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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice BMC Psychol . 2026 Mar 4;14:505. doi: 10.1186/s40359-026-04308-9 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Impact mechanism of extracurricular physical exercise on prosocial behavior among adolescents and its gender differences Xiang yu Gu Xiang yu Gu 1 School of Physical Education, Guangzhou Sport University, Guangzhou, China Find articles by Xiang yu Gu 1 , Xiao Hua Gan Xiao Hua Gan 1 School of Physical Education, Guangzhou Sport University, Guangzhou, China Find articles by Xiao Hua Gan 1 , Bao Gen Zhang Bao Gen Zhang 1 School of Physical Education, Guangzhou Sport University, Guangzhou, China Find articles by Bao Gen Zhang 1, ✉ Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 School of Physical Education, Guangzhou Sport University, Guangzhou, China ✉ Corresponding author. Received 2026 Jan 5; Accepted 2026 Mar 2; Collection date 2026. © The Author(s) 2026 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ . PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC13067428 PMID: 41782048 Abstract Purpose Based on the theory of planned behavior and self-determination theory, this study explored the associations between extracurricular physical exercise and prosocial behavior among adolescents and the underlying mechanisms and gender differences using a cross-sectional survey. Methods Using data from the Chinese Adolescent Health Theme Database of 13,340 adolescents (average age = 14.3 ± 1.93 years; 6,965 boys, 14.3 ± 1.92 years; 6,375 girls, 14.3 ± 1.93 years), the study examined whether self-efficacy and autonomous motivation mediated the relationship between extracurricular physical exercise and prosocial behavior, and conducted a comparative analysis between genders. Results Extracurricular physical exercise was positively associated with prosocial behavior (β = 0.135, p < 0.001). Self-efficacy partially mediated the relationship between extracurricular physical exercise and prosocial behavior (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.064, 0.092). Autonomous motivation also partially mediated this relationship (95% CI: 0.063, 0.079). Extracurricular physical exercise was linked to adolescents’ prosocial behavior indirectly through a chain mediation of self-efficacy and autonomous motivation (95% CI: 0.018, 0.026). Conclusion Extracurricular physical exercise is not only directly associated with adolescents’ prosocial behavior but shows associations with it through the mediating effects of self-efficacy and autonomous motivation, as well as through their chain mediation. The association between extracurricular physical exercise and prosocial behavior appears to operate mainly through autonomous motivation in boys, and through self-efficacy in girls. Keywords: Adolescent, Exercise, Social Behavior, Self efficacy, Motivation, Sex Factors Introduction Wispe first introduced the concept of prosocial behavior in 1972, defining it as positive social actions (e.g., sharing, assisting, and cooperating) that occur during interpersonal interactions [ 1 ]. It emphasizes how individuals can benefit the society or others through their actions, reflecting a mindset of benevolence and social responsibility. Hence, it is regarded as a marker of individual mental health and a symbol of social civilization [ 2 ]. According to Kou et al., the optimal examples of prosocial behavior among adolescents across four dimensions are “helping,” “family behavior,” “enhancing friendships,” and “loyalty” [ 3 ]. Prosocial behavior contrasts with antisocial behavior, defined as actions that violate social norms, harm societal and public interests [ 4 ] or are not recognized by the majority of society, and have negative social impacts; these include harmful actions toward others or oneself (e.g., aggression, school violence, and self-harm) [ 5 ]. According to data released in China, cases of harm caused by adolescents’ antisocial behavior, such as school bullying, increasingly show a trend toward younger ages [ 6 ]. This is because adolescents are in a critical period of growth and development, with rapid increases in physiological and psychological changes leading to significantly enhanced subjective awareness; this often causes conflicts among individuals who hold different opinions [ 7 ]. In the absence of proper guidance, adolescents can adopt antisocial behavior. Therefore, promoting the development of prosocial behavior among adolescents is critical. Family and school are important environments for individuals to acquire prosocial values and behavioral tendencies [ 8 ]. Previous studies have mostly focused on family environment to explore the development of prosocial behavior in children and adolescents, considering factors such as parental emotional expression [ 9 ] and parental control [ 10 ]. Additionally, related research has examined the cultivation of prosocial behaviors such as caring for and understanding others through moral courses in schools, but the effectiveness of this approach has been shown to have certain limitations [ 11 ]. Physical exercise is considered as an embodied education method emphasizing holistic development of both mind and body; therefore, it has been widely used to explore its relationship with prosocial behavior. For instance, physical exercise was found to promote prosocial behavior among college students by enhancing team cooperation awareness and a sense of collective belonging [ 12 ]. Additionally, a study on the prosocial behavior of college students in sports institutions found that both individual and team sports can positively promote emotional intelligence and prosocial behavior [ 13 ]. In an exploration of teammate relationships among university basketball players, trust between teammates could induce prosocial behaviors such as understanding and trust [ 14 ]. It is thus evident that physical exercise has a significant positive impact on college students’ prosocial behavior [ 15 ]. Current research confirms the significant impact of extracurricular physical exercise on college students’ prosocial behavior; however, studies focusing on adolescent groups remain limited. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 1 (H1): Extracurricular physical exercise is directly associated with adolescents’ prosocial behavior. Theoretical integration and positioning of key constructs This study integrates social-cognitive and self-determination perspectives to examine the mechanisms that link physical exercise to prosocial behavior. Self-efficacy has been primarily conceptualized within Bandura’s social cognitive theory as an individual’s belief in their capability to execute courses of action. While it shares conceptual ground with perceived behavioral control in the theory of planned behavior, we focus on a broader competence belief. We posit that in the context of physical exercise, enhanced self-efficacy can address the “competence” need within the self-determination theory (SDT), thereby fostering more autonomous forms of motivation. Autonomous motivation, reflecting behavioral engagement driven by interest, value, or personal endorsement, is central to the SDT. As such, we propose a sequential process where exercise may bolster self-efficacy, which in turn supports the development of autonomous motivation, thereby ultimately being associated with increased prosocial behavior. This integrative framework underpins our proposed chain mediation model. Notably, Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior posits that self-efficacy is an individual’s subjective perception of the ease or difficulty of performing a particular behavior. The core idea of this theory is to explain and predict behavioral intentions through factors such as self-efficacy, thereby indirectly influencing the occurrence of actual behavior [ 16 ]. In a cross-sectional study of college students, regular extracurricular physical exercise was found to enhance their ability to achieve preset goals and strengthen the self-affirmation of this ability, increasing positive emotions and thus improving self-efficacy [ 17 , 18 ]. Additionally, extracurricular physical exercise helps create a positive body image for college students, thereby increasing their body satisfaction and self-efficacy [ 19 , 20 ]. Physical exercise can also cultivate adolescents’ self-control abilities, which are basic components of self-efficacy [ 21 ]. Research shows that emotional regulation self-efficacy can affect interpersonal and empathy efficacy, thereby prompting individuals to engage in more positive behaviors [ 22 ]. Existing literature confirms that in the social domain, adolescents’ self-efficacy is positively correlated with prosocial behavior [ 23 ]; adolescents with high self-efficacy exhibit more prosocial behaviors [ 24 ]. These studies indicate that self-efficacy is an important factor related to prosocial behavior, and the stronger an individual’s confidence and efficacy, the more likely they are to engage in prosocial behaviors. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis: H2: Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between extracurricular physical exercise and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. The SDT, proposed by American psychologists Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan in the 1980s, indicates that self-determined potential can guide individuals to engage in behavior that is interesting and beneficial for societal development [ 25 ]. Autonomous motivation refers to an individual’s ability to participate in an activity with complete self-control, choice, and self-endorsement, reflecting self-determination, intrinsic desire, thirst for knowledge, and sense of pleasure during the activity; this serves as the intrinsic driving force of personal behavior [ 26 ]. The theory suggests that the social environment must meet three basic needs, namely, autonomy, competence, and relatedness, to elicit individuals’ autonomous motivation [ 26 ]. During extracurricular physical exercise, students can freely choose sports activities based on their interests, satisfying their autonomy needs [ 27 ]. Through daily practice, students can improve their athletic skills to cope with various challenges in competitions, meeting their competence needs and significantly enhancing their self-efficacy [ 28 ]. While exercising, students receive instruction and guidance from physical education teachers, cooperate with classmates, and progress together, establishing close relationships that satisfy their need for belonging [ 29 ]. It is evident that extracurricular physical exercise can enhance students’ autonomous motivation from the SDT perspective [ 30 ]. This indicates a mutually reinforcing relationship between physical exercise and autonomous motivation. A study on adolescents’ engagement in prosocial behavior emphasized the importance of autonomous motivation over controlled motivation in predicting prosocial behavior [ 31 ]. When adolescents feel that exercise is self-chosen, they are more likely to internalize prosocial values and actively exhibit positive actions such as helping others [ 32 ]. Improvement in motor skills may be linked to adolescents reinforcing their sense of value through assisting others [ 33 ]. While exercising, an autonomously supportive exercise environment (such as a team atmosphere of mutual assistance) can strengthen a sense of belonging and elicit prosocial behaviors such as contributing to the team and cooperating [ 32 ]. A study based on SDT highlights the importance of autonomous motivation in maintaining sustainable happiness generated by participation in prosocial behaviors, indicating that autonomous motivation promotes prosocial behavior [ 34 ]. Related studies indicate a positive correlation between internal sports motivation and prosocial behavior, with individuals having high internal sports motivation more likely to exhibit prosocial behavior during physical exercise and less likely to engage in deviant behavior [ 35 ]. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis: H3: Autonomous motivation mediates the relationship between extracurricular physical exercise and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. During extracurricular physical exercise, adolescents can improve their motor skills and enhance their self-confidence through teacher guidance, autonomous or cooperative practice, and team competitions [ 36 ], bringing positive emotional experiences and thus enhancing self-efficacy. According to Bandura, self-efficacy influences the process of goal setting, often involving motivational factors. Individuals with high self-efficacy tend to set higher-challenge goals, reinforcing the psychological process of behavioral motivation. It not only stimulates motivation levels, but also determines the degree of individual engagement in activities. Higher self-efficacy is associated with individuals’ greater ability to cope with stress and adapt positively to challenges [ 37 , 38 ], indicating that students with higher self-efficacy have higher autonomous motivation for physical exercise, participate more frequently, and consequently interact more with classmates, strengthening prosocial behaviors such as understanding and helping. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis: H4: Self-efficacy and autonomous motivation have a chain mediation effect between extracurricular physical exercise and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. During adolescence, students’ sense of autonomy gradually strengthens, and noticeable differences emerge between boys and girls in terms of interest orientation, achievement motivation, social interaction, and willpower qualities [ 39 ]. According to the multi-level analysis by Spence et al., boys exhibit significantly higher self-efficacy than girls during adolescence, while girls’ self-efficacy is more closely related to physical activities [ 40 ]. Boys are more likely to experience enhanced self-efficacy when engaging in high-intensity, competitive, and stimulating activities, leading to a greater sense of achievement and satisfaction [ 41 ], which in turn fosters stronger autonomous motivation. Conversely, girls tend to experience more frustration in such high-intensity, competitive activities, leading to a greater reliance on extrinsic motivation [ 42 ]. However, in activities that emphasize rhythm and expressive elements, such as aerobics, girls can achieve higher self-efficacy and generate more autonomous motivation. This indicates that different types of extracurricular physical activities can result in varying levels of self-efficacy and autonomous experiences for different genders, potentially influencing their behavioral development. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis: H5: Gender differences exist in the mechanism linking extracurricular physical exercise to adolescents’ prosocial behavior. Figure 1 illustrates the model adopted in this study. Fig. 1. Open in a new tab Chain mediation model Methods Data source and participants China’s Adolescent Health Theme Database (DYH) primarily focuses on long-term research into adolescent health, collecting health-related data through field tests, survey questionnaires, and data collection methods. The data provided by DYH can support research in various fields such as physical fitness, mental and psychological well-being, nutritional diet, quality of life, social health, risky behaviors, and physical activity behaviors for junior and senior high school students. It can also provide data support for decision-making by educational management departments and the government. This dataset was collected through multi-wave surveys conducted annually during the 2015–2016, 2016–2017, 2017–2018, and 2020–2021 academic years. The database is provided by the National Population and Health Science Data Center, and scholars have published 19 papers to date which are fully open to the academic community, based on these data ( https://www.ncmi.cn/phda/dataDetails.do?id=CSTR:17970.11.A0031.202107.209.V1.0 ). The survey targets 186 schools in 17 cities in Shandong Province, involving a total of 99,327 junior and senior high school students. This study considered data from senior high school students compiled in the 2020–2021 academic year. To enhance data reliability, the authors excluded cases with partial missing variables, unreasonable answers, and unsuccessful follow-ups. The final sample size for this study was 13,340 students (14.3 ± 1.93 years), including 6,965 boy (14.3 ± 1.92 years) and 6,375 girls (14.3 ± 1.93 years). Students’ parents and guardians provided written informed consent for participation. This study was performed following the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. It was approved by the National Population and Health Science Data Center as well as the Ethics Committee of Shandong University (approval number: 20180517). Measurement methods Dependent variable The dependent variable of this study, adolescents’ prosocial behavior, was measured in DYH using 13 indicators assessing whether students engage in behaviors such as cooperating with classmates, actively helping classmates, understanding classmates’ problems and needs, and interacting with many peers. Each indicator was rated on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 to 5 (never occurring to occurring frequently), with higher scores indicating more frequent behaviors. These indicators were summed, the total score was divided by the number of items, and an average score was obtained. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.961, which is acceptable. From the distribution of adolescents’ 13 prosocial behaviors (Table 1 ), “able to actively help classmates” scored the highest, followed by “able to reach a consensus with classmates.” The lowest score was for “able to not lose one’s temper when angry or furious.” Overall, the scores for all 13 prosocial behaviors were above 3.0 on average. Table 1. Distribution of adolescents’ prosocial behaviors Items M Standard deviation Minimum value Maximum value Able to reach a consensus with classmates 3.939 1.056 1 5 Able to proactively help classmates 3.867 1.160 1 5 Communicate proficiently with classmates or join in conversations 3.867 1.121 1 5 Able to praise others 3.852 1.107 1 5 Understand classmates’ issues and needs 3.85 1.129 1 5 Interact with many peers 3.808 1.178 1 5 Effectively participate in group activities and discussions 3.775 1.179 1 5 Stay calm when problems arise 3.760 1.127 1 5 Appropriately join the activities that classmates are currently engaged in 3.722 1.140 1 5 Actively invite other classmates 3.710 1.163 1 5 Mostly can cooperate with other classmates 3.616 1.241 1 5 Appropriately request for help 3.608 1.134 1 5 Do not lose temper when angry or upset 3.458 1.210 1 5 Open in a new tab Independent variables The independent variables of this study were extracurricular physical exercise, self-efficacy, and autonomous motivation. All measurement scales used in this study were derived from the Chinese DYH, which is a validated and publicly accessible survey instrument widely used in adolescent health research in China. Extracurricular physical exercise was measured through five questions in the database regarding physical activity behavior (e.g., “In the past seven days, how many days did you engage in vigorous physical activity after school?” and “In the past seven days, how many days did you participate in sports activities after school?”). The answers were rated on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 to 5, with scores calculated as the average of the five questions. Higher scores indicated more frequent participation in sports activities. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.941, which is acceptable. Self-efficacy was measured by 11 questions, including “I am good in many ways,” “I have many friends,” and “I am as good as most people.” The answers were rated on a 5-point Likert scale with scores ranging from 1 to 5: “never,” “rarely,” “sometimes,” “often,” and “always.” The final self-efficacy score was calculated as the average of the 11 questions. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.846, which is acceptable. Autonomous motivation was measured by nine questions, including “Do you want to participate in sports activities?” and “Can I easily participate in track and field and ball games?” The answers were rated on a 4-point Likert scale, with scores ranging from 1 to 4. The autonomous motivation score was calculated as the average of the nine questions, with higher scores indicating stronger autonomous motivation. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.890, which is acceptable. It should be noted that the self-efficacy scale items reflect a general sense of personal competence and social self-concept, rather than exercise-specific self-efficacy. The autonomous motivation scale, while capturing willingness and perceived ease of participation, does not fully differentiate between the nuanced regulations outlined in the SDT (e.g., intrinsic, identified). These measurement characteristics have been considered in our interpretation of the results. Data analysis methods Statistical tools and methods Valid data were imported into the statistical analysis software SPSS 27.0, processed, and analyzed using descriptive statistics, reliability analysis, and other methods to test the validity and reliability of the data. After standardizing the data, correlation analysis and difference analysis were conducted to examine the intrinsic relationships among variables. The PROCESS plugin developed by Hayes [ 43 ] was used for mediation effect analysis; the Bootstrap method was applied to test the significance of regression coefficients, with p < 0.05 as the criterion for statistical significance. No covariates (e.g., age, socioeconomic status) were included in the mediation models, to maintain focus on the primary theoretical pathways. This analytical decision is consistent with the aim of testing the unadjusted relationships posited by our hypotheses. Common method bias test Since the data for this study were collected from students, it was necessary to conduct a common method bias test. Using SPSS 27.0, the study variables were included in exploratory factor analysis, and the Harman single-factor test method was applied to examine common method bias in the collected data. Nine factors had eigenvalues greater than 1; the maximum variance explained by a single factor was 16.46%, which is below the critical threshold of 40%, indicating no significant common method bias in the data. Results Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis Table 2 presents descriptive statistics and correlation results for each research variable. Extracurricular physical exercise, self-efficacy, autonomous motivation, and prosocial behavior were significantly correlated ( p < 0.01). Gender was also significantly correlated with extracurricular physical exercise, self-efficacy, autonomous motivation, and prosocial behavior ( p < 0.01). Table 2. Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis of each study variable Gender M ± SD Gender Extracurricular physical exercise Self-efficacy Autonomous motivation Prosocial behavior - 1 Extracurricular physical exercise 2.10 ± 0.603 -0.148** 1 Self-efficacy 3.58 ± 0.660 0.027** 0.107** 1 Autonomous motivation 3.02 ± 0.666 0.007 0.236** 0.538** 1 Prosocial behavior 3.68 ± 0.866 0.070** 0.134** 0.657** 0.550** 1 Open in a new tab M Mean, SD Standard deviation ** indicates significance at the 0.01 level (two-tailed), and * indicates significance at the 0.05 level (two-tailed) The mediating role of self-efficacy and autonomous motivation A bootstrap-based mediation analysis was conducted using Hayes’s macro (Model 6) to test chain mediation models. Extracurricular physical exercise was treated as the independent variable, prosocial behavior as the dependent variable, and self-efficacy and autonomous motivation as mediators in the chain mediation model. The regression results are presented in in Tables 3 and 4 , and 5 . Table 3. Regression analysis of variable relationships Result variable Predictor Adjusted R -squared F β t Prosocial behavior Extracurricular physical exercise 0.018 245.561 0.135 15.670 Self-efficacy Extracurricular physical exercise 0.012 154.593 0.107 12.434 Autonomous motivation Extracurricular physical exercise 0.332 3162.054 0.181 25.199 Self-efficacy 0.519 72.295 Prosocial behavior Extracurricular physical exercise 0.487 4211.300 0.016 2.431 Self-efficacy 0.509 69.081 Autonomous motivation 0.273 36.221 Open in a new tab Table 4. Regression analysis of variable relationships (for boys) Result variable Predictor Adjusted R -squared F β t Prosocial behavior Extracurricular physical exercise 0.017 119.509 0.130 10.932 Self-efficacy Extracurricular physical exercise 0.008 56.651 0.090 7.527 Autonomous motivation Extracurricular physical exercise 0.312 1575.416 0.179 17.880 Self-efficacy 0.513 51.387 Prosocial behavior Extracurricular physical exercise 0.479 2135.249 0.023 2.601 Self-efficacy 0.502 49.261 Autonomous motivation 0.275 26.334 Open in a new tab Table 5. Regression analysis of variable relationships (for girls) Result variable Predictor Adjusted R -squared F β t Prosocial behavior Extracurricular physical exercise 0.029 189.248 0.170 13.757 Self-efficacy Extracurricular physical exercise 0.020 129.542 0.141 11.382 Autonomous motivation Extracurricular physical exercise 0.341 1644.819 0.188 18.315 Self-efficacy 0.526 51.224 Prosocial behavior Extracurricular physical exercise 0.498 2106.405 0.027 2.905 Self-efficacy 0.515 48.298 Autonomous motivation 0.268 24.557 Open in a new tab The chain mediation model (Fig. 2 ) and results (Table 6 ) indicate an effect size of 0.022 for the association between extracurricular physical exercise and prosocial behavior (95% confidence interval (CI) of [0.004, 0.040]), which excludes 0. Therefore, extracurricular physical exercise was positively associated with adolescents’ prosocial behavior, supporting H1. Fig. 2. Open in a new tab Chain mediation model Table 6. Path results and bootstrap test Path Effect size Standard error Bootstrap 95% CI Effect proportion LLCI ULCI Extracurricular physical exercise → Self-efficacy → Prosocial behavior 0.078 0.007 0.064 0.092 40.4% Extracurricular physical exercise → Autonomous motivation → Prosocial behavior 0.071 0.004 0.063 0.079 36.8% Extracurricular physical exercise → Self-efficacy → Autonomous motivation → Prosocial behavior 0.022 0.002 0.018 0.026 11.4% Total indirect effect 0.171 0.010 0.152 0.189 88.6% Direct effect 0.022 0.009 0.004 0.040 11.4% Total effect 0.193 0.012 0.169 0.217 100% Open in a new tab The indirect effect via self-efficacy was 0.078, with a 95% CI of [0.064, 0.092], excluding 0, supporting H2. The indirect effect through autonomous motivation was 0.071 (95% CI = [0.063, 0.079]), also excluding 0, supporting H3. The joint indirect effect of self-efficacy and autonomous motivation was 0.022 (95% CI = [0.018, 0.026]), excluding 0. The total indirect effect was 0.171 (95% CI = [0.152, 0.189]), confirming the chain mediation of self-efficacy and autonomous motivation in the positive association between extracurricular physical exercise and adolescents’ prosocial behavior and supporting H4. The total mediation model accounted for a substantial proportion of the variance in prosocial behavior (R² = 0.487). The ratio of the total indirect effect to the total effect was 0.886, indicating that the majority of the association between exercise and prosocial behavior was mediated through the proposed psychological mechanisms. Gender difference analysis Boys and girls were analyzed separately using the macro program developed by Hayes. A bootstrap-based mediation analysis (Model 6) was conducted. Extracurricular physical exercise was treated as the independent variable, prosocial behavior as the dependent variable, and self-efficacy and autonomous motivation as mediators to explore gender differences in the pathways. The chain mediation model (Figs. 3 and 4 ) and the results for boy and girls (Tables 7 and 8 , respectively) reveal that the proportion of the “extracurricular physical exercise → self-efficacy → prosocial behavior” path was 42.7% for girls, compared with 34.6% for boys. This suggests that the association between extracurricular physical exercise and self-efficacy may be stronger among girls. For boys, the proportion of the “extracurricular physical exercise → autonomous motivation → prosocial behavior” path was 37.8%, compared with 29.8% for girls, indicating that the link between extracurricular physical exercise and autonomous motivation may be stronger among boys. Fig. 3. Open in a new tab Chain mediation model for boys Fig. 4. Open in a new tab Chain mediation model for girls Table 7. Pathways results and bootstrap test for boys Path Effect size Standard error Bootstrap 95% CI Effect