, a, um (fr. lac, milk) lactic.
largus, a, um, broad, large.
liq uidus, a, um (fr. liquor, a fluid) liquid.
longus, a, um (cf. Greek loffo^u), to loiter) long.
latus, a, um (kindred with TzXazoz, broad) broad, wide.
lotus, a, um (fr. Itio, to wash) washed.
lymphat'icus, a, um (fr. lynipha, clear water, lymph)
lymphatic. denta'tus, e (fr. dcjis, a tooth) toothed. dorsa lis, e (fr. dors7im, the back) dorsal. erec tills, e (fr. crigo, to erect) erectile. facia lis, e (Jr. fades, the face) facial. feb rilis, e {{x.febris, fever) febrile. femora'lis, e {{x.fcjimr, the thigh) femoral, flex'ilis, e {{x.flccto, to bend) bending, flexile. foeta'Hs, e {{x.fcetus, an embryo) foetal. frag ilis, e {{x.frango, to break) easily broken, fragile. nasus, i (cf Aryan sna, to discharge, Eng. S7ioi) the nose. nastur tium, i (fr. nasus, nose, and torqueo, to twist)
nasturtium. infu sum, i (fr. in, in, diXidfwido, to pour) an infusion. insec turn, i (fr. in, not, seco, to cut, too small to be cut)
an insect, intesti'num, i (fr. intus, within) intestine, gut. io'dum, i (fr. uoor^^, violet color) iodine. ka'lium, i (fr. Arabic kali, an alkaline plant) potassium, la bium, i (perhaps fr. labor, to slip or slide) lip. labrum, i (fr. labium, a lip) the lip of a flower or insect, lactuca'rium, i (fr. lac, milk, the color of its juice) lettuce, lardum, i (cf Greek Xarto^, fat) lard, lignum, i (kindred with ligo, to bind) fire wood, wood, linum, i (Greek X'lvov, flax) flax. lith'ium, i (fr. Greek Xido^y a stone) lithium.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 157
EXERCISE XXV.
A. I. Musculi faciales ct dorsales multi sunt, 2. Musculus longissimus dorsi major est longo muculo colli. 3. Libra sulphuris loti et drachma nasturtii gem- marum. 4. In vulva feminae sunt labia majora et minora.
5. Tinctura cannabis Indicae est stimulus nervorum.
6. Levatores labii superioris sunt musculi faciales.
7. Musculus latissimus dorsi est depressor acromii,
8. Infusum lactucarii soporem causat. 9. In vagina sunt labia et cervix uteri. 10. Caput foetale maris majus est quam caput foetale femininum.
B. I. Quinine and aconite are very good medicines for febrile diseases. 2. River water is good for drinking and baths. 3. The bones of birds are more fragile than those of cats and dogs. 4. The outer surface of the frontal bone is smooth. 5. The small gut is longer than the large. 6. Infusion of digitalis is a medicine for dis- eases of the heart. 7. The extending muscle of the "smallest" (little) finger. 8. The physician gives a flax seed poultice to the boy, 9. Carbonate of lithium is diuretic. 10. Itch is a bad disease, syphilis is worse, but leprosy the worst of all.
CHAPTER XIV.
Numeral Adjectives.
NUMERAL * adjectives are of three kinds, viz., cardinals, ordinals, and distributives. From numeral adjectives numeral adverbs are derived.
CARDINALS. Unus, j Duo, ij Tres, iij Quatuor, iv Quinque. v Sex, vj Septem, vij Octo, viij Novem, ix Decern, x UnMecim, xj Duod'ecim, xij TrC'decim, xiij Quatuor-'decim, xiv QuinMecim, xv Se^dccim, xvj Septen''decim, xvij Vigiir'ti, XX Quinquagin''ta, 1 Centum, c Mille, m
ORDINALS.
primus, yf;'5/
secun''dus, second
ter'tius, third, etc.
quartus
qumtus
sextus
sep''timus
octa''vus
nonus
dec'imus
undec'imus
duodec'imus
ter^tius dec^imus
quartus dec'imus
quintus dec'imus
sextus dec'imus
sep''timus dec'imus
vices''simus
quinquages''simus
centes''simus
milles''simus
DISTRIBUTIVES.
sin''guli, one by one
bini, t-vo by two
terni, three by three
quater''ni
quini
seni
septe'ni
octo''ni
novc'ni
deni
unde^ni
duode^ni
terni deni
quater''ni deni
quini deni
seni deni
septe-'ni deni
vice-'ni
quinquage^ni
cente'ni
mille''ni
NUMERAL ADVERBS.
semel, once
bis, twice
ter, thrice
quater,yi7?<r times
quin''quies
sex'ties
sep''ties
oC'ties
no''nies
de''cies
unde''cies
duodc'cies
terde-'cies
quatuordc'cies
quindc'cies
sedc'cies
de''cies et sep'ties
vi''cies
quinqua'gies
cen''ties
miKlies
* Numerus^ a number, comes from an Aryan root, natn, meaning to divide. It may interest the student to know that the names of numerals in all languages are derived by metaphor. Thus, one, Greek hen, Latin unus, and German ein, are all derived from the root of the first personal pronoun /. The word tivo, Greek and Latin duo, is from the root of the second personal pronoun, cf. German Du, Greek and Latin te, tuus. Five, Greek pente, Latin quingue, German /i<eny, are all akin to the Sansk. pant, the hand, which has five fingers. The Greek deca, ten, and Latin decern, con- tain the same root as the Greek dactylos and Latii. digitus, finger, the ten fingers be- ing thus the foundation of the decimal system.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 159
Umis, one, is declined throughout, of course only in the singular, like an irregular adjective of the first and second declensions. (See declension oi alius, p. 141.)
Duo, two, is declined as follows: —
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
NEUTER.
Nom. duo
duae
duo
Gen. duo^rum
dua^rum
duo^rum
Dat. duo^bus
dua'bus
duo^bus
Ace. duos or 0
duas
duo
Voc. duo
duae
duo
Abl. duo^bus
dua^bus
duo'bus
Trcs, three, is declined like an adjective of two end- ings of the third declension; thus, trcs, tna; triiim,
triian, etc. All other cardinals are indeclinable.
Ordinals are declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions.
Distributives are declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions in the plural, but form the geni- tive masculine and neuter in um instead of o'runi ; thus, masculine bini, feminine binae, neuter, bina, nominative; binuni, binarum, binum, genitive, etc.
There is also a class of inultiplicatives ending in plcx from plico, to fold; thus, simplex {semelplex) single, duplex, double, triplex, triple, quadruplex, fourfold, etc.
VOCABULARY XXVI.
or'ganum, i (fr. Greek ouyeco, to work) a tool, organ.
os'tium, i (fr. OS, a mouth) an entrance.
ox'idum, i (fr. d^u;;, sour) an oxide.
pab'ulum, i (fr. pascor, to graze) fodder, nutriment.
pala'tum, i (fr. balato, to bleat) the palate.
palla'dium, i (fr. FlalXd^, Minerva) the metal palladium.
160 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
pedilu'vium, i {ix. pedes, feet, and liio, to wash) foot bath. plumbum, i (cognate with fxohj^do!; lead) lead.
podophyl'lum, i (fr, Greek tiouq, foot, and ifd/lov, leaf)
mandrake. potas'sium, i (fr. English potash) also called kalium. poma'tum, i (fr. ponmm, fruit) a pommade. index, icis (m) (fr. indico, to point out) first finger. iter, in'eris (n) (fr. ire, to go) a passage. jecur, oris (m) (cognate with rfzarj) liver, jus, juris (n) {ci.jiigum, a yoke) that which is binding, law. lac, lactis (m) (cognate with ydla, milk) milk. lanu'go, inis (f) (fr. lana, wool) downy hair on skin. lens, tis (f) (unknown) a lentil, lens. lien, enis (n) (cognate with a-lr^v, spleen) spleen. lues, luis (f) (cf Xoypoi;, baneful) pestilence, syphilis. lumbago, inis (f) (fr. lumbiis, the loin) lumbago. opa cus, a, um (fr, o-o^, juice) juice colored, opaque, op ticus, a, um (fr. o-rui, to see) optic. oxal'icus, a, um (fr. bzaUz, sorrel) oxalic. pal'lidus, a, um (fr, pallco, to be pale) pallid. pathet'icus, a, um (fr. Tzddo^, feeling, emotion, disease)
pathetic. paucus, a, um (kindred with panim, little) few. planus, a, um (fr. contract, oi placmis, Germ, plate, an
open place) level. posti'cus, a, um {iv. postea, behind) posterior. purus, a, um (fr. a root pu, meaning to clean) pure, muli'ebris, e (fr, mulier, a woman) belonging to woman, nob ilis, e (fr. gnosco, to know) learned, noble, occidenta'lis, s (fr. occidens, settling down of the sun)
western,
EXERCISE XXVI.
A. I. Homo, jecinorem unum, lentes duas, et or- gana multa habet. 2. Patheticus est nervus quartus
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 161
cranii. 3. Pilulae duae ter in die. 4. Lumbago est neuralgia musculorum dorsalium. 5. Nervus opticus est nervus secundus cranii. 6. In cranio sunt ossa octo, in facie quatuordecim. 7. Nervi tertii, quarti et sexti cranii sunt motores oculi. 8. Portio mollis nervi septimi cran- ialis est nervus auditorius. 9. Pcroneus tertius est musculus cruris. 10. Plumbum est metallum grave.
B. I. Olcoresin of mandrake. 2. In the forearm is the long flexor of the first finger. 3. The eight bones of the carpus. 4. The third bone of the little finger. 5. The plane bone of the orbit. 6. Oxalic acid is bitter. 7. In sour milk there is lactic acid. 8. There are two hundred bones in the body.
D
CHAPTER XV.
Derivation of Adjectives.
ERIVATIVE adjectives are formed principally from nouns and verbs.
I . Adjectives derived from notms are called denomi- tives, and are formed by adding suffixes to the stem of the noun.
-eus, a, uin, and -inns, a, inn, denote material or resemblance, like the English suffixes oiis and en.
Examples: Aureus, golden, from aurum, gold; piceiis, pitchy, from pix, pitch; adaman' tinus , adaman- tine, from adamas, adamant.
-a' lis, e ; -a'ris, e ; -a'rius, a, um; -o'rius, a, um; -i'lis, e ; -at' His, e ; -ic'iiis, a, um; -icus, a, um; -ius, a, um; -i'mis, a, um. The above suffixes signify belonging or pertaining to the thing denoted by the noun.
Examples: /uVrt'/w, pertaining to the foetus; alaris, pertaining to a wing; salivarius, pertaining to spittle; tinctorius, pertaining to dyers; senilis, pertaining to an old man ; saxatilis, belonging to the rocks ; patricius, be- longing to the father; pulmoniciis, belonging to a lung; vesicatorius, pertaining to a blister; eqtdnus, pertaining to a horse.
Observation : The termination -inus, a, um belongs especially to animals. Thus, we have felinus, feline, cat- like; elephantinus, from elephas.
-o'sHs, a, ujh; -len'tus, a, um, denote abounding in the thing expressed by the noun.
