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Chuck of Beef
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
'Re'VUed E^dilion
PETERSBURG, N. Y. TOLEDO, OHIO
DANVILLE. ILLS.
OKLAHOMA CITY. OKLA. SAN JOSE. CAL.
COPYRIGHT, 1908
Bv S. L. Morse.
copyright, 1909 By The Success Co.
Copyright, 1913 By Success Company's
Branch Offices
/^.f^
Q)CI,A357243
TO
THE THOUSANDS OF PRACTICAL HOUSEKEEPERS,
READERS OF SUCCESS MAGAZINE,
AND OTHERS,
WHOSE DISCOVERIES ARE EMBODIED
IN THIS VOLUME
ONE CENT A WORD
We will pay for new household discoveries, including all practical recipes and processes, not contained in this volume, one cent a word for all we can use in future editions of Household Discoveries. Cor- rections of errors or misstatements, utilized by us, will be paid for at the same rate. If you have saved money or have been otherwise benefited by using one of our recipes, write us all about it.
Success Company's Branch Offices.
NOTICE
Household Discoveries is not offered for sale through the book stores, and can only be obtained ol our regular authorized solicitors or from the publishers direct. Anyone desiring a copy may address the publishers at address below and full information will be given by mail, or one of our representatives will be asked to call. We are al- ways in want of canvassing agents. The price of Household Discov- eries, because of its genuine worth (so apparent), sells the book readily and it always gives satisfaction. We will pay a good salary to the right person. The work is both pleasant and profitable.
Success Company's Branch Offices,
Petersburg, New York.
PREFACE
The main object of this book is economy. If rightly used, it will save a great deal of money in every household. It will also save time and labor, which are the equivalent of money.
The publishers have long felt that there is a great need for a new book of this sort upon the market. To be sure, there are a number of standard dictionaries and encyclopedias of appHed science. But these cost from five to ten dollars and upward. And they contain a great deal of information about commercial processes not suitable to household use. There are also a num- ber of popular books of recipes published. But most of these are old books. Others are made up scrapbook fashion by the republication of old material without proper editorial supervision.
In the course of the preparation of this volume, our atten- tion was necessarily called to the fact that a number of so-called " new " books republish, word for word, recipes and processes that have been formerly published in six or eight other books, some of which appeared before the Civil War, Recent science has introduced many new substances and processes then unknown. All these have been availed of in the present volume.
Moreover, the old-fashioned popular book of recipes leaves something to be desired in its manner as well as its matter. The enormous sale and reputation of a number of old books that contain some recipes of great practical value, but accompanied by comment which no sane person can possibly read without a sense of humor or a feeling of disgust, is the strongest possible evi- dence of the value of this kind of information. We believe that what has made these old books popular is their practical part and not their silly part. We believe that the public will approve a volume that sets forth what to do, how to do, and the reasons why, in simple, direct, and dignified language, and saves space for additional recipes and other information by omitting " horse- play " and all mmecessary remarks and commentaries.
This is a modem book. All who have owned or used one
vij
viii PREFACE
of the old-time books of recipes know that hardly a week passes that they do not find occasion to refer to it. They will, we be- lieve, appreciate the importance of having the latest and best information along these lines obtainable. Others, who have no good collection of this sort, will appreciate without argument the value of purchasing a new book rather than an old one.
Thus we feel that there is a universal necessity for Household Discoveries, and we have therefore put the price so low as to bring it within the reach of every family, in the confident ex- pectation of distributing at least a million copies throughout the continent of North America.
The Publishers.
INTRODUCTION
There are a number of other books of recipes, but the pres- ent volume is unique in three ways: what it contains, what it omits, and the way it is arranged.
WHAT THE BOOK CONTAINS
As to the f,rst of these three features, the title Household Discoveries is suggestive. We all have our own ways of doing things. We learn to do by doing. But we are all the time try- ing new ways, to save time, to save money, and to do things better. Every now and then, through a happy combination of circumstances, we make a " Discovery." We hit upon a better way than we have known before. Nothing pleases us more than to tell our friends about it. They in turn like to tell us ways they have discovered to do this or that. Women thus exchange household recipes. Men swap ideas on carpentering, painting, tinkering, and odd jobs generally. The value of these homely ideas thus passing throughout the country, from lip to hp, from friend to friend, and from neighbor to neighbor, is enormous. Some persons are able to store up large numbers of such practi- cal ideas in memory. Others keep notebooks or scrapbooks in which to record them. But the stock of most persons is limited to a few score or a few hundreds, whereas others, equally good, are in existence to the number of many thousands.