proportion LLCI ULCI Extracurricular physical exercise → Self-efficacy → Prosocial behavior 0.064 0.009 0.046 0.082 34.6% Extracurricular physical exercise → Autonomous motivation → Prosocial behavior 0.070 0.006 0.059 0.081 37.8% Extracurricular physical exercise → Self-efficacy → Autonomous motivation → Prosocial behavior 0.018 0.003 0.013 0.024 9.7% Total indirect effect 0.152 0.013 0.127 0.176 82.1% Direct effect 0.033 0.013 0.008 0.058 17.9% Total effect 0.185 0.017 0.152 0.218 100% Open in a new tab Table 8. Pathway results and bootstrap test for girls Path Effect size Standard error Bootstrap 95% CI Effect proportion LLCI ULCI Extracurricular physical exercise → Self-efficacy → Prosocial behavior 0.108 0.011 0.087 0.130 42.7% Extracurricular physical exercise → Autonomous motivation → Prosocial behavior 0.075 0.007 0.063 0.088 29.8% Extracurricular physical exercise → Self-efficacy → Autonomous motivation → Prosocial behavior 0.030 0.003 0.023 0.036 11.7% Total indirect effect 0.212 0.014 0.183 0.241 84.2% Direct effect 0.040 0.014 0.013 0.066 15.8% Total effect 0.252 0.018 0.216 0.288 100% Open in a new tab Discussion Impact of extracurricular physical exercise on prosocial behavior This study’s results indicate that extracurricular physical exercise is positively associated with prosocial behavior among adolescents (β = 0.135, p < 0.01), thus validating H1. This finding aligns with the core tenets of social learning theory: individuals promote behavioral changes through learning from the external environment. Relevant studies indicate that systematic and organized physical exercise can enhance students’ awareness of rules, foster team collaboration skills, and thereby promote the development of prosocial behavior [ 44 – 46 ]. Extracurricular physical exercise may influence prosocial behavior through two pathways. From a social perspective, extracurricular physical exercise provides a suitable and flexible environment that helps adolescents interact with diverse individuals and actively explore life skills such as teamwork [ 47 ], problem-solving, and goal setting [ 48 ]. From a psychological perspective, teamwork and competitive scenarios in sports require individuals to perceive others’ emotions and adjust their behaviors, thereby enhancing empathy. Adolescents with high empathy levels generally participate more in physical exercise than those with low empathy, and this ability is directly related to prosocial behavior [ 49 ]. During extracurricular physical exercise, individuals need to communicate and collaborate with others to achieve common goals, which enhances their sense of collective honor and social belonging. The experience of teamwork can also translate into a willingness to make positive contributions to society [ 50 ]. Adolescents not only treat their teammates in prosocial ways but also become recipients of prosocial behavior from others [ 51 ]. The Global Status Report on Physical Activity 2022 shows that globally, 81% of adolescents aged 11–17 years engage in moderate to vigorous physical activity for less than onr hour per day, far below the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendation. Among the 133 countries included in the report, 104 had adolescent physical inactivity rates as high as 80%, with rates higher among girls (84.7%) compared to boys (77.7%), and higher in low-income countries (84.9%) compared to high-income countries (79.4%). The adolescent physical inactivity rate is 84.3%, with boys at 80.1% and girls at 89.1%, indicating a more severe situation in China. Given the strength of the direct effect (95% CI [0.004, 0.040]), and combined with WHO’s recommendation that adolescents should engage in at least 60 min of physical exercise daily, it is imperative to strengthen youth sports programs. First, schools should establish an interest–action–monitoring system to ensure adolescents’ rights to fully participate in extracurricular physical activities. Additionally, schools should create a strong sports atmosphere and foster a positive mindset among adolescents regarding the benefits of sports for physical and mental health. Second, leisure time should be scientifically arranged to encourage participation in sports activities, allowing adolescents to autonomously select the type of exercise based on their interests, hobbies, and the characteristics of different sports [ 52 ]. The mediating role of self-efficacy This study indicates that self-efficacy (95% CI = [0.064, 0.092]) played a partial mediating role between extracurricular physical exercise and prosocial behavior, thus validating H2. These findings are consistent with domestic research showing that adolescents who participate in extracurricular physical exercise experience a significant increase in self-efficacy [ 53 ]. Sports psychology research demonstrates that physical exercise behavior and self-efficacy mutually reinforce one another. Active participation in sports is positively related to participants’ self-efficacy, which gradually increases with greater exercise time and higher skill levels, thereby enhancing life satisfaction and promoting physical and mental health [ 54 ]. Extracurricular physical exercise may enhance self-efficacy, because students must continuously overcome physical and skill challenges [ 55 ]. Success in these challenges enhances their sense of control and confidence. This effect is particularly significant for students who frequently face setbacks, as it positively impacts their self-efficacy [ 56 ]. Bieschke defines self-efficacy as the assessment of an individual’s ability to implement specific behaviors to achieve desired outcomes [ 57 ]. From an agency perspective, self-efficacy motivates prosocial behavior [ 51 ], and high self-efficacy is positively associated with high prosocial behavior [ 58 ]. Individuals with high self-efficacy have stronger self-awareness, compare their existing knowledge and experiences with the current situation, and believe they can solve problems effectively. Consequently, they approach interpersonal relationships with more positive emotional states and are more inclined to engage in prosocial behavior [ 59 ]. Regarding gender differences, this study found that the mediating role of self-efficacy is more pronounced in girls. One theoretically informed interpretation is that, in the sports context, where girls may either perceive themselves or be perceived as physically less advantaged, improvements in self-efficacy through exercise could be particularly salient and thus show a stronger correlation with their exercise behavior [ 60 ]. They often receive more attention and encouragement from teachers, which enhances their sense of social identity and, in turn, strengthens their self-efficacy [ 61 ], leading to greater prosocial behavior among peers. In contrast, in extracurricular physical activities, differences in muscle strength and motor skill mastery [ 62 – 64 ] mean boys can complete tasks of the same difficulty more easily than girls. Consequently, girls experience a greater increase in self-confidence when overcoming challenges compared to boys. The mediating role of autonomous motivation This study indicates that autonomous motivation (95% CI = [0.063, 0.079]) partially mediates the relationship between extracurricular physical exercise and prosocial behavior, supporting H3. The research findings are consistent with the core views of SDT, which posits that social environments stimulate autonomous motivation by fulfilling three basic needs [ 65 ]. The non-mandatory nature of extracurricular physical exercise provides students with autonomy, allowing them to select activities based on their interests and personal characteristics. For example, boys may choose competitive activities such as basketball or soccer, while girls may opt for moderate-intensity ones such as jump rope or cheerleading. Overweight students can choose aerobic exercises such as jogging, which significantly increases their interest in physical exercise and encourages more active participation, demonstrating students’ leading role and satisfying their autonomy needs [ 66 ]. During the exercise process, improvements in students’ motor skills, such as increased shooting accuracy or more jump-rope repetitions within a given time, directly enhance their self-efficacy. Students achieve expected outcomes in this process [ 67 ], thereby meeting their competence needs. In team sports, interpersonal interactions teach students to cooperate effectively and contribute to the team [ 68 ]. Positive experiences gained through role identification and group support help improve social acceptance [ 69 ], satisfying their need for belonging. Therefore, extracurricular physical exercise is associated with higher levels of students’ autonomous motivation. During extracurricular physical exercise, students with strong autonomous motivation are more inclined to act according to their self-awareness and intrinsic values, including respect for themselves and others. They also tend to be more empathetic toward others’ difficulties, and are more likely to engage in prosocial behaviors such as helping, understanding, and problem-solving [ 70 ]. Another study revealed that autonomous motivation enhances adolescents’ prosocial behavior, indicating that stronger autonomous motivation leads to more frequent prosocial behavior [ 71 ]. From the perspective of gender differences, the mediating role of autonomous motivation is stronger in boys than in girls. One theoretically informed interpretation is that boys’ motivation for extracurricular physical exercise may encompass a higher proportion of intrinsic drivers (such as interest and the pursuit of mastery), aligning with aspects of autonomous motivation. During puberty, boys are more likely to associate winning competitions with gaining popularity. Studies on gender and the impact of individual and team sports indicated that boys placed more emphasis on “status,” that is, being better than others or defeating opponents, which satisfies their need for competence during competition [ 72 ]. Therefore, at the motivational level, the decisive factor for boys participating in extracurricular physical exercise is the ability to compete, gain social recognition, or face challenges [ 73 ]. This interpretation is cautiously offered within the theoretical framework of perceived competence and social reinforcement. Importantly, unmeasured factors such as the specific types of activities pursued, social context of the exercise, and broader cultural norms regarding gender and sport may also contribute to the observed differential associations. During puberty, girls participate in sports activities more often for purposes such as maintaining a good physique or reducing obesity. A complementary interpretation, informed by literature on body image concerns, is that for some girls, extrinsic factors like weight control or body image may play a more prominent role in motivating exercise participation, which aligns more with controlled forms of motivation [ 73 , 74 ]. According to SDT, based on the degree of self-determination, motivation is divided into autonomous motivation (intrinsic motivation) and controlled motivation (extrinsic motivation). Autonomous motivation refers to motivation with a strong sense of willingness to perform a behavior, whereas controlled motivation is driven by external or internal pressures [ 75 ]. Overall, in extracurricular physical activities, girls tend to be motivated by external factors such as weight control, appearance, agility, positive health, and stress management, whereas boys are motivated by performance and self-directed factors such as challenge, strength ability, belonging, and social recognition [ 73 ]. Therefore, research findings vary. The chain mediation effect of self-efficacy and autonomous motivation This study indicates that self-efficacy and autonomous motivation have a chain mediation effect between extracurricular physical exercise and prosocial behavior (95% CI = [0.018, 0.026]), thus validating H4. The findings from both boys and girls participant also support this result, with the proportion of the chain mediation effect being similar. The research results align with the basic psychological needs framework of SDT while integrating the behavioral regulation mechanisms of social cognitive theory: social environment → psychological capital → behavior performance. Extracurricular physical exercise provides students with an environment full of challenges and feedback, allowing them to experience success, failure, and ongoing challenges, which is linked to greater confidence in facing difficulties and higher self-efficacy [ 76 ]. The more actively individuals participate in extracurricular physical exercise, the higher their self-efficacy during this process [ 77 , 78 ]. High self-efficacy is theorized to be a foundation for the development of autonomous motivation and the internalization of extrinsic motivation, and it is also an effective way to transform external value requirements into self-driven actions [ 79 ]. Self-efficacy is associated with cognitive judgments about tasks and is a significant correlate of students’ persistence and enthusiasm for physical exercise. Students with high self-efficacy participate in exercise more frequently, exhibit greater autonomy in physical exercise, and are willing to invest more effort and enthusiasm into it [ 80 , 81 ]. Conversely, stronger autonomous motivation is associated with greater engagement in extracurricular physical exercise [ 82 ]. During extracurricular physical exercise, students transfer cooperative experiences from team sports to social contexts, thereby demonstrating more prosocial behaviors such as cooperation, understanding, and mutual assistance. Strengths and limitations of the study This study is based on the theory of planned behavior and SDT and uses a cross-sectional survey to explore the mechanisms linking extracurricular physical exercise to adolescents’ prosocial behavior. It further enriches the theoretical understanding of how sports influence adolescents’ healthy behaviors and provides practical guidance for the development of school sports. However, the study also has limitations that must be considered. First, longitudinal or intervention studies are crucial for testing the causal ordering of the proposed mechanisms. Second, research should differentiate between the types of physical activities (e.g., team sports vs. individual exercises) to understand their distinct effects. Third, future work could design and evaluate school-based motivational interventions grounded in SDT. Fourth, the use of secondary data limited our ability to assess the domain-specificity of key constructs (e.g., exercise self-efficacy vs. general self-efficacy) or to include the full spectrum of motivational regulations from SDT. This limitation should be considered when interpreting the mediation results. Fifth, while covariates were controlled for, the potential for omitted variable bias remains, and therefore the observed gender differences may be influenced by unmeasured contextual factors. Conclusions Extracurricular physical exercise is not only directly and positively associated with adolescents’ prosocial behavior but is also linked to it through the mediating effects of self-efficacy and autonomous motivation, including their chain mediation effect. For boys, the association between after-school physical exercise and prosocial behavior appears to be primarily explained by autonomous motivation, whereas for girls it is primarily explained by self-efficacy. Acknowledgements We thank the National Population and Health Science Data Center for providing access to the data. We also thank all participating adolescents, parents, and schools for their cooperation. Abbreviations SDT Self-Determination Theory CI Confidence Interval DYH Adolescent Health Theme Database IRB Institutional Review Board WHO World Health Organization Authors’ contributions Xiang Yu Gu contributed to the conceptualization, methodology, data analysis, and drafting the original manuscript. Xiao Hua Gan was responsible for data curation, investigation, and validation. Bao Gen Zhang supervised the study, provided resources, reviewed and edited the manuscript, and served as the corresponding author. Funding This research was supported by the Guangdong Provincial Sports Bureau Science and Technology Innovation Project (GDSS2024N106) and the Guangdong Province Characteristic and Innovative Project for Regular Higher Education Institutions (2025wtscx061). Data availability The datasets analyzed during this study are available from the National Population and Health Science Data Center repository: [ https://www.ncmi.cn/phda/dataDetails.do?id=CSTR:17970.11.A0031.202107.209.V1.0 ].Due to confidentiality and privacy protections for study participants, raw data are not publicly available but may be requested through the official website with a reasonable research justification. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Shandong University (approval number: 20180517). All procedures conducted in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments. Written informed consent was obtained from the parents or legal guardians of all adolescent participants prior to data collection. Participants’ anonymity was preserved throughout the study. 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