Examples: Nervosus, abounding in nerves; viru- lentus, abounding in poison.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 163
-en' sis, e ; -a' mis, a, wn, attached to the stems of the names of places, denote belonging to a place.
Examples: CJiinensis, belonging to China; Vir- giniatms, belonging to Virginia.
-a'tiis, a, urn, denotes furnished with the thing desig- nated by the noun.
Examples: Barbatus, havang a beard; pinnatus, having wings; vertcbratus, furnished with vertebrae; ven- cnatns, furnished with poison; corriutus, furnished with horns.
2. Adjectives derived from verbs are called verbals, and are usually formed by means of the following suffixes: —
-bundus, a, urn, added to the stem of a verb, has a strengthened meaning of the present participle in ns, English ing.
Example : From morior, to die, we have moribiin- . dus, about to die, moribund.
-idus, a, uvi; -uus, a, urn, added to the stems of neuter verbs to denote the quality expressed by the verb.
Examples : From valco, to be of worth, validus, of value; from noceo, to be harmful, itocciius, injurious.
-His, c ; -bills, e, added to the stem of a verb, denote capability or desert.
Examples: From ditco, to lead or draw, diictilis, capable of being drawn ; from retraho, to retreat, retract- ilis, capable of being drawn back ; from texo, to weave, textilis, capable of being woven ; from volo, to fly away, volatilis, capable of flying away ; from horreo, to frighten, horribilis, capable of frightening.
-a'tus, -e'tus, -iUis, i'tus, terminations of past parti- ciples, equivalent to English -ed.
Examples: Perfero, to perforate, perforatiis, per- forated; aceo, to be sour, acetuni, soured; soleo, to
16-4 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
be accustomed, solitiis, accustomed; paj'Ho, to divide, partitus, divided.
-ns is the termination of present participle, English -ing; thus, from repo, to creep, repois, creeping.
VOCABULARY XXVII.
cosmet'icus, a, um (fr. Greek xoajdco, to adorn) cosmetic, gracilis, e (Sanskrit ^^«, thin) slender, graceful, gravis, e (cognate with ^apuq, heavy) heavy. iner'mis, e (/;^, without, arma, arms) unarmed, inguina'lis, e (fr. ingiien, the groin) inguinal, intercostalis, e (from inter, between, costa, rib) between
the ribs, interspina'lis, e (fr. inter, between, spina, spine) between
the spinous processes, jugula'ris, e {{x.jnguluni, the neck) jugular, lactea'lis, e (fr. lac, milk) lacteal. letha'lis, e (fr. Gk. Ir^dr^, the river from Avhich the souls
of the dead drank causing them to forget the
past) deadly. mala'ris, e (fr. viala, the cheek) malar, margina'lis, e (fr. uiargo, a border) marginal. mola'ris, e (fr. inola, a millstone) molar (tooth), morta'lis, e (fr, mors, death) deadly, matu'rus, a, um (kindred with viater, mother) ripe, media'nus, a, um (fr. uiedins, middle) median, mor'bidus, a, um (fr. morbus, a disease) diseased, nevus, a, um (cognate with vioc, new) new. obliq'uus, a, um (from ob, against, and a root lak, to lean)
slanting. lycopo'dium, i (fr. TJjxoq, a wolf, ttoDc, foot) wolf's foot, meconium, i (fr fxrjxcov) poppy juice) contents of foetal
intestine.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 165
membrum, i (kind. w. nicmbrana, a membrane) member, menstruum, i (fr. mcnsis, monthly purgation) a vehicle
or solvent. mollus'cum, i (fr, mollis, soft) a mollusc, momen'tum, i (fr. moveo, to move) moving force, monstrum, i (fr. monco, to warn) evil omen; a monstrosity o'leum, i (fr. oliva, olive, fr. which oleum was obtained) oil. crista, se (fr. same root as crinis, hair) crest, topknot, gallus, i (fr. root gar, to call garliis) a cock.
EXERCISE XXVII.
A. I. Epilepsia gravior est morbus horribilis.
2. Crista galli est pars ossis ethmoidalis. 3. Ossa crani- alia immobilia sunt. 4. Taeniae sunt inermes, nanae, latae, et sagittatae. 5. Bubo est inflammatio glandis inguinalis. 6. Dosis lethalis opii est de granis tribus ad grana viginti. 7. Os malare, dentes molares. 8. Vir est homo masculus. 9. Columna spinalis est linea corporis mediana. 10. Virus morbidum rabiem caninum causat.
B. I. In the ovaries there are ovules, in the uterus an &%^. 2. In morbid poison there are pathogenetic bacteria. 3. The external oblique muscle of the abdo- men. 4. In the gut of the foetus there is meconium.
3. The virile member of a man. 6. Gold and silver have I none. 7. Contagious mollusc is a disease of the skin. 8. Oil of clove and bitter almond. 9. The birth of a monstrosity is a cause of tears. 10. Oleo-resin of male fern.
CHAPTER XVI. Pronouns.
THE regular third personal pronoun, is, ea, id, he, she, it, is seldom used in medical Latin, idem, cadem, idem, the same, being preferred.
Idem is declined as follows : —
SINGULAR.
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
NEUTER.
Nom.
idem
e'aden
idem
Gen.
ejus'dem
ejus^dem
ejus^dem
Dat.
eiMem
eiMem
ei'dem
Ace.
eun'dem
ean^dem
idem
AM.
eoMem
ea'dem PLURAL.
eo'dem
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
NEUTER.
Nom.
ii^dem
eae'dem
e'adem
Gen.
eorunMem
earun'dem
eorun'dem
Dot.
eis'dem
eis'dem
eis'dem
Aec.
eos^dem
eas'dem
e^adem
Abl.
eisMem
eis^dem
eisMem
The relative qui, quae, quod, who, which, is thus declined : —
SINGULAR.
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
NEUTER,
Nom.
qui
quae
quod
Gen.
cujus
cujus
cujus
Dat.
cui
cui
cui
Ace.
quem
quam
quod
Abl.
quo
qua
quo
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
167
MASCULINE,
Nom.
qui
Gen.
quorum
Dat.
quibus
Ace.
quos
Abl.
quibus
PLURAL.
FEMININE. NEUTER,
quae quae
quarum quorum
quibus quibus
quas quae
quibus quibus
The demonstratives liic, Jiacc, hoc, this (near us), and ilk, ilia, ilbid, that (yonder), Hke adjectives, agree with the nouns which they limit in gender number and case. When two things are mentioned hie is appHed to the lat- ter, and ille to the former; thus, vir et puella, haec est pulehra, ille, fortis. "The man and the girl, the latter is beautiful, the former brave."
SINGULAR.
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
NEUTER.
Nom.
hie
haec
hoc
Gen.
hujus
hujus
hujus
Dat.
huic
huic
huic
Ace.
hunc
hane
hoc
Foe.
hie
haec
hoc
Abl.
hoe
hac PLURAL.
hoc
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
NEUTER,
Nom.
hi
hae
haec
Gen.
horum
harum
horum
Dat.
his
his
his
Aec.
hoo
has
haec
Foe.
hi
hae
haec
Abl.
his
his
SINGULAR.
his
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
NEUTER.
Nom.
ille
ilia
illud
Gen.
illi'us
illi^us
illi'us
Dat.
illi
illi
illi
Aee.
ilium
illam
illud
Foe.
ille
ilia
illud
Abl.
illo
ilia
illo
12
168
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
PLURAL.
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
NEUTER.
Nom.
illi
illae
ilia
Gen.
illo'rum
illa'rum
illo''rum
Dat.
illis
■ illis
illis
Ace.
illos
illas
ilia
Voc.
illi
illae
ilia
Abl.
illis
illis
illis
VOCABULARY XXVIII.
cochlea' re, is (n) (fr. Greek xoyUa^, a small shell) a shell,
a spoon, princip'ium, i (fr' primuni, first capio, to take) a begin-
ning.
puden'dum, i (future part, of pudco, to be ashamed)
of which one should be ashamed, genitalia. punctum, i [ix. piDigo, to prick) a point. pyr'ethrum, i (fr. TVjp, fire, fever, i[)udp6;i, red) " fever few." quadriho'rium, i (from quartus, a fourth, hora, hour) a
quarter of an hour, rectum, i (fr. rcgo^ to lead straight) straight, straightgut. regnum, i (fr. rcgo, to lead) a reign, kingdom, reme'dium, i (fr. re, again, vicdeor, to heal) a remedy, rheum, i (fr. Rlia, a name for the river Volga) rhubarb. rostrum, i (fr. rodo, to gnaw or pick) a beak, muzzle, scammo'nium, i (fr. Greek ay.a.muovla, bind-weed, from
oxdn^oc., crooked) scammony. scrotum, i (cogn. w. yppiov, a hide) pouch, bag of a male, matrix, i'cis (f) (fr. mater, mother) the nourishing part,
womb, root, mucila'go, inis (f ) (fr. viucus, Gk. [ioxoq, mucus) mucilage, nox, noctis (f) (from Aryan Jiak, destroy; cf Greek vjq,
night) night. nux, nucis (f ) (kind. w. niitrio, to nourish) a nut, kernel.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 169
prsepara'tus, a, urn (part. fr. pr(Uparo, prepare) prepared, profundus, a, urn {pro, out horn, fundus, depth) deep, purifica'tus (fr. purns, pure, facto, to make) made pure, quadra'tus, a, um (fr. qiiatiior, four) square, quantus, a, um (fr. qiiant, as) as much as. quarta'nus, a, um (fr. qiiartus, fourth) belonging to the
fourth day. quotidia'nus, a, um (fr. gjiotidics, every day) quotidian. oc'ciput, itis (n) (fr. ob, opposite, capul, the head) base of
the head. OS, oris (f ) (fr. Aryan as, to Hve, breathe) the mouth. orbicula'ris, e (fr. orbis, a circle) circular, orbitalis, e (fr. oj'bita, the orbit, fr. orbis, a circle) orbital, ova'lis, e (fr. ovum, an egg) egg-shaped, palma'ris, e {{x. pabna, the palm) palmar, parieta'lis, e (fr. paries, a wall, fr. pario, to divide) parietal, pectora'lis, e {{x. pectus, the chest, breast) pectoral, peren'nis, e (fr. per, through, annus, the year) perennial,
living throughout the years. planta'ris, e (fr. planta, the sole) plantar. rec'ipe (verb) {{re, again, capio, to take) take (imperative),
EXERCISE XXVIII.
A. I. Recipe cochleare medium cretae preparatae nocte. 2. Pudenda maris sunt penis, pubes et scrotum. 3. In conjunctiva sunt puncta lachrymalia. 4. Recipe cochleare magnum spiritus frumenti omni quadrihorio. 5. Rectum est pars tertia magni intestini. 6. Saccharum lactis dulce est. 7. In naso est rostrum vomeris. 8, Oleum santali est remedium gonorrhceae. 9. Muci- lago est vehiculum utile. 10. Flexor profundus digito- rum est musculus cubiti.