The present volume is made up of practical ideas of tliis character. More than twenty-five thousand persons contributed from one to half a dozen of their own tried "Discoveries." All were practical housekeepers. Their ideas were the direct product of their experience. They were proud of them and they had reason to be. The writer appreciated to the full the value of this material and obtained permission to edit it and prepare it for the press.
Valuable as are the " Discoveries " of practical housekeepers in themselves, they have, in their suggestiveness, an added value. They show what kind of information housekeepers need and want. But they also reveal the fact that many women of great practical experience lack scientific knowledge. It has therefore beeij jiecessary to supplement this wealth of ideas derived from
X INTRODUCTION
experience. And this has been done in two ways: First, the discoveries contributed by housekeepers have been carefully checked against the best scientific authorities, errors have been corrected, impractical ideas discarded. Second, the whole has been augmented by the addition of the most approved practical and scientific formula?. As a result, it turned out to be neces- sary to rewrite the entire volume.
" Discoveries " are usually how to do this or that. But many persons also want to know why. And all can work better if they understand the nature and properties of the various substances. These are of several sorts. In removing stains and spots, for instance, what to do depends upon the kind of fabric, whether animal or vegetable fiber ; its condition, whether white or colored, bleached or unbleached; the nature of the staining substance; and the nature of the cleanser to be employed. Hence, the na- ture and the properties of the particular kinds of substances in common household use are carefully stated. Distinctions are made, and closely adhered to, between the treatment of different classes of substances, as animal versus vegetable fibers and the like. Poisons, explosives, and other dangerous substances are recom- mended only with the proper cautions, and all possible safeguards have been thrown about the use, by ordinary persons, of the various recipes recommended.
WHAT THE BOOK OMITS
The second feature that makes this book unique is what it omits. The writer has closely examined about fifty thousand recipes contributed by housekeepers, and more than fifty pub- lished books of recipes (embracing all that have appeared in the Enghsh language in the past fifty or sixty years) or a total (including duplicates) of nearly one hundred thousand recipes. This book contains the cream of them all. It is hke apple butter boiled down from cider. It is sound wheat winnowed free from chaff. It was not necessary to leave out any good recipes that were adapted to household use. They are all here. Nothing had to be left out but waste words, dupKcates (the same thing said in another way), gush, and braggadocio.
A favorite way of padding books of recipes has been to oc- cupy more space boasting about the wonders the recipes will do than it takes to give the recipe and the directions. Nearly half of one of the most celebrated books of recipes is thus taken up with " Remarks " that are of no possible use to any- body. If the mass of trivialities contained in some of the most widely known tbooks of recipes now in use could be struck out
INTRODUCTION 3d
and the contents " boiled down " or " churned " or " winnowed " in a thorough manner, it would surprise everyone to find how little space the recipes themselves take up.
And a boiled-down book is much more valuable. The recipes are still the same and they are a great deal more convenient. By thus avoiding unnecessary words, all the best recipes for house- hold purposes extant have been combined into one volume. They are given on their merits in a plain, direct, and simple way. And full information is given in regard to the nature and properties of the various substances. Thus anyone can select the best recipe for a given use, and he will discover its virtues for himself with- out paying extra to read about them beforehand. " The proof of the pudding is in the eating thereof."
THE WAY IN WHICH THE CONTENTS ARE AERANGED
The third feature in wliich this book is unique is the way it is arranged. The contents are pictorial. Each chapter is a picture, or rather a series of moving pictures, from daily life. If a moving-picture machine could follow a good housekeeper around from morning until night, seven days in the week and fifty-two weeks in the year, and then throw the series of pictures thus taken upon a screen, the result would be similar to the con- tents of this volume. The book goes right with the housekeeper when furnishing and decorating all parts of the house, and makes a series of pictures that suggest what to do. It gives helpful pictures of the best method of heating, lighting, water supply, and refrigeration. It goes right through the day's work and makes pictures of the different processes, of the kindling and care of fires, dishwasliing, cleaning lamps, chamber work, and preparations for the night.
It goes through the week's work and makes a picture of get- ting ready for wash day by removing spots and stains from the linen and by dry cleaning all sorts of fabrics; of the different kinds of soap and how to make them; of wash day, ironing day, mending, sweeping and cleaning days, and all of their different processes.
It goes through the year's work also, the spring and fall house cleaning; the fight against moths, cockroaches, ants, fleas, mosquitoes, flies, rats and mice, and other household pests; and even takes up packing to travel or to move away.
And on wash day, for example, just when the picture is com- plete— including the piles of soiled garments, the utensils of the laundry, and the various soaps and other cleansing mixtures — aU of the recipes are given that can be found in any published
3tii INTRODUCTION
book of good repute and many " Discoveries " that have never been published elsewhere. Thus, a young bride — or an experi- enced housekeeper, too, for that matter — can take up the book the night before wash day and read over exactly the information she will need to put in practice on the morrow. Or the book can be kept at hand in the laundry closet and picked up with wet hands if need be. The cover (in one style of binding) is made of oilcloth and it will not be damaged in the least. What the housekeeper wants to know about any kind of housework can be found at the very time she wants it, and all in one place. Con- trast with this books that are arranged in a b c order like an encyclopedia, and you will see why Household Discoveries is, in arrangement, the most practical and convenient book of recipes ever published. ^
Take, for instance, the family workroom. It is a picture of what is needed to make a man handy about the house. Every- thing is described in such a simple way that anyone can fix up such a workroom and always have at hand paste, mucilage, glue, and cement for all kinds of uses ; paints and varnishes ; soldering tool and solder and other forms of simple metal work; oils and lubricators; and all sorts of similar contrivances. Every recipe and process is described in the simplest language. And this part of the book alone is worth, to the man of the house, many times the cost of the entire volume. It will save the family the price of the book several times over every^ year that it is in the house.
TJpwar3 of one Hundred thousand recipes include a great many different ways of doing the same things. And by omitting all waste words and boiling down everything to the last degree it has been possible to include more of these ways than any one person would be likely to want. It has seemed best, however, to include them all. Circumstances differ. And many men are of many minds. From the variety of the recipes given, it is be- lieved that any housekeeper or practical man can, in most cases, make up a recipe for a given purpose from what is at hand in the house or at any rate what can easily be had in the neigh- borhood. And thus the book is adapted to all parts of the coun- try, and to the use of every individual and family in the land.
The Author.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
PAQH
House Furnishing — Furniture — Wall Coverings — Floor Coverings — Curtains, Shades and Draperies — Miscellaneous Objects — Living Rooms — Sleeping Rooms — Dining Room — Kitchen, Storeroom, and Pantry — Small Economies 33
CHAPTER II
HEATING, lighting AND REFRIGERATION
Kinds of Fuel — Heating Systems — -Chimneys and Flues — Fire Extin- guishers AND Fire Escapes — Fireproofing and Waterproofing — Artificial Illumination — Coal Gas, Gasoline Gas, and Acetylene — Kerosene Oil — Ice and Refrigeration 69
CHAPTER III
HOME sanitation AND HYGIENE
Location of Buildings — Danger from Artificial Heating Systems — Water Supply — Disposal of Household Wastes — Eldjination of Flies 99
CHAPTER IV
infection and disinfection
Contact Infection — Disinfection — Standard Solutions — Fumigation or Gaseous Disinfection — Formaldehyde and Sulphur Fumigation — Additional Disinfection 132
CHAPTER V
prevention of communicable disease
Typhoid Fever — The Sick Room — Tuberculosis or Consumption — Small- pox— Vaccination — Chickenpox — Malaria — Yellow Fever — Hook- worm Disease — Foreign Diseases — Contagious Diseases of Animals. J47
xiii
xiv CONTENTS
CHAPTER VI
PREVENTABLE DISEASES OF CHILDREN
PAGE