170 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
B. I. The square lobe of the hver. 2. The sick man has a daily fever. 3. The occipital bone is the lowest in the skull. 4. Compound pills of iron are officinal. 5. The circular muscles of the mouth. 6. In the orbit there are sutures, grooves, and fissures. 7. The oval hole of the fcetal heart. 8. The long palmar muscle is a flexor. 9. The plantar muscle is a flexor of the toes. 10. The violet and the rose are perennial plants.
CHAPTER XVII. The Verb.
A FULL discussion of the Latin verb is a subject outside of the province of this book. We will, accordingly, limit our study to those parts of the verb employed in prescription writing.
In the active voice, the imperative second person singular, and the subjunctive third person singular, are the only parts used.
In the passive voice, the infinitive, the third person singular subjunctive, the gerund or future participle, and past participle, are the only parts employed. For ex- ample, take agita'rc, to shake; we may use in the active voice the imperative agita, shake (thou), and the sub- junctive third person singular, <7^//r/, let him shake. In the passive voice we may use the infinitive agitari, to be shaken; the subjunctive third person singular, agitctnr, let it be shaken ; the gerund, agitandiis, -a, -iim, {est), it should be shaken ; and the past participle, agitatiis, -a, -um, shaken.
I. The Conjugations : There are four conjugations or methods of inflecting the verb, depending upon the vowel which precedes the ending re of the present infini- tive active.
Verbs whose present infinitive active ends in: —
are, are of the first conjugation. ere, are of the second conjugation. 6re, are of the third conjugation. ire, are of the fourth conjugation.
172 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
2. The imperative active second person singular is
used in giving directions to the dispenser, and is formed
by dropping the termination re of the infinitive.
Examples: Agita'';r, to shake (ist conj.) ag^ita, shake (thou).
Admove''r^, to apply (2d conj.) admc/ve, apply (thou). Kd'dere, to add (3d conj.) ad'de, add (thou). TaitVre, to divide (4th con].) pa r^i, divide (thou).
3. T/ie stibjiinctive active tJiird person singular is formed by adding the following terminations to the stem of the verb : —
In the first conjugation, (et), thus, ag''itet, let him shake.
In the second conjugation, (eat), thus, admove''at, let him apply.
In the third conjugation, (at), thus, addat, let him add.
In the fourth conjugation, (iat), thus, partiat, let him divide.
4. The infinitive passive is formed in all conjuga- tions except the third by changing the final e of the infinitive activ'e to i. Thus, agitari, to be shaken; moveri, to be moved, etc. In the third conjugation the infinitive passive is formed by adding i to the root, as addi, to be added.
5. TJic passive of the subjunctive third person singular is formed by adding wr to the subjunctive; thus, agitet'nr, let it be shaken, admovea'tur, let it be applied.
6. Tlie fiiture passive participle or gci'und is formed in the four conjugations by adding to the stem of the verb, -andus, -a, -uui, -cndus, -endus, and -icndus, respect- ively; \X\us,agita)idus, about to be shaken, admovendus^oXc.
The uses of the different parts of the verb are illus- trated in the following prescription: —
Recipe, Pulveris Jalapae compositae unciam, Potassii Bitartratis uncias duas.
Misce. Ejusdem capiat ceger cochleare par\-um nocte maneque donee anasarca curari videatur, dein pne- scribe pilulas ferri compositas quarum duae ter in die sumendae sunt.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
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VOCABULARY XXIX.
sebum, i (Sansk. stavara, hard fat) oily secretions of skin, semicu'pium, i [soiii, half, cjibo, to lie down) a half bath,
hip bath, septum, i (fr. scpio, to fence in) a fence, partition, seques trum, i (fr. scquor, to follow) a remnant, piece of
dead bone, serum, i (cf 006^, serum) watery part of milk or blood, signum, i (fr. signo, to mark) a label, sign. spectrum, i (fr. spccio, to look) an image, sputum, i (fr. spuo^ to spit) spittle, stannum, i [stagjiiim, an alloy of silver and lead) tin. sternum, i (Greek azipvov, breast-bone) breast-bone, stib'ium, i (fr. Greek azi/jtfju, a blacking for eyebrows
made of antimony) antimony. ori'go, inis (f ) (fr. orior, to rise) a rising, origin, rete, is (n) (cogn. w. atcpd, a rope; old form sretc) a net. salix, i'cis (f ) (kindred with salax, leaping, from its rapid
growth) willow. sapo, o'nis (m) (kindred with sebum, grease) soap, serpi go, inis (f ) {serpo, to creep) a ring-worm. silex, icis (m) (unknown) flint.
tabes, is (f ) (fr. tabeo, to waste away) a wasting disease. coxa, ae (Sansk. kaksha, hip) the hip point, rectifica'tus, a, um (fr. rectum, right, and facio, to make) reduc'tus, a, um (fr. rcduco, to reduce) reduced, rig'idus, a, um (fr. I'igor, stiffness from cold) rigid, rotun'dus, a, um ((fr. rota, a wheel) wheel-shaped, round, sali'nus, a, um (fr. sal, salt) saline, sanus, a, um (cognate with oao^, safe) sound, healthy, sati'vus, a, um (fr. sero, to sow) cultivated. scale'nus, a, um (fr. Greek axalr^vb^, irregular) scalene.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 175
EXERCISE XXIX.
A. I. Cave ne ferri sulphas admisceatur cum acido tannico. 2. Potet aeger poculum aquae calidac bis in die. 3. Foveatur abscessus cum cataplasmati seminum lini. 4. Usurpet aeger infusum scammonii dum eodem respondeat. 5. Misce unciam tincturae opii cum unciis tribus linimenti saponis. 6. Signa, "Admoveatur in puncto inflammationis." 7. Removeat chirurgus seques- trum ex osse. 8. Vomer et cartilago triangularis sep- tum nasi formant. 9. In retinis occulorum spectrum formetur. 10. Adhibe emplastrum sinapis ut rubor cutis cieatur.
B. I. The expectoration in phthisis is purulent.
2. The origin of the cranial nerves is in the brain.
3. The circular muscle of the mouth is a sphincter.
4. The pancreas is a racemose gland. 5. Salicylic acid is in the willow. 6. Apply soap liniment to the swelling. 7. Excite vesication over the hip by plaster of Spanish fly. 8. Purge the sick man with calomel and jalap. 9. Mix an ounce of tincture of aconite with five ounces of chloroform liniment. 10. Let the same stand, and mark, "To be applied on the skin."
The future past participle with est is often used with an imperative signification. The est is seldom expressed. Thus, we write, ^^ Fiat massa in pihilas diiodecim divi- denda" {est), " Let there be made a mass to be divided into twelve pills."
The ablative absolute is sometimes used in prescrip- tion writing. Thus, ''Eodem decocto, cola et adde liqiioris ammonice wicias duas,'' "After this (same) has been boiled down, strain and add two ounces of solution of ammonia."
176
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THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 177
VOCABULARY XXX.
talis, e, such a, such.
stramonium, i (fr. root stra, strew; cf. strages, slaughter) poison thornapplc.
stratum, i (fr. sterno, to lay down) a layer.
succeda'neum, i (from sjib, under, after, cedo, to follow) a substitute, successor.
suc'cinum, i (fr. siiccus, juice, supposed source) amber.
supercil'ium, i (fr. super, over, cilium, eyelash) eyebrow.
tanace tum, i (corrupted fr. ddavdma, immortality) tansy.
tig'lium, i, croton plant.
triho'rium, i {tres, three, and horae, hours) three hours.
trios'teum, i (from Greek r/xfc, three, oareov, bone, from form) fever root.
trit'icum, i (fr. tero, to thresh) wheat, dog grass.
tym'panum, i (Greek T'jfiTrauou, a drum, from tutztcd, to strike) drum of ear.
infans, i (///, not, fans, speaking) infant.
tempus, oris (n) (fr. root tcm, to cut) time; the temple; the fatal spot.
tendo, inis (m) (fr. Undo (v.) to stretch) a tendon.
testu'do, inis (f ) (fr. testa, a shell) tortoise; scalp tumor.
sciat'icus, a, urn (fr. Greek h-j^carixo!;, belonging to thigh.)
sclerot'icus, a, um (from Greek axlripb;;, hard) hard mem- brane of the eye.
serra'tus, a, um (fr. serra, a saw) saw-toothed, serrated.
siccus, a, um (cf. sitio, to be dry) dry.
soridus, a, um (fr. sohun, the ground) solid.
somnif'erus, a, um (fr. soinmis, sleep, /^fr^, to bring) sleep bringing.
spu'rius, a, um (kindred with (Tzopd, scattering seed) ille- gitimate, adulterated.
sublima'tus, a, um (fr. sublimo, to raise up) sublimated.
surdus, a, um (fr. sordidns, dirty, dirt in ears) deaf.
pluvia'lis, e (fr. phtvia, rain) belonging to rain.
178 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
pocula'ris, e (fr, poculuni, a cup) cup-like.
pola'ris, e (cf. Greek tzoXo!;, a pivot) polar.
opium, i (Greek otziou, poppy juice) opium.
pons, pontis (m) (cogn. with Tidzoz, a path) a bridge.
praepu'tium, i (from />m, before, Tzoadcou, foreskin,
first found in Satires of Juvenal) foreskin. praescrip'tio, 6'nis (f ) (from prcs, before, scribo, to write)
prescription.
EXERCISE XXX.
A. I. Recipe magnesii sulphatis drachmas duas, et pulveris glycyrrhizae drachmam unam. 2. Fiant chartulae sex. 3. Signa, "Sumat aeger unam bis in die." 4. Urat asthmaticus folia stramonii et tabaci,
5. Oleum tanaceti est medicamentum abortifaciens.
6. Recipe florum sambuci libras duas, coque in aquae octoriis quatuor, foveantur eodem decocto saepius in die, caput, facies, oculi, aliseque partes, erysipelate tentatae.
7. Oleum tiglii est catharticum drasticum. 8. Recipe codeinae grana sex, extracti hyoscyami grana quatuor, camphorae monobromatae grana duodecim, tere et com- misce, fiat massa. 9. Eadem in pilulas decem partienda est. 10. Signa, "Degluiat aegra unam earundum omni bihorio donee dormiat.
B. I. The tendon of Achilles is the strongest cord of the body. 2. The sciatic nerve is the seat of disease.
3, The sclerotic covering of the eye is white and hard.
4. The great serrated muscle of the trunk. 5. Let the patient {ceger) drink an ounce of whisky. 6. Let him swallow warm water with mustard until he vomits.
7. Take of chalk mixture and of paregoric an ounce.
8. Mix together and mark, " Shake, and let the infant {inftDis) take a teaspoonful every three hours." 9. Put a mustard plaster over his stomach. 10. Give him a quar- ter of a grain of morphine.
CHAPTER XVIII.
Adverbs.
ADVERBS may be divided into two classes, /rz'w/i'/t'f and derivative.
I. The primitive adverbs are few in number, and in many cases are cognate with prepositions, or with sHght changes are employed as prepositions.