Save the Babies — Health and Disease — Diseases of the Eyes — Digestive Disturbances — Soothing Sirup — Symptoms of Communicable Dis- eases— Infantile Paralysis — Cerebrospinal Meningitis — Diph- theria—Scarlet Fever — Measles — Chickenpox — Whooping Cough — Mumps — Parasitic Diseases 177
CHAPTER VII
the care of babies
Before the Baby Comes — The New Born Child — Save the Babies — Gen- eral Rules — Breast Feeding — Artificial Feeding — Milk Modifica- tion— Materials for Milk Modification — Bottle Feeding — Artifi- cial Foods — Other Foods for Infants — Drugs — Care of Milk in the Home 202
CHAPTER VIII
outdoor problems of the householder
The Lawn and Home Grounds — Flower, Fruit, and Vegetable Gardens — Trees and Shrubbery — Tree Propagation by Cuttings, Grafts and Buds — Pruning Orchard and Shade Trees — The Friends and En- emies OF Orchard and Garden — Clearing New Land — Concrete Construction — Preservation of Timber and Shingles — Good Roads — Lightning Conductors 237
CHAPTER IX
THE day's routine
Cleaning and Polishing Stoves — Dishwashing — Care of Kitchen Wares — Care of Glassware and Cut Glass — Steel Knives and Forks — Care of Silverware — Care of Sinks and Disposal of Garbage — Chamber Work — Care of Lamps 302
CHAPTER X
removal of spots and stains
Solvents for Spots and Stains — Kinds of Spots and Stains — Stains on White Linen or Cotton — To Remove Stains from Vegetable Fibers — To Remove Stains from Animal Fibers — To Clean Colored Goods — To Dry-clean Men's Garments — To Dry-clean Women's Garments — Cleaning and Care of Gloves — To Clean Feathers, Furs AND Straw — Bleaching Vegetable and Animal Fibers .... 324
CONTENTS xv
CHAPTER XI
WASH DAY
PAGE
Soap and Soap Making— The Laundry— Nature of the Process — Water FOR the Laundry — Labor-saving Methods, Washing Fluids, Etc. — Colored Goods — Laces and Lace Curtains — Silks and Satins — Woolens, Worsteds, and Flannels — Drying Clothes .... 355
CHAPTER XII
ironing day
Bluing and Sprinkling — Starch and Starching — Care of Ironing Utensils — Ironing — To Do Up Silks, Ribbons, and Woolens — To Do Up Laces and Curtains — To Mark and Store Linen 379
CHAPTER XIII
sweeping day
Utensils for Sweeping — Dust and Dusting — Hard-wood Floors — Rugs —
Matting — Oilcloth and Linoleum 391
CHAPTER XIV
house cleaning
Cleaning the Cellar — Cleaning the Attic and Closets — Cleaning the Chambers — To Clean Floor Coverings — Cleaning and Repinishinq Wood Floors — Cleaning Paint — Whitewashing — Paper Hanging — Care of Walls — Windows, Doors, Etc. — Cleaning and Care of Fur- niture— Cleaning Picture Frames — Cleaning Bric-a-Brac and Miscellaneous Objects — To Clean Marble, Brick, and Stone — Cleaning Kitchen Stoves and Other Metals — Packing . . . 401
CHAPTER XV
household and garden pests
The Clothes Moth — Carpet Beetle or "Buffalo Moth" — The House Centipede — The Common Cockroach or Croton Bug — The Bedbug — The House Flea — Rats and Mice — Black and Red Ants — The White Ant — The Common House Fly — The Mosquito — Orchard, Farm, and Garden Pests 445
FAGB
xvi CONTENTS
CHAPTER XVI
adhbsives, paints, and varnishes
Adhesives — Pastes — Mucilage — Glue — Cement — Special Adhesives — Spe- cial Purpose Cements — Paints and Painting — Uses of Paint — Speci- fications FOR Painting — Care of Paints and Brushes — Special Kinds OF Paint — Varnishing — Fixed-oil Varnishes — -Spirit or Lac Var- nishes— Volatile-oil Varnishes — Special Varnishes — Sealing Wax — Oils, Lubricators, Etc. — Furniture Polish — Solder and Solder- ing - 473
CHAPTER XVII
leather, ink, and miscellaneous
Tanning Leather — Tanning and Care of Leather — Boots and Shoes — Overshoes — Waterproofing Leather — Blacking Leather — Writing Ink — Marking Inks — Colored Inks — Special Inks — Care of Ink — Care of Jewelry — Glass and Ivoky — Gypsum, Alabaster, Etc. . 518
CHAPTER XVIII
the toilet and bath
The Skin — Baths and Bathing — Kinds of Baths — The Toilet — Toilet
Soaps — Medicated Soap — The Hands — Manicuring .... 539
CHAPTER XIX
toilet preparations
Toilet Preparations — Simple Home Preparations — Almond Milk Cream and Paste — Cold Cream — Aromatic Vinegar — Toilet Powders — Rouge — Essences and Perfumes 559
CHAPTER XX
hairdressing both for men and women
Dandruff and Shampooing — Hair Washes — Hair Tonics — Hair Oils — Hair Dyes — Other Hair Topics— The Beard, Mustache, and Shav- ing— Toilet Preparations for Men 584
CHAPTER XXI
THE TEETH
The Teeth — Dbntifbiceb — The Breath — Toothache — Toothache Rem- edies 603
CONTENTS xvii
CHAPTER XXII
FOOD VALUES AND ADULTERATIONS
PA OB
Human Nutrition — Dietary Standards — Kinds of Nutrients — Problems OF Diet — Meat in the Diet — J'ish as Food — Poultry and Dairy Products — Sources of Carbohydrates — Food Adulterations — Canned Vegetables and Fruits — Flavoring Extracts and Condi- ments— Baking Chemicals — Tea and Coffee — Dairy and Meat Prod- ucts 616
CHAPTER XXIII
preserving and canning fruit and vegetables
Canned Goods for the Market — Utensils and Materials — The Process- Preserves and Preserving — Small Fruits — Large Fruits — Purees AND Marmalade — Jelly Making — Canning Vegetables . . . 646
CHAPTER XXIV
vinegar, pickles, and pickling
Special Vinegars— Pickles and Pickling — Mixed Pickles — Pickled
Vegetables, Nuts, and Fruits 6GJ
CHAPTER XXV
preservation of meat and vegetables
Fermentation — Fresh Meat and Fish — Salting and Pickling Meat — Curing Hams, Tongues, and Bacon — Making and Keeping Sausage- Preservation of Cooked Meat — Trying Out and Storing Lard- Preserving, Testing, and Packing Eggs — Storing and Preserving Vegetables, Fruit, Nuts, and Herbs 691
CHAPTER XXVI
candies and candy making
Kinds of Candies— Boiling Sirup for Candy — The Seven Degrees — Cream or Fondant — Cream Candies — Fruit and Nut Creams — Bonbons — Taffy and Molasses Candy for Candy Pulls — Sirup Candies — Pastilles or Candy Drops — Candied Fruits, Fruit and Nut Candies — Caramels — Kisses and Marshmallows — Nougats — Popcorn Candy — Lozenges — Cough Candies — To Color and Flavor Candy — Ices and Icing — Honey and Beeswax 715
xviii eoNtENt^
CHAPTER XXVII
weights and measures
Weights and Measures — Linear or Long Measure — Square or Super- ficial Measure — Surveyor's and Land Measure — Cubic or Capacity Measure — Wood, Lumber and Board Measure — Measurement of Stone and Brick — Dry and Liquid Measure — Measures of Weight — Cooks' Table of Proportions — Circular Measure — Longitude and Time — Measures of Value — United States Money — English or Sterling Money — Metric System of Weights and Measures . . 747
CHAPTER XXVIII
beverages Coffee — Tea — Chocolate — Lemonades — Fruit Punches .... 789
chapter' XXIX
BREAD
Directions for Bread Making — Breads of a Large Variety — Small
Breads Made from Yeast 796
CHAPTER XXX
baking-powder breads
V-
Biscuits — Muffins — Gems — Waffles — Griddle Cakes — Pancakes — Scones
— Sour-milk Breads — A Talk About Baking Powder .... 809
CHAPTER XXXI
stale bread Toasts — Brewis — Griddlecakes — Croquettes 820
CHAPTER XXXII
sandwiches
How to Make Sandwiches — Sandwiches of Meat — Fish — Cheese — Nut
and Vegetables 824
CHAPTER XXXIII
cereals and flour paste Breakfast Cereals — Rice — Macaroni — Spaghetti 829
CONTENTS xix
CHAPTER XXXIV
CEREAL LEFT-OVERS
Rice Dishes and Breads — Macaroni^ — How to Utilize Cold Dishes . . 835
CHAPTER XXXV
EGGS
Poached — In Sauces — Fried — Soft Boiled — Souffl^is — Hard Boiled —
Omelets 840
CHAPTER XXXVI
soups
Directions for Soup Making — Stocks — Broths — Vegetable Soups —
Meat Soups — Fish Soups — Bouillons — Cream Soups — Chowders . 846
CHAPTER XXXVII
fish
How to Choose Fish — General Directions for Cooking — Methods for
Cooking Different Fish — Fish Dressings 861
CHAPTER XXXVIII
FISH left-overs
How to Use Remains of Cold Fish — Soups — Croquettes — Salads — How
to Cook Salt Fish 869
CHAPTER XXXIX
shellfish Clams — Oysters — Lobsters — Crabs — Scallops — Shrimps. . . . 875
CHAPTER XL
meats
How TO Market — Different Cuts — ^Best Methods for Cooking — Economy in Buying Large Cuts — Broiling — Braising — Roasting — Steaks — Tongue — Tripe — Kidneys — Heart 880