The following are the principal primitive adverbs : —
ante (kindred with Gk. dvzEa, before) before.
eras (ety. unknown) to-morrow.
dein, thereupon.
heri (of hestertus, of yesterday, Ger. gestern) yesterday.
ibi (cf is) there.
in'terim (cf infer, between) meanwhile.
ita (cf. tsta, that) so.
juxta (cL jungo, to join) near by.
jam (cf German jd;) already.
nunquam {iie, not, iisquam, ever) never.
nunc, {uiim-ce') now.
postea (fr. post, after) afterward.
quum (allied to qiii, which) when.
satis (unknown) enough.
sic (fr. si, if) so.
tunc {tum-ce) then.
ubi (analogue of ibi~) where.
vix (fr. root vig, strength) requiring strength; hardly.
II. Derivative adverbs are usually formed from nouns or adjectives.
I. Adverbs arc derived from nouns: {a) By adc'ing the suffix im or atim to the stem, thus forming adverbs of manner.
180 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
Examples : From status, a standing point, we have statim, from the place where one stands, immediately ; from gradus, a step, gradatim, by steps, gradually ; from giitta, a drop, giittatim, by drops, drop by drop.
{p) The ablative case of many nouns is used adverbially. Thus we have mane, in the morning, (nom. wanting); nocte, at night, from nox\ and hodie, to-day, from hoc die, on this day.
2. Adverbs are derived from adjectives :
(rt) By adding e to the stem of the adjectives.
Examples : From caiitus, careful, we have ca'ute, carefully ; from jiicimdiis, pleasant, we have Jucujide, pleasantly ; from plemis full, we have pleiie, fully, from s(2pis, frequent, we have scEpe, often. In a few instances the vowel of the adverbial stem differs from that of the adjective; thus we have bene, well, from beniis, an old form of bonus, good.
(^) The ablative case, masculine, of some adjec- tives, is used adverbially.
Examples : From citiis, quick, we have cito, quickly ; from creber, frequent, crebro, frequently ; and from tutus, safe, tuto, safely.
VOCABULARY XXXI.
unguen'tum, i (fr. Jin'gere, to anoint) ointment. vac uum, i (fr. vacuus, empty) an empty space, velum, i {iiehidum, fr. ve'here, to carry) a sail, veil, vene'num, i (cf Sansk. vasha, and Latin virus) poison, veratrum, i (cf vcratrix, a soothsayer) soothsayers'
plant, hellebore. vinum, i (cognate with olvo^, wine) wine. borboryg'mus, i (fr. Greek [io^oo'j^M, to have a rumbling
of bowels) rumbling of bowels.
I
THE LANG UA GE OF MEDICINE. 1 8 ]
pruritus, Qs [{x. prurio, to itch) itching.
intro'itus, us (m) (fr. intro, within, ire, to go) entrance.
ulcus, ceris (n) (cognate with Greek elAzoc, a wound) ulcer.
varix, icis (m) (fr. varus, stretched or bent) dilated vein.
venter, tris (m) (cognate with £vr£/>ov, intestine) belly.
venus, neris (f) ( Venus, the goddess of love) sexual love, copper.
vertex, icis (m) (fr. verto, to turn) the turning point, top.
vertigo, inis (f ) (fr. verto, to turn or reel) dizziness.
viscus, eris (n) (cf (oyio, to hold) a vital organ.
vox, vocis (f) {voco, to call, Gk. 6(p, voice) voice, a word.
vulnus, neris (n) (cf eho::, a wound) a wound.
incis io, o'nis (f) {in, into, caedo, to cut) incision.
porten'sis, e (fr. Portuguese city, Oporto) Port.
potentia'lis, e (fr. potesse, to be able) potential.
praten'sis, e {{x.pratnm, a meadow) growing in meadows.
puerpera lis, e {{x. puer, a boy or child) child-bed (adj.)
pyramida lis, e (fr. zopafii^, a pyramid) pyramidal.
radia lis, e (fr. radius) radial.
rena'lis, e (fr. re7t, a kidney) renal.
renifor'mis, e (fr. ren, a kidney, arid, forma, form) kidney- shaped.
semiluna'ris, e (from semi, half, /una, moon) half moon- shaped.
semina'lis. e (fr. semen, seed) seminal.
ses'silis, e (fr. sedeo, to sit) without a stem.
spinalis, e (fr. spina, a thorn) spinal.
spira lis, e (fr. Greek a-zXpa, a coil) spiral.
ster'ilis, e (Greek aztofjo^, hard, barren) unfruitful, barren
mons, mentis (fr. root inin, to jut) mountain, hill.
morsus, tis (fr. mordeo, to bite) a biting, muzzle, grip.
diab'olus, i (fr. Gk. dco.^a/jM, to scheme) schemer, devil.
182 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
EXERCISE XXXI.
A. I. Curare tuto, cito, et jucunde, est ars medica.
2. "Ubi pus, ibi incisio," dicit chirurgus. 3. Recipe magnesii carbonatis drachmas duas. 4. Adde gradatim et guttatim olei cinnamomi drachmam unam. 5. Tere bene et caute, tunc infunde aquae destillatae octarios duos. 6. Mons Veneris et introitus vaginae sunt partes pudendorum feminae. 7. Morsus diaboli est nomen extremitatis fimbriatae tubi Fallopiani. 8. Ulcus per- forans calcis morbus rarus est. 9. Jecur, lien et cap- sulae suprarenales viscera abdominis sunt. 10. Pulsus causatur ab actione cordis.
B. I. The renal veins are larger than the renal arteries. 2. The semilunar cartilages of the knee-joint.
3. The "little seminal bladders" are receptacles of the spermatic fluid. 4. Let the sick man take a dose of castor oil to-morrow morning. 5. A uterine tumor without a pedicle. 6. Loss of blood causes dizziness. 7. Ointment of mercury for groin lice. 8. There is no air in a vacuum. 9. Shake well together and let it stand until to-morrow morning. 10. In the brain there is an interposed veil.
CHAPTER XIX. Prepositions.
PREPOSITIONS may be divided into three classes, according to the cases which they govern.
/. Prepositions follozved by the accusative.
ad (in composition, ac, of, al, am, ar, at) to, toward, y^erent.
ante (cogn. with avr't) forward, before. Ante^ex\ov\.
circum (Sanskrit kakras, a ring) around, about. 0>r«wflex.
contra (Enghsh counter-) against, opposite. Contra- indication.
extra (fr. extera) outside of, without, beyond. Extra- vasation.
infra (fr. infera) below, beneath. /«/>-<zscapular.
inter {intiis, in composition Intro) between, among. /;^/^rvascular.
per "'^ (Greek Tzapd, in comp. pel) through. T'^rforans.
post (allied to pono, to place) after, behind. Post- humous.
praeter (fr. pr(Z, before) past, besides. Pr^/^rnatural.
propter, on account of.
secundum {secundus) according to.
supra (fr. super) above, over. A^/^r^zscapular.
trans (Sansk. te, in comp, tra) across. TransxaxX..
ultra (cf. ultimus) beyond. W/ramarine.
//. Prepositions governing the ablative. a, ab or abs (Greek d.~6) away, from, by. Absct%%. cum (in composition con, col, cor, cop) with, together. C(?«cede.
* Per, in composition meaning intense or excessive, is akin to the Sanskrit />3»'<i, much. Thus, /£">-</««>, />?rcA/er/i/«', mean, etymologically, a severe cough, a great chloride.
13
184 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
de, from, away, concerning. Z>^port. e, ex (Greek kx) out of, out, except, ^^press. prse (Greek Tipb, in comp. pre, before. Preiox. pro (Greek T,po) before, forward, Proct^^. sine (cf. sifw, to desist) without. SineoMxt.
III. Prepositions governing the accusative after verbs of motion and the ablative wlicn denoting location.
in * (in comp, //, im, ir) into, in ; un, against. Inkr, /^complete.
Sub t (in comp. sue, suf sur, sus) under, near, some- what. ^«<^clavian.
subter (fr. sul)) down under. Subterfuge.
super (Greek uTiep) over, above, excessive. Super- foetation.
The following prepositions are used in composition only: —
amb, ambi (cf. Greek d.jupl') on both sides, Ambi- dextrous, literally, right-handed on both sides,
di, dis (cf. Greek dtd) apart, lai-. Z>/vide, from dis, apart, vido, to see. Z^/Vease.
re, again, back. i?^lapse; remedy, to heal again.
retro, behind. iftVw-pharyngeal, behind the pharynx,
se {seco, to divide) apart. Prelude.
It is quite important that the student learn the exact meanings of prepositions. Although not much employed separately, they are of very frequent occur- rence in the composition of medical terms.
* In, as a negative prefix, is a different word entirely from the preposition in. The former is akin to the Greek ancu, without, and English un, while the latter is cognate with the Greek en and eis, in and into.
t Sub often has the sisnification of English ish. Thus, j«3flava, somewhat yellow, yellow/j/i. A j;<i!'luxation is not a luxation downward, but "somewhat of .1 luxation," a partial luxation or sprain.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 185
VOCABULARY XXXII.
luxa'tio o'nis (f) (fr. luxo, to dislocate) dislocation.
quantus, a, um, how much; as much as.
tantus, a, um, so much.
tep idus, a, um (fr. tepeo, to be warm) tepid, lukewarm.
tertia'nus, a, um (fr. tertius, third) belonging to third day.
trigeminus, a, um (fr. trcs, three, £;-emmus, a twin) triplet.
ustus, a, um (fr. j<ro, to burn) burnt.
varus, a, um (kindred with verto, to bend) bandy-legged,
bow-legged. verus, a, um (cf German wa/ir) true, real, semis'sis, e (fr. semi, half) half suavis, e (cogn. with ^oO^, sweet) pleasant. talis e (cf ta7n, as) such.
tempora lis, e (fr. tempus, temple) belonging to the temple, therma lis, e (fr. Gk. dipfxoz, heat) pertaining to hot baths, transversa'lis, e {trmis, across, verto, to turn) transverse. trifacia'lis, e {^tres, three, fades, face) trifacial. mediasti num, i {jncdius, middle) middle space of thorax. nu'bilis e (fr. jiitbes, a cloud or veil) fit to be veiled, i. e.
marriageable. pal'pebra, te {Jr. palpo, to stroke, caress) eyelid.
EXERCISE XXXII.
A. I. Recipe tantam aquam tepidam quantam sufficit. 2. Recipe olei Ricini unciam cum semisse. 3. Nervi trigemini sunt par quintum cranii. 4. In abdomine sunt intestina magna et parva practer organa alia. 5. Supraspinatus et infraspinatus sunt musculi scapulares. 6. Dicit Hippocrates, " Femina nunquam ambidextra est." 7. Recipe hydrargyri cum crcta unciam. 8. Divide in chartulas numero vigfinti. 9. Liquor synovialis circum artus est. 10. In pariete
186 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
abdominis anteriore sunt musculi recti, obliqui et trans- versales praeter musculum pyramidalem.
B. I . The trifacial is the sensory nerve of the face and head. 2. Also the motor nerve of the lower jaw.
3. The physician treats the patient according to art.
4. Take of saccharated pepsin three drachms and a half
5. Divide into twelve powders. 6. Mark, "One to be taken immediately after food. 7. Scrofula and hip-joint disease are often {sapc) tubercular. 8. Under the cir- cular muscle of the eyelids is the " over-the-orbit " nerve.