CHAPTER XLI
left-overs of beef
Best and Most Economical Ways for Cooking Remains of Beef — Hashes
— Stews — Deviled Dishes — Sandwiches 891
XX CONTENTS
CHAPTER XLII
LAMB AND MUTTON
PAGE
Roasts — Stews — Chops— Boiled — Kidneys — Liver 895
CHAPTER XLIII
lamb left-overs Lamb Left-overs 899
CHAPTER XLIV
VEAL
Roasts — Stews — Cutlets — ^Heart — Liver — Sweetbreads — Kidneys . . 900
CHAPTER XLV
veal left-overs Veal Left-overs 905
CHAPTER XLVI
PORK
Roasts— Chops — Ham Sausage 907
CHAPTER XLVII
pork and ham left-overs
Pork and Ham Left-ovebs 911
CHAPTER XLVIII
poultry
How to Choose Poultry — Dressing and Trussing — Braising — Roasting —
Casseroles — Pie — Turkey — Duck — Poultry Dressing ... . 913
CHAPTER XLIX
LEFT-OVER CHICKEN AND TXJRB:EY
Dainty Dishes Made from Cold Fowl 917
CHAPTER L
meat or fish sauces Meat or Fish Sauces 919
CHAPTER LI
vegetables
Classified Vegetables — The Value of Vegetables in Our Diet — Mar- KETUSTG — The Best Methods for Cooking — ^Lentils — Roots — Bulbs — Fruit Vegetables — Greens 922
%
CONTENTS xxi
CHAPTER LII
LEFT-OVER VEGETABLES
PAGE
Soups — Hashes — Soups — Souffl:es — Cubbies — Scallops 936
CHAPTER LIII
POTAtOE8
Boiled — Baked — Feied — Sweet Potatoes « 940
CHAPTER LIV
LEFT-OVER POTATOES
To Reheat Potatoes— Fried — Creamed — Hashed — Curried — Sweet Po- tatoes— Croquettes 943
CHAPTER LV
SALADS
How TO Make a Salad — Oil Mayonnaise — Boiled Dressings — French Dressings — Flavored Dressings — Salads of Vegetables — Meat — Fish — Poultry — Potato — Fruit 946
CHAPTER LVI
puddings made from stale bread and cake
Puddings Made from Stale Bread and Cake — Apple Puddings — Puddings
Made from Gelatin — Fruit — Tapioca 956
CHAPTER LVn
pudding sauces Hot and Cold Sauces 968
CHAPTER LVIII
frozen desserts
Directions for Freezing — Water Ices — Sherbets — Frappes — Punches — Frozen Fruits — Ice Creams — Mousses — Parfaits and Fruit Pud- dings— Sauces for Ice Cbeam— Glaces 971
CHAPTER LIX
puff paste
How to Make Puff Paste — Puff Paste Dainties — Plain Pastry fob Pies —
Pies of Every Variety — Mincemeat ........ 987
CHAPTER LX
cookies, cakes, and doughnuts Small Cakes of Every Sort — Cakes Made from Sour Milk ... . 994
xxii CONSENTS
CHAPTER LXI
CAKE
PAGE
How TO Make and Bake Cake — A Kitchen Table of Recipes — Butter Cakes — Sponge Cakes — Fbuit Cakes — Spice Cakes — 'Nut Cakes — Cakes Raised by Yeast 1001
CHAPTER LXII
cake fillings and icings
Cake Fillings and Icings 1014
CHAPTER LXIII
fireless cookery
The Advantages of a Fireless Cooker — How to Use It — Endorsement by Mrs. S. T. Rorer— Time Table for Cooking Various Foods — Rec- ipes for Cooking Various Dishes 1017
CHAPTER LXIV
favorite dishes in famous homes
Recipes from Mrs. Taft, Mrs. Sherman, the Wives of United States
Senators and the Governors from Various States .... 1024
CHAPTER LXV
SOME kitchen kinks
Kitchen Kinks . 1032
APPENDIX CHAPTER I
economical use of meat in the home General Methods of Preparing Meat for the Table 1039
APPENDIX CHAPTER II
cheese and its economical uses in the diet Kinds of Cheese Used in American Homes 1061
APPENDIX CHAPTER III
preparation of vegetables for the table General Principles 1083
INDEX 1115
CHAPTER I
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
HOUSE FURNISHING — FURNITURE — WALL COVERINGS — FLOOR COVERINGS — CURTAINS, SHADES AND DRAPERIES — MISCEL- LANEOUS OBJECTS — LIVING ROOMS — SLEEPING ROOMS — DINING ROOM — KITCHEN, STOREROOM, AND PANTRY— SMALL ECONOMIES
HOUSE FURNISHING
The subject of house furnishing is more imjiortant than is often realized. It lias a moral and social as well as an economic side. The relation is very close between the character, or at least the reputation, of men and their surroundings. Everyone is free to change his surroundings. Hence the furniture and the decorations of a house, and the condition of the house and grounds, are properly con- sidered an index to the character of its occupants.
Furniture, decorations, and other surroundings that are disorderly or in bad taste tend to keep refined and thoughtful people away from such homes. They have an even worse effect on the character of the in- mates. Those who live in such cir- cumstances become used to them, and no longer notice their badness. But the worst effect is upon the impres- sionable minds of growing children. Young children naturally take their own homes as models. What they see in childhood tends to fix their stand- ards for life. Hence, neat, tasteful, and orderly homes, but not neces- sarily expensive in their appoint- ments, have a very important educa- tional influence.
The problem of furnishing and decorating comes up in two ways: originally, as in the formation of a new home, in the furnishing of addi- tional rooms, or in moving into a new and larger dwelling; or, secondarily, in refurnishing from time to time, and purchasing additions to the fam-
ily stock, usually in connection with the semiannual housecleaning.
All of these occasions give rise to many problems that require good judgment. But these can usually be referred to a few simple rules that are not difficult to understand or to apply. Styles and fashions in these matters change more slowly than some other fashions, as in dress; but they do change, and while it is proper and desirable that the fur-
"Simpliciti/, Harmon!/, and Durabilitu."
nishings in the home should be to some extent original and express the individuality of its owners, it is nat- ural and convenient for everyone to conform in a general way to the ten- dencies of the times in which he lives. Hence it is important to know in what direction the current of thought is moving, so as to keep in advance or abreast of it, rather than to lag behind.
Simplicity, harmony, and durability
33
S4
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
are the keynotes of the modern tend- ency. The general intention seems to be to avoid everything that is super- fluous, everything that has a tendency to catch and hold dust or dirt, or to add to the discomforts and dangers of dust and dirt by quickly wearing out. Hence carpets are being large- ly replaced by hard-wood floors and rugs; wooden bedsteads, by beds of iron or brass; stuffed and upholstered furniture, by articles of plain wood or wood and leather. Wall papers are often discarded for walls tinted or calcimined with washable materials. " Bric-a-brac," flounces, valances, and all other superfluous articles are much less fashionable than formerly.
Good and Bad Taste. — The same trend can be seen in decoration. Wall papers in solid colors, and hard-wood floors or solid-colored floor coverings, with rugs of Oriental patterns, are preferred to the large figured carpets, rugs, and wall papers with their so- called " cheerful " or bright and con- trasted colors. Stuffed plush, and other upholstered articles of furniture
"Much Less Purchased than Formerly."
in bright colors, or large figured de- signs, are being much less purchased than formerly.
All this is a result of the Arts- and-Crafts movement originating in England with William Morris, invent- or of the Morris chair. A number of popular magazines are devoted to
these and kindred subjects, which oc- cupy a good deal of space in general periodicals of all classes.
Formerly there was little oppor- tunity for persons in small towns and remote rural districts either to be- come familiar with the right stand- ards or to obtain the more approved styles of furniture. But the general prosperity of recent years has re- sulted in many country homes being tastefully and elegantly furnished. The possibility of buying desirable styles on the mail-order plan has forced local dealers to keep better and more up-to-date stocks of all house- hold articles. Moreover, the great demand for simplicity of design has reduced the cost. There is now a good selection of household furniture in the less expensive grades upon the _same models as the most costly and tasteful articles.
FURNITURE
Furniture should be chosen for sim- plicity and durability. The most simple designs are usually the most artistic, and the most durable arti- cles are likely to be the most san- itary. Quiet and subdued colors and dull finishes are the most restful and generally satisfactory, although the high polish of such furniture as ma- hogany is preferred by many people. To produce a soothing and restftil ef- fect all the colors in a given room should be in harmony. The artistic quality that makes an article of fur- niture an object of beauty as well as of use should be sought in the lines of the design itself, rather than in additions by way of decoration. Cheap furniture stamped with scrolls and other designs in imitation of carving or the torturing of the natural lines of a piece of furniture into various fanciful knobs, curves, and scrolls, sometimes facetiously called " ginger- bread," have little to recommend them. The modern Craftsman and Mission styles of furniture indicate a change in the right direction. Not all of these designs are of equal value;
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
35
but for the most part they are simple, durable, and derive their beauty from their appropriateness and the natural lines on which they are constructed. Dainty white and gold spider-legged
"Modem Craftsman and Mission Styles.''
furniture has no place except in draw- ing-rooms of wealth and extreme con- ventionality.