9. The fev^er and the emaciation go with equal step.
10. According to law a girl is marriageable at the age of puberty.
CHAPTER XX.
I
Cc
INJUNCTIONS.
N the following list
will be found the principal con-
junctions used in medical Latin.
ac, atque, and
postquam, after
aut, or
quam, than
aut — aut, either — or
quasi (jptam si) as, if
autem, but
-que, and
donee, until
quia, because
dum, while
quoad, as long as
et, and
quoque, also
et — et, both — and
sed, but
etiam, also
si, if
ergo, therefore
ut, in order to
nec — nee, neither — :
nor -ve, or
vel, or
Que is attached to the latter of two words of simi- lar construction to denote that they are co-ordinate; thus levator labii siipcrioris alaeque nasi, "the lifter of both the upper lip and wing of nose. Levator labii sttperioris et alae nasi, would mean, " the lifter of the upper lip and the sides of nose."
Dum, donee, quia, quoad, and ut, are followed by the subjunctive.
VOCABULARY XXXIIL
eomes, itis (m) (fr. ciun, wTite, ire, to go) companion, hallux or hallex, icis (m), the great toe. medica'trix (id.) (adj.) [medeor, to cure) healing. pes, pedis (m) (cognate with -oDc, foot) foot.
188 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
poUex, icis (m) (from polleo, to be strong like Pollux, the
wrestler) thumb or great toe. pulvis, eris (m) (kind. w. -alq, fine meal) dust, powder. pulvi nar, na'ris (n) {{x . piilvimis , an elevation) a pillow. stercus, oris (n) (cf. tergco, to wipe off, cogn. with Eng- lish tia^d^ excrement, tal'ipes, edis (m) (fr. tains, ^.nk\e, pes, foot) club-foot, unguis, (id.) (m) (cogn. with oyxoz, a hook) a finger-nail, valgus, a, urn (cf dljo^, pain) knock-kneed, ventra lis, e i^venter, belly) belonging to belly. versicolor (id.) (adj.) [verso, to change, color, color)
variegated. viab'ilis, e (from French vie, life, able to live, or from via,
a road, journey) able to move, quickened. vir'idis e (fr. vireo, to be green) green, verru ca, je (fr. vcrres, a boar) a wart or excrescence seen
on hogs. poples, itis, the ham strings. porri'go, inis (f) {irom pro, forth, rego, to extend, spread
out) dandruff, tinea capitis, vicis (gen., no nom.) (f) (Aryan root I'ik, yield) a change,
period, time. vica'rius, a, um (fr. vicis, change) substituted, exchanged, villus, i (Aryan root var, to cover) shaggy hair.
EXERCISE XXXIII.
A. I . Post hoc vel cum hoc ergo propter hoc est argumentum medicorum. 2. " Ubi tres medici ibi duo atheistes." 3. Vis medicatrix naturae est remedium potentiale. 4. Pollex pedis est hallux vel digitus maximus. 3. Arteria femoralis venas comites habet, sed aorta earundem nullas habet. 6. Puer talipedem equi- num habet. 7. Vomitus stercoris signum ilei est. 8. Si herniam umbilicalem infans habeat, tunc admoveatur
1
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 189
emplastrum picis. 9. Vertebra prominens est septima cervicis vertebrarum. 10. Pityriasis versicolor est mor- bus communis.
B. I. In the fourth month the foetus is viable. 2. Veratrum (green) is a poison. 3. Arsenic is an apparent metal, so also is hydrogen. 4. There is some- times vicarious menstruation. 5. Repeat this prescrip- tion twice (two times). 6. Knock-knee club-foot is not so common as bow-leg club-foot. 7. The crown of Venus was on the head of George the Third. 8. The recurrent tibial artery. 9. Antimony or stibium is poison. 10. If there is vomiting of excrement he will die.
CHAPTER XXI. Prescription Writing.
IN nearly all countries where a real science of medicine exists, Latin is the language employed in the writing of prescriptions. European practitioners are almost uni- formly men of high classical training, and are able to use the language correctly, but in America the majority of medical students have had no experience whatever in Latin composition. Even in our literary colleges of late, the classics have been crowded out to make room for a score of sciences of which the student acquires a very superficial knowledge, so that the modern college graduate excels in nothing, and at the same time has lost a golden opportunity to familiarize himself with the ancient languages which are the basis of scientific nomenclature.
In the United States prescriptions are usually written in a language called by courtesy Latin, although we very much doubt whether a Cicero or Horace would ever suspect that the conglomerations of abbreviated medical terms which are sent to our drug stores were specimens of their native tongue.
A very little thought and study will enable the intelligent student to master the art of prescription writing. If he finds himself unable to do this, we would advise him to employ the English language exclusively, or better still, to give up all thoughts of becoming a physician.
In Europe, especially in medical publications, it is customary to write the entire prescription, directions to the patient included, in Latin. But there is now a ten-
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 191
dency, and we think a wise one, to write the directions to the patient in the vernacular language. Any one who has attempted to translate French prescriptions, in which Latin is not used, has realized the great difficulty in arriving at their meaning even with the aid of the best dictionaries. The Latin names of drugs, however, are quite uniform throughout Europe and America, and the prescriptions found in English medical books and period- icals can be understood in almost any country, Latin names, moreover, are specific and exact, rendering mis- takes impossible. If, for example, a physician ordered snake root, either Polygala senega, Arisiolochia serpen- taria or Ciinicifiiga racemosa might be understood. But the pharmacopoeial terms Scrpentaria, Senega, and Ciini- cifuga are restricted to particular preparations.
The word prescription is derived from the Latin prcB, before hand, and scriberc, to write, and signifies the written directions of a physician or surgeon for the pre- paration and use of a medicine or other means of cure, A physician may prescribe change of climate or blood- letting. When the apothecaries consulted the physicians about their patients, prescriptions like the following were often given: — " Einitte sanguinis tmcias sedeciin saltcvi, vel ad deliqiiinm ; draw at least sixteen ounces of blood, or until fainting is produced;" or ^^ Ad recidivinni prcecavendum, delraJiatiir sanguis pro re nata; to pre- vent a relapse, let blood be drawn occasionally."
Kformida, (dim, oi forma, a rule) is a written direction for preparing and using a pharmaceutical remedy, being more limited in its application than the word prescription.
Formulae are of two kinds, exteniporaneons or magis- tral, and officinal. Magistral forniidcz are so called because they are constructed by the physician, who is supposed to be a master (viagister) of his art, on the
192 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
instant, {ex tempore^. Officinal fonmilcB are so desig- nated because they are published in the pharmacopoeias and are supposed to be kept ready for use in the apoth- ecary shop {officina).
Furthermore formulae may be either simple or com- pound. A simple fornmla, {formula simplex^ contains but a single ingredient, while a compoimd formula {for- mula composita) contains two or more.
/. The Parts of a Prescriptiojt or Formula.
1. In this country it is usually customary to begin a prescription with the name of the patient and the date, although the majority of the books recommend that these be placed last or next the physician's name.
2. TJie licading. In primitive societies the priest and the physician were one and the same man. When acting in his medical capacity no cure was ever under- taken without first invoking the assistance of the gods, a custom still in vogue among the Brahmins and Mohammedans. Prescriptions were begun with a prayer and at a later period when medicine had become distinct from theology, it was deemed sufficient to place the sign of the chief of the gods, Jupiter, (IC) at the beginning of the parchment. Whenever a metal which was supposed to be the property of any particular deity was prescribed, it was thought that the medicine would act with greater certainty and power if the symbol of the god were used instead of the name of the drug. Thus: —
^ the new moon, the symbol of Diana, was written
for silver.
? the mirror of Venus, for copper.
S the shield and spear of Mars, for iron.
^ the sickle of Saturn, for lead, etc.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 193
At present the heading of a prescription is Jk, a sympol composed of the first letter of Recipe, R, and the sign of Jupiter, the king of the gods (2^ ). This is about the only rcHc in modern medicine showing that in ancient times medicine was practiced only by the priesthood, but, nevertheless, a relic quite as suggestive as the hairy point sometimes seen on the helix of the human ear, which Darwinians tell us proves that the ancestors of mankind were monkeys.
3. T/ie names and quantities of the ingredients. The name of each ingredient should be in a line by itself The ingredients should be placed in the following order: —
{a) The basis, or principal drug.
{b) The auxiliary or adjuvant, which is supposed to assist the action of the basis.
{c) The corrective, which removes or corrects some objectionable quality of the basis or adjuvant.
{d ) The vehicle, which gives a proper form to the whole and serves as a means to convey it into the system.
After the name of each ingredient, in the same line, are placed the symbols denoting the quantities required- The following symbols and abbreviations are now used : —
C for Congius, a gallon.
O for Octarius, an eighth of a congius, a pint.
§ for uncia, an ounce.
3 for drachma, a drachm.
gr. for graniim, or grana, grain or grains.
TTL for minimum, a minim, or y^Q- of a drachm.
In prescribing fluids, /, for fluidum, is sometimes placed before the symbol designating the quantity,
194 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
although this is not necessary. 3, the sign for scrupii- lum, will be found in the books, but is now seldom used in prescriptions, all weights being expressed in ounces, drachms and grains. It will be observed that many of these symbols are mere abbreviations. The signs for ounce, drachm, and scruple, however, are modeled after those employed by the Arabic alchemists.
The number of ounces, drachms, and grains is ex- pressed by means of the Roman letters i, ii, iii, iv, \\ vi, etc., but fractions of grains and minims, with the excep- tion of one-half, which is written ss, an abbreviation of seniisis, half, are usually expressed by the Arabic numerals; thus, gr. \, a quarter of a grain, '^ye, ^ twenty-fifth of a minim.
With regard to the graniniatical construction of this portion of a prescription it may be stated as a rule that the names of the ingredients in all compound formu- lae should be put in the genitive case* after the quan- tities which are in the accusative case governed by recipe. Take for example: —
^ Quinina; Sulphatis 3j-
Extract! Gentiann; gr. xxx.
Fiat Massa in pilulas xxx dividenda.
In simple formulae, however, in which the ingredient is not weighed or measured, but counted, as is the case with pills, troches and suppositories, the name of the ingredient is put in the accusative case. Thus we may write: — B; Pilulas ferri compositas xii, "take twelve com- pound pills of iron," not 5-' PHularum ferri composi- tariim xii.
* When q. s. ad, quantum sufficiat ad is employed after the name of the last ingredient, the genitive is used. If, however, ad is used and the q. s. is omitted, the name of the ingredient should always be put in the accusative. Thus we may write : — Aqiue q. s. ad unciaiii, as much of water as may be needed up to an ounce, or aquam ud 2i>uiuv!, aq!ia»t hemg in the accus^tive governed by rcc?^?, while the quantity, unciam, is in the accusative governed by the preposition ad.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 195
It is customary with physicians to abbreviate the names of drugs used in prescriptions, partly to save time and space, but largely to cloak their ignorance of Latin grammar. When Pompey was about to consecrate a temple to Victory a dispute arose as to whether the inscription should read "■Consul Tcrtio" or ''Consul Tertiumy and it was finally decided to leave the matter open for discussion by writing " Consul Tcrt." Physicians now adopt the same plan, "when in doubt, abbreviate." But the practice is objectionable and sometimes danger- ous. Pareira mentions a case in which hydrocyanic acid was dispensed for hydrochloric acid in a prescription reading Acid hydroc. Aqua fortis has been given for aqua fontis, and the abbreviation hydr. may mean hy- drargyrum, hydras, hydriodas, hydrochloras, hydrochlori- cum, hydrocyanicum, etc. The following rules may be laid down to govern the student in writing the names of ingredients: —
{a) The orthography should be that which is cus- tomary.
{J)) Abbreviations should be employed sparingly and with great caution, if at all.
(f) Symbols and signs should be carefully made.
{^d^ The ingredients should be designated by their pharmacopoeial names.*
{e) Designate wefghts in Troy grains, ad avoir- dupois ounces and pounds.
* The courts have decided that a physician violating this ruie is guilty of con- tributary negligence in case the dispenser makes a serious error. If, for example, a physician prescribes Hydrarg. Chlorid., intending Hydrargyri Chloridiim Mite, and the druggist dispenses Hydrargyri Chloridutn Corrosivum, both physician and druggist could be convicted of manslaughter if the error should cause the (Jeath of a patient.
In a file of prescriptions recently examined by the writer the following violations of this rule were observed : — Sol. Fmuler, for Liquor Potassii Arsenitis: Hux. Tine, for Tinctura Cinchonce Composita: Chloric Ether, for Spiritus Chloroformi : Aq. Lima (.') for Liquor Calcis: Trotch. Pot., for Trochisci Fotassii Chloratis: and Pulv. Dover i, for Pulvis lpecacuanh<E et Opii.
In the same lot of prescriptions was one calling for calomel in an aqueous olution.
196 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
(/) Designate measures in minims, fluiddrachms, fluidounces, and pints, using the Roman letters instead of Arabic numerals.
4. TJic directions to the compounder. These should always be written in Latin. They declare the manner in which the prescription is to be prepared and delivered. The verbs used are in the imperative mood, as coque wisce, boil, mix; the subjunctive present active or passive, dividat, dividatur, let him divide, let it be divided, or the future passiv^e participle in dus. In the following sentence the three modes will be found: " Com- viisce bene lit fiat massa {(juce) in pilulas dnodecim divi- detida (rj'/); Mix well together in order that a mass may be made, which is to be divided into twelve pills."
5 . Tlie directions to the patient. These are preceded by the word Signa, or the abbreviation Sig., being the imperative mood of the verb sigjiare, to mark. After this should be written in English the exact method in which the patient is to use the medicine, if you would avoid the risk of having suppositories swallowed and lotions injected.
When poisonous drugs, especially those to be used externally, are prescribed, it is well to have the bottle marked " Poiso7i,'' but where the medicine is to be used internally, this would sometimes cause unnecessary anxiety.
In the examples of prescriptions which follow, Latin is employed in giving the directions to the patient, not that this is advisable, but that the student may become familiar with this custom, thus enabling him to under- stand the prescriptions found in many foreign works.
6. The name and address of the prescriber should be placed at the end of all prescriptions. In some countries no prescription will be compounded unless thus signed.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
19'
In order to illustrate the foregoing principles, we give the following example of a prescription: —
(1) Address and date.
(2) Heading.
(3) Name and quan- (2) Jb
titles of ingredients, {a) Basis, {b) Adjuvant.
(<r) Corrective, (d) Vehicle.
(4) Directions to compounder.
(5) Directions to patient.
(6) Na7}ie and address of pre-
scriber
(l) For Mrs. Sarah Jones.
(l) January 30, 1888.
(3) Liquoris Ammonii Acetatis (rt) 3j- Vini Antimonii {b), 3 ivss. Tincturae Cardamomi Com-
positae {c), 3j.
Aquoe Mentha Piperitse {d) ^iss.
(4) Fiat mistura. Signa: (5) Cujus
cochleare parvum in cyatho aquae omni semihorio sumendum. (6) John Physick, M. D., No. 18 Brown Street.
There are many terms peculiar to the language of prescriptions which are often abbreviated. In the fol- lowing list the principal of these will be found: —
LATIN.
Absente febre
Ad libitum
Adstante febre
Adde or addatur
Altemis horis
Ampulla, se
Ana
Aqua adstricta
Aqua bulliens
Aqua communis
Aqua pluvialis
Bis in dies
BuUiat
Cum
Capiat
Cochleare amplum vel magnum
Cochleare medium
ABBREVIATION.
absent, febr.
ad lib.
adst. febr.
add.
altern. horis
ampull.
aa
aq. adst.
aq. bull.
aq. com.
aq. pluv.
bis in d.
bull.
c.
cap.
ENGLISH.
fever being absent
at pleasure
fever being present
add
every other hour
a large bottle
of each
ice
boiling water
common water
rain water
twice a day
boil, or let it boil
with
let the patient lake
coch. amp. vel mag. a tablespoon, coch. med. a dessertspoon
198
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
LATIN.
ABBREVIATION.
ENGLISH.
Cochleare paivum
coch. parv.
a teaspoon
Compositus, a, um
comp. vel CO.
compound
Collutorium, i
coUut.
a mouth wash
Cortex, icis
cort.
bark or peel.
Cujus
cuj.
of which.
Cyathus, i
cyath.
a wineglass
Destillatus, a, um
dest.
distilled
Dilutus, a, um
dil.
dilute
Dimidius, i
dim.
one-half
Dividatur in partes cequales d. in p. seq.
to be divided in equal parts
Dosis, is
d.
a dose
Ejusdem
ejusd.
of the same
Electuarium
elect.
an electuary
Enema
enem.
a clyster
Fac or fiat
f.
make
Fac pilulas duodecim
f. pil. .\ii.
make twelve pills
Fiat haustus
f. h.
make a draught
Fluidum
fl.
fluid
Fiat mistura
f. m.
make a mixture
Fotus, us
fot.
a fomentation
Frustillatim
frust.
in small pieces.
Gutta or guttae
g".
a drop or drops
Gargarisma, tis (n.)
garg.
a gargle
Hora somni
h. s.
on going to bed
In dies
in d.
daily
Infusum
inf.
infusion
Julepus, i-
Jul.
a julep
Lagena
lagen.
bottle
Linteum
lint.
lint
Lotio
lot.
a wash
Mane prime
man. prim.
early in the morning
Manipulus, i
man.
a handful
Minimum, i
m.
a minim
Misce
M.
mix
Mistura
mist.
a mixture
Mica panis
mica pan.
a crumb of bread
Mitte
mitt.
send
More dicto
mor diet.
as directed
Nocte maneque
noct. maneque
night and morning
Numero
no.
in number
Oleum
ol.
oil
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
199
LATIN. ABBREVIATION. ENGLISH.
Omne hora omn. hor. every hour
Partes aequales p. aeq. equal parts
Pannus linteus pann. lint. linen cloth
Pencillium camelinum penc. cam. a camel's hair pencil
Preparatus, a, um ppt. prepared
Post cibum post cib. after meals
Per fistulam vitream per fist. vitr. through a glass tube
Pro re nata p. r. n. as required
Pulvis pulv. a powder
Quantum sufficiat q. s. a sufficient quantity
Quantum vis q. v. as much as you choose
Quotidie quotid. daily
Quorum quor. of which
Reductum or redactum reduct. reduced
Scatuia scat. a pill box
Semis or semissis ss. a half
Semihoia semih. half an hour
Sesuncia sesc. an ounce and a half
Simul sim. together
Solutio sol. solution
Tere bene simul t. b. sim. rub well together
Ter in die t. i. d. three times a day
Tinctura tinct. or tr. a tincture
Triturata trit. triturate
Trochiscus, i troch. a troche
Vitellus ovi v. o. yolk of egg
Zingiber, is Zz. ginger
We may illustrate an abbreviated prescription by the following for an emulsion : —
5: Vitell. ov no. ij.
Ol. Amygd. am gtt. v.
Tere bene simul et add. grad.
Ol. Morrh l^iij.
Glyc 5'j-
Ac. phos. dil ^j.
Vin. Xer. q. s. ad Oj.
F. emuls. S. Ejus. cap. aeg. coch. mag. t. i. d. post cib. 14
200 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
This same prescription written out in full, would
be
§; Vitellos ovorum numero duos.
Olei Amygalae amane guttas quinque.
Tere bene simul et adde gradatim.
Olei Morrhuse uncias octo.
Glycerini uncias duas.
Acidi phosphorici diluti unciam unam.
Vini Xerici quantum sufficiat ad. . .Octarium unum. Fiat emulsio, Signa, " Ejusdem capiat aeger coch- leare magnum ter in die post cibum."
Translating the above into English, we have : —
Take yolks of Eggs, in number two.
Of Oil of Bitter Almond, five drops.
Rub well together and add gradually.
Of Cod Liver Oil, eight ounces.
Of Glycerine, two ounces.
Of Dilute Phosphoric Acid, one ounce.
Of Sherry Wine, as much as will suffice to make
one pint Let there be made an emulsion, Mark " Let the
patient take a tablespoonful of this three times
a dav after meals."
Powders may be prescribed in bulk, the patient to use a specified amount as directed, or the mixed powder may be put up in separate papers, chartulce. For example: —
Bj Pulveris Opii 3 ij.
Zinci Acetatis ^ij.
Misce. Fiat pulvis. Signa : Hujus solve drachmam in
aquK calidse Octario. Lijice in more dicto. Or, — Misce. Fiat pulvis in chartulas xviij. dividendus. Solve unam in aquae calidse Octario, etc.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 201
" Take of Powdered Opium, two drachms, of Acetate of Zinc, two ounces. Mix. Let there be made a powder. Mark : Dissolve a drachm of this in a pint of warm water. Inject as directed. Or, — Mix. Let there be made a powder to be divided into eighteen parts. Dissolve one in a pint of warm water," etc.
8; Extracti Colocynthidis Compositi 5j.
Hydrargyri Chloridi Mitis gr- ij-
Fiat massa in pilulas xij. dividenda. Capiat mane iij. et
postea ij., si alvus, horis sex, non satis dejecerit. " Take of Compound extract of Colocynth, a drachm.
of Calomel, twelve grains. Let there be made a mass to be divided into twelve pills. Let the patient take three in the morning and two more if, after six hours, the bowels have not moved sufficiently."
In text-books it is customary to give prescriptions for the preparation of a single dose of a medicine. Many physicians prefer to write prescriptions in this manner. Thus : —
Bb Quininoe Sulphatis gr- ij-
Extracti Euonymi gr. iss..
Oleoresinae Piperis TTI^j
Fac pilulam, Mitte tales no. xxiv. Signa. : Capiat Kgra harum unam ter quaterv'e in dies statim post cibum. " Take, Of Sulphate of quinine, two grains.
Of extract of Wahoo, a grain and a half. Of Oleoresin of Pepper, one minim. Make a pill. Send twenty four such. Mark : Let the (female) patient take one of these three or four times a day immediately after meals."
N. B. — With fiant, the nominative case is used; thus, Fiant Suppositoria, pilules, pulveres, etc., but the ac- cusative case {oWovjs fac ; thus, Fac pilulas, chartulas, etc.
202 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
In prescribing plasters, it is customary to designate the dimensions by Arabic numerals. Thus: —
jj: Emplastram Belladonnge, a," x b" . " Take a Belladonna plaster, four by six inches in dimensions."
In this case eniplastrum should be in the accusative case and not the genitive.
If, however, we order plaster by weight and direct the dispenser to spread it, the genitive case is used. Example: —
B? Emplastri Picis cum Cantharide 5 j.
Extende supra Emplastrum Resinse et admove supra nucham. " Take a drachm of warming plaster. Spread upon resin plaster and apply over nape of neck."
PART III.
THE GREEK ELEMENT IN THE LANGUAGE
OF MEDICINE.
CHAPTER I. Orthography.
THE majority of the Greek words found in medical literature have been Latinized and are declined as Latin words. Greek derivatives are so much more euphonious than the compound words formed in modern languages that we find them even in German, a language which, more than any other, avoids the importation of foreign words. No one will be surprised that our Teutonic brethren prefer pyelitis to the cumbersome Nierenbeckenentztie7idung. In other European countries, not even excepting Russia and Poland, Greek has become the foundation of medical terminology.
In order to understand the exact meaning of words derived from the Greek, the student should learn the signification of the original words. To accomplish this no extensive knowledge of Greek grammar is necessary. In the _/fr.f/ place the alphabet, with the Roman equiva- lents of the letters, should be learned. Secondly, a knowledge of the methods by which Greek words are put in Latin and English dress is necessary, and thirdly, the student should commit to memory the stems of words used to designate the various parts and functions of the body, together with the signification of a number of prefixes and postfixes.
A few hours spent in the study of etymology in this manner will enable the student to learn the meaning of
204 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
2l host of technical expressions which would require months of study to master in any other way. In the following pages will be given the great majority of Greek derivatives in common use with the method of their formation, and the original meaning of their component parts.
The Greek alphabet consists of twenty-four letters, as follows: —
FORM.
NAME.
ROMAN EQUIVALENT.
A a
Alpha
a
B ^ 6
Beta
b
r r
Gamma
g
A d
Delta
d
E e
Epsllon
e short
z c
Zeta
z
H rj
Eta
e long
e 6 &
Theta
th
I c
Iota
i
K X
Kappa
k or c
A I
Lambda
1
M [1
Mu
m
N V
Nu
n
S ?
Xi
X
0 0
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6 short
n -
Pi
P
p p
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r or rh
I o C
Sigma
s
T T
Tau
t
r u
Upsilon
u or y
0 (p
Phi
ph
Y x
Chi
ch
W ip
Psi
ps
Q 0)
Omega
o long
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 205
1. The vozvels are a, e, 3y, t, o, u, <o. Of these ;y and CO are always long, e and o always short, and a, c and o either long or short according to position or custom, as in Latin. The quantity of these vowels remains the same when converted into Latin as may be seen by the follow- ing examples: —
rispov^, fibula perone'us
Aizwfia lipo'ma
Ildfjtacz par'esis
06(Hfofjo:; phos'phorus
2. The diphthongs with their Roman equivalents are as follows: —
Greek, ac, ei, oi, a'j, so, oi>, ut, becoming in Roman, ae, e or I, ce, au, eu, u, yi Thus, r'AoordiO^, becomes glutse'us.
Neopaadtveia, becomes neurastheni'a.
3. Breathings. Every word in Greek beginning with a vowel or with p, has a breathing over the initial letter, or, in the case of diphthongs, over the second let- ter. The aspirate or rough breatliing is equivalent to the English h, and is written thus ('). The rough breathing is placed over all words beginning with u or p. The smooth breatliing Q is placed over initial vowels or diph- thongs to denote the absence of the Ji sound. Examples : udcop, hydor ; acfuj., hcBma; pzbfxa, rhenma; ddr^v, aden.
4. Nasal sounds. Gamma {j) before y, x, c and ^ has the sound of n in angle and is changed to n in con- verting Greek words with the gamma so placed, into Latin or English. For example: —
^-ijfeiov, becomes in Latin angi'um. ^Ajx'jATi, becomes an'kyle. 0dpuy^, becomes pharynx. ^ Ayyo), becomes ancho, Latin ango.
206 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
5. Changes of termination. Greek nouns ending in oc and ov are usually converted into nouns of the second declension ending in us and um. Examples : yoXzobypz, choled' ochiis ; dofto^, thymus; durpov, antrtim. Genitives ending in roc and do^ were changed to nouns of the third declension with genitives ending in tis and dis. Examples: j^poy^lu^, (ipoyi(iTcdoz, bronchi' tis, bron- chit'idis.
6. The digamma or van (F). In old Homeric Greek there was another letter, the digamma, equivalent in sound to the English v or w. Thus : ojov, an &^%, was originally oiFbv, equivalent to Latin ovum. There is no evidence, however, that ovum was derived from a>F6v, but both came from a common word used by the Greco- Italian race before its separation.
7. Accents. Accents in Greek are certain marks placed over vowels, influencing their pronunciation. Just what significance they had is not definitely known. There are three accents, the acute ( ' ), the circumflex ( " ), and the grave (' ). The acute accent stands on long and short syllables alike and on any of the last three syllables of a word; the circumflex accent stands only on the long syllables and only on the last two syllables of a word; the grave accent stands only on the last syllable.
CHAPTER II. The Parts and Functions of the Body.
IN order that the student may acquire the principles of medical terminology, it will be necessary for him to commit to memory the stems of the words which designate the various parts and functions of the body. By stem we mean that part of a word which remains after the prefixes, suffixes and inflectional endings have been removed, or rather, the part to which these affixes are added. For example take dpcofia aro'ma, the stem is arom, from which we may form aromatic. But the root of a word is that essential part which contains the original meaning, and from which the word is derived. The root of aroma is ar, from an Aryan word meaning to plough or cultivate, and secondarily to acquire by cul- tivation. Thus we have in Sanskrit aritras, the oxen which pulled the plough, aritram, the plough handle, later the helm of a ship. In Greek we have dpoco, to plough; dpoTijp, a husbandman; dporpou, a plough; dpcopa, ploughed land, secondarily the odor of ploughed land; dpar^v, the male who did the ploughing, and many others.
In Latin there is aro, to plough; arator, a plough- man; aratrum, a plough; arvum, a cultivated field; armentiim, an ox for ploughing; arma, implements for cultivating, afterwards for fighting, etc. In English the same root appears in the old verb ear, to cutlivate, and in arm, the part of the body with which w^e cultivate the soil.
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CHAPTER III. Prefixes.
THE prefixes used in Greek are prepositions, adjec- tives, and adverbs, or words derived from these. a-, an-, or am- (Greek d, d/ji, or dp). A- before a consofiant, except a few words beginning with bl or br ; an- before a vowel, and am- before words beginning with bl or br. These are inseparable particles kindred with dvvj, without, and equivalent to the Latin prefix m, neg- ative, and the English tin-, as seen in zV/firm, not strong, z/wwell, not well. This prefix is called alpha privative, and is used to form compound words denoting the absence of the thing designated by the original word, as may be seen in the following list : —
abrach'ia, without arms, armless monstrosity.
abulia, loss of will power, ^o^A-q.
acar'dia (a monstrosity) without a heart.
acephal'ic, without a head, headless.
aceph'alocyst, a headless monstrosity with cyst of cord.
achei'rous, without hands, handless.
acra'nia, monstrosity without a skull.
acye'sis, inability to become pregnant, sterility.
adac'rya, non-secretion of tears.
adyna'mia, want of strength, loss of power.
agalac'tia, absence of milk in breast after delivery.
agera'sia, without old age, a green old age.
ageus'tia, loss of sense of taste.
aglos'sia, absence of tongue.
alex'ia, inability to read resulting from disease.
ambro'sia, immortality, the food of the immortals.
am'blosia, not living, abortion.
218 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
amenorrhoe'a, absence of menses.
amne'sia, loss of memory.
amor'phism, without definite form, formlessness.
anaemia, lit. bloodless, deficiency of blood corpuscles.
anaesthe'sia, loss of sensation.
analge sia, without sense of pain.
anaphrodis'ia, without sexual desire.
anhy'drous, without water.
anidro sis, suppression of perspiration.
an'odyne, without pain, a medicine curing pain.
anor'chous, without testicles.
anorex'ia, loss of appetite.
anosmia, loss of sense of smell.
apathy, without mental feeling.
apep sia, loss of digestive power.
apha'cia, absence of crystalline lens.
aphasia, loss of speech, of memory of words.
aphe'mia, loss of speech.
apho'nia, loss of voice.
apnoe'a, cessation of breathing.
apo'sia, without thirst.
aproc'tia, without an anus.
apterous, wingless.
apyrex'ia, absence of fever.
asa'phia, loss of clearness of voice, hoarseness, fr.
aaifrjz, clear, asper'mia, non-secretion of semen, asphyx'ia, lit. pulselessness, suffocation, astig'matism, without a point of convergence, asystole, non-contraction, atax ia, want of co-ordination, atom, lit. uncut, too small to be cut. at'ony, loss of tone, strength. at'rophy, cessation of growth.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 219
amphi- (<i/i^r) before consonants, amph (a/V) be- fore vowels. A preposition equivalent to the Latin ambi or avib, meaning literally on both sides, with a secondary meaning of both ways.
amphiarthro'sis, articulating both ways, i. e. synar- throsis and diarthrosis. amphibious, living both ways, i. e. on land and in water, amphora, handles, i^btm, on both sides, two-handled jar.
ana-, {a^A^ before consonants, an- (dv) before vowels. A preposition meaning iip, throughout, again, Latin re, or apart, like Latin se and dis. anal'ysis, a loosening again, solution, anasar'ca, (water) throughout the flesh, anastomo'sis, inosculation.
an'aplasty, a forming again, restoration of lost parts, anaspa'dias, opening {ozaduj) upwards of urethra, anode, the upw-ard track {oobi) of electric current.
anti- {ax^ri-') before a vowel, ant- (dvr) before a con- sonant, anth- (dv^'-) before the aspirate h. A preposition meaning against, opposite, opposed to, like Latin contra and English counter. It is often used in the formation of words denoting remedies for the affection specified by the primitive.
antephial'tes, a remedy for nightmare, anthelix, (the part of ear) opposite the helix, anthelmin'tic, a remedy for removing worms, lliuv^. an'ticheir, opposite the hand, i. e. the thumb, ant'idote, a counteracting medicine, given (<5oroc) against, antilith'ic, a remedy for stone, calcidus, /Jdo;;, or for
lithaemia. antip'athy, a feeling [~ddo^) against, antiphlogis'tic, a remedy for inflammation, ifXoydiac^.
220 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
antipyretic, a remedy for fever, -Kup. antisep'tic, opposing putrefaction, (r/j-ac;;. antispasmod'ic, a remedy for spasm, a-6.aiioc.. antith'enar, opposite the hollow part of hand, dkvap. antit'ragus, opposite the tragus.
apo- {a-o) before consonants, ap- {o-tt') before vowels and a/>/i- {d(p') before the aspirate /i. A preposition meaning away, from, like Latin ab, English off. aph'orism, a marking off, definition, fr. opc^co, to bound, aponeurosis, (expansion) from a tendon, vsupov. apoph'ysis, a natural growth, <puaci;, from a bone, apoplexy, a striking off, from Tth^pj, a stroke. apoth'ecary, one who stores away drugs, from d^jxr^, a
storehouse. aposte'ma, a standing away, abscess, 7<TTYjpi, to stand.
auto- (auTo-) before consonants, aul («'^r') before vowels, from auroQ, self, a reflexive pronoun.
autoplastic, formed from one's self, i. e. by taking tissue
from the patient. autopsy, a seeing, 6^'^^, or examination of the body itself
cata- (cixav) before consonants, cat- [xaz) catJi- {xad') before the aspirate /l A preposition meaning dozun, through, with a secondary meaning of concealed, like the Latin de.
cat'alepsy, seizing upon, fr. xaralap^dvco, to pounce upon, catalysis, a c//jrsolution, or concealed solution. catame nia, the monthly flowing dowji menses. cataplasm, something layed down, a poultice. cat'aract, rushing down, prjywju, to rush, opacity of lens, cathar'tic, fr. xaf^acpco, to carry down, a purgative medicine.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 221
cath'eter, the instrument sent down to the bladder, fr. xadir^fu, to send down.
dia- (ocd) a preposition allied to d'jco, two, like Latin di- or dis-, apart. The meaning is through, like Latin /^r.
diabe'tes, a running through, fr. dta^aivo), to go through. diachylon, a plaster made through, i. e. by means of
juice, yoM:;. diagno sis, a knowing through, i. e. thoroughly, of a
disease. diapede sis, a leaping through; (passage of blood cor- puscles through wall of vessel). diaphanous, shining through, transparent, diaph'ysis, a growing through or between; the shaft of
a bone. di'astase, the substance w^hich dissolves, fr. dta-larrjuc,
to separate. dias'tole, a sending apart, dilatation, from ocaare/lco, to
dilate. diath'esis, a placing through, constitution, dcaridrjjxt, to
arrange. diet, a regulation, regimen, fr. dcaireio, to regulate.
dys (ovc) an inseparable adverbial prefix like the Sanskrit diis and English mis. The meaning is bad, difficidt, painful, or defective.
dyscra'sia, bad temperament, xpaac^.
dyseco'ia, defective hearing, axo-j.
dys'entery, lit. a difficulty with the bowels, inflammation
of colon, dysla'lia, slow difficult speech, /«//«. dyslex ia, pain in eyes caused by reading. dysmenorrhoe'a, painful menstruation, dyskine'sis, painful motion or movement, xivr^acz.
222 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
dyspareu'nia, painful sexual intercourse. dyspepsia, difficult or defective digestion. dyspha gia, painful mastication and swallowing. dyspho'nia, defective voice, hoarseness. dyspnce'a, difficult respiration.
ec- (ix) before a consonant, ex- (i^) before a vowel. A preposition cognate with Latin e or ex, meaning out, outfroin; whence we have ccto- (ixroc), outside.
ecbol'ic, a medicine which casts out, causes abortion,
from ^d'/J.co, to throw.
eccoprot'ic, a medicine to remove faeces, y.6~po^.
eccye'sis, extra-uterine pregnancy, '/.'jr^ac^.
eclamp'sia, an effulgence, a symptom in some convulsive diseases.
ec'phlysis, a bubbling out, vesicular eruption, ix<fA'joj,
to bubble.
ecphy'ma, an outward growth, (fufta, a wart, excrescence.
ecstasy, a standing, azd<T:^, out, out of one's mind.
ecthy ma, a breaking out, pustular eruption, ixOOco, to break out.
ectopia, a displacement, zotto^, a place.
ectozo'a, external, ixzo^, parasites or animals, ^oja.
ectro pion, a turning (zoi-co, to turn) out of the eyelids.
ec zema, a boiling (^iw, to boil) out of the humors, an
eruptive skin disease, salt rheum.
exanthe'ma, a blossoming out, avdr^/ia, eruptive fever.
exog enous, produced abroad or without, fr. yzi^'^dco, to
produce, exom phalus, lit. out of the navel, otKfako^, umbilical
hernia. exophthal'mia, protrusion of eyeballs. exosmo sis, the impulse of fluids outward. exosto sis, an abnormal growth of bone outward, exot ic, foreign, i^ozeoo^.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 223
en- {iv\ before / and b, em- (i/j). A prepo- sition equivalent to the Latin in with the ablative, mean- ing in, ivithin. em holism, lit. something thrown in, an arterial plug, fr.
j3d?jM, to throw. emphy'ma, a growth within, subcutaneous tumor (^:;//a). emphysema, an abnormal inflation with air, fr. ifxcfuadco,
to blow in. empye ma, pus (-vov) within (pleural cavity), empy'ocele, a scrotal tumor containing pus. enarthro'sis, articulation in, i. e. ball and socket joint, encan this, aan excrescence in cantlms of eye. endem'ic, a disease within a limited population, m^fioi:;,. ender'mic, in the skin.
en'ema, an injection, from ivir^iit, to send in. entro pion, a turning in of the eyelids, from ivrpeTzco, to
turn in. errhine, lit. in the nose, a snuff
endo- {ivoo) and cnto- {^vro), from IvJoc and hrb^, within. These are adverbial expressions derived from iv, in, and are equivalent to the Latin i7itra and intro. endan'gium, membrane lining inside of vessels. endarte'rium, membrane lining inside of arteries. endocar dium, membrane lining inside of heart, endome'trium, membrane lining inside of womb, en doblast, inner membrane of embryo, ^/Aazr^im, a bud. en'doscope, an instrument for looking into cavities,
(Txo~ico, to look, endosmo sis, impulse of liquids inward, endos'teum, inner or medullaiy membrane of bones, ento'phyte, a plant (furou growing within the body. entozo on, a animal parasite within the body.
224 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
epi- (c^Tf) before consonants, ep'- {iTt) before vowels, and ep/i- {i(p) before the aspirate /l A preposition mean- ing upon, on, over, upper.
epen dyma, lit. upper clothing {Ivo'jtxa) lining of ven- tricles of brain.
epicon'dyle, a tuberosity in the condyle xovouloci.
ephe lis, lit. on the nail, ^/oc, a freckle.
ephem era, for a day (rjiispa) a transitory fever.
ephial'tes, a leaping upon; nightmare fr. i(pd}J.oij.ac, to leap upon.
epican thus, on the canthus, a fold in corner of eye.
epider mis, upper skin, outer coat of skin.
epigas trium, over-the-stomach (region).
epiglot tis, (organ) over the glottis.
epilepsy, a seizing upon, fr. /Mfi^dvco, to seize.
epiph era, a carrying [(fopo:;) over, running over of tears.
epiphysis, a upper growth (of bone).
epispa dias, opening of urethra upward.
epispas'tic, a medicine to draw (azdco) up (a blister).
epistax'is, a distilling {(Tzdz:^) up, nose bleed.
epidem'ic, (a disease) upon the whole people (oy^oc).
epizoot'ic, a disease upon a whole specis of animals (?&>«).
epu lis, (a tumor) on the gums ou/.a.
eu- (eu) an adverb opposed to djs- {o'jc) in meaning, like Latin dene, well, easy. eucalyptus, lit. well covered, fr. xak-j-zco, to cover, blue
gum tree. euon'ymus, lit. well named, fr. wu/jia, the plant Wahoo. eupnce a, easy respiration, euthana'sia, easy death [Oduazo^). euthym ia, easy frame of mind (douo;).
hemi- {'^jp:) fr. '^fnff'^: a numeral adjective meaning /lalf, equivalent to Latin se7ni.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 225
hemianaesthe'sia. loss of sensation on one side. hemianopsia, loss of vision in half of each eye. hemichore'a, chorea affecting one side. hemicra nia, (neuralgia) of half the head, megrim. hemio pia, a disorder of vision in which but half an
object is seen. hemiple'gia, a paralytic stroke of half the body. hem isphere, half a sphere [aipaipa) half of cerebrum.
hyper- {o~io) a preposition meaning over, above, excess of, like the Latin super.
hyperidro'sis, excessive sweating.
hyperino'sis, excess of fibrin in the blood, fr. j'c, fibre.
hypersesthe sia, excessive feeling, or irritability.
hypercardia, enlargement of heart.
hyperpla sia, excessive formation of tissue.
hyperpnce'a, rapid respiration.
hyper'trophy, excessive growth of a part.
hypo- (p-o) before consonants, hyp- ((3>t) before vowels, and hyph- (u^) before the aspirate h. A prepo- sition meaning below, under, deficient, like the Latin stib and S7ibter.
hypino'sis, deficiency of fibrin in blood, hypochon'drium, region below the cartilages of ribs, hypocra'nium, collection of pus under cranium, hypoder'mic, under the skin, subcutaneous, hypogas'trium, region below stomach, hypoglos'sal, under the tongue, sublingual. hypoglot tis, lower part of glottis. hypospa dias, opening of urethra under penis, hypostat'ic, lit. standing under. Gravitation of blood from defective circulation.
226 THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE.
meta- [/Jtzzd) before consonants, inel- {/jlst) before vowels, and viet/i- (/^s^') before the aspirate k. A prepo- sition kindred with the Sanskrit viithu, together, German init, and English with and amidst. A secondary mean- ing \sfrom one place to another and after. metabolism, casting or changing about, from ixeza^dDxo,
to exchange, metacar'pus, part of hand next to the carpus, metam'erism, a change in the arrangements of the parts [fiifw^) or atoms of a chemical com- pound. metamor'phosis, a change of form [aofxfij). metas tasis, a change of position, from fiedcarr^/ni, to
transpose, metatar'sus, part of foot next to the ankle, zaoao^. metopan'trum, the cavity {dvzpou) between the eyes, frontal sinus.
pan- ("«v), pant- (-avr') an adjective meaning all, every, like the Latin oninis.
panace'a, a cure-all, from dxiojiai, to cure, pandem'ic, a disease common to all people, Stj/io^. pantopho'bia, fear of all things, a symptom in some
forms of insanity, pantatro'phia, complete atrophy, as seen in dwarfs.
para- [-aod) before consonants, /«;-- {~a.f>) before vowels. A preposition kindred with Sanskrit para, back, and Latin per, through. The original meaning was, by the side of, with secondary meanings of by, near, wrong, abnormal, through.
paracentesis, a piercing through, fr. xei^zico, to bore, paraeesthe'sia, abnormal sensation.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE. 227
paral'ysis, a loosening at the side or an abnormal relax- ingr of muscles.
parame'nia, adnormal menstruation, vicarious menstru- ation.
parame'trium, parts near the womb, tissues of pelvis.
paraphimo' sis, a muzzling ^i/^w<T;C, back of the glans penis.
paraplas'tic, abnormal formation of tissue.
paraple'gia, an abnormal stroke, i. c. of lower