Antique Furniture. — The craze for second-hand or antique furniture is, on the whole, rather absurd. Very few persons indeed are able to distin- guish a real antique from an imita- tion. Dealers in these goods may not only willfully deceive, but are often deceived themselves by persons who have so-called antiques, manufactured in America, shipped abroad and re- shipped to this country. The wood is not infrequently given the appearance of age by being buried in the ground, eaten with acids, or riddled with fine shot in imitation of worm holes.
Even the cloth or leather in which the goods are upholstered may be given the effect of wear by mechan- ical means, and the whole may be placed on the marljet by fraud in such a way as to suggest that the articles are heirlooms.
Modern furniture, made on the same models, can be obtained at nmch low- er prices, and is much more satisfac- tory than these supposed antiques.
But, as a rule, antique pieces are not desirable unless a room can be fui*- nished with them and can have all its appointments in harmony with the antique style.
Furnishing. — William Morris says: " Have nothing in your home that you do not know to be useful or believe to be beautiful." It is a good rule in furnishing a new home to buy first only what is absolutely necessary, and not to buy an article that is not im- mediately required because it is beau- tiful or cheap, or for any other rea- son. After living for a while with only the few articles that are abso- lutely necessary, it will be easier to see just what is required that will harmonize with the articles already purchased and their surroundings and help to make a satisfactory whole.
Moreover, the longer one lives with- out unnecessary furnishings the more he is likely to appreciate the wisdom of simplicity. Every new article pur- chased is a new care, and a few ob- jects of good quality in a room give a much more elegant effect than a large number of less desirable pieces. Hence there is no reason why any family, whether in the city or the country, cannot furnish their home in a thoroughly modern way that will always be in good taste and will be in good style for many years to come.
Refurnishing'. — It would, of course, very rarely happen that a family could afford or would wish to discard serv- iceable articles because they are not in good style or good taste according to present fashion. But as such arti- cles wear out and have to be replaced, or as additions are made from time to time, it is quite possible to refurnish in such a way that in comparatively few years the entire contents of the home will be modernized. Hence the importance of some knowledge of the subjects of harmony and color, sim- plicity, design, and durability in ma- terial and in modes.
Color Schemes. — Tlie most pleasing effects in decoration are obtaineo by treating each room or group of con- nected rooms in such j* w»J as to get
HOUSEHOLD. DISCOVERIES
a harmonious general effect or color scheme. And the color scheme must, of course, be chosen with reference to the purpose for which the room is intended, its shape and size, and the amount of sunlight it receives. Rooms can be so treated as to seem higher or broader than they are, the amount of liglit can be increased or subdued, and each room can be given a distinct tone and individuality appropriate to the uses to which it is put. This way of decorating does not necessarily cost any more than any other. It merely requires some knowledge and skill that can easily be acquired.
The basis of the color scheme is, of course, in the background provided by the wall and floor coverings and the woodwork. But aU the furnishings should be selected so as to form, with the background, a harmonious whole. Hence the subject naturally divides it- self into the separate topics of wood- work, wall coverings, floor coverings, and furniture. And the last topic can be best taken up in connection with each of the different rooms, as the liv- ing room, dining room, bedrooms, etc.
Color and Li^ht. — Some colors re- flect a large part of the light that falls upon them; others absorb it. The variouiS' shades of green are the great- est thieves of light. A dark-green wall will absorb about 85 per cent of the light; a dark brown perhaps 70 per cent; a light green, 50 per cent; an orange or yellow, 25 or 30 per cent; light blue, 35 per cent; and soft, deli- cate tints about 10 per cent. But of course these figures are only approxi- mate. Pure white absorbs about 15 per cent of the light thrown upon it. Hence suitable color schemes for rooms facing south that need toning down are greens or the dull shades of blue, ^cru, or tan.
For rooms facing west the lighter shades of green, with rose, terra cotta, or white, are appropriate. White enamel furniture with brass trimmings is suitable for such apartments.
North and east rooms require warm tones of yellow, with which yellow oak furniture harmonizes, or warm shades
of red, which harmonizes with Mission oak.
Most men would agree to Eugene Field's remark that " almost any color suited him, so long as it was red." Hence red is a suitable color for the furnishing of a man's room or den.
For the dining room, provided it is a bright, sunny room, a suitable color is blue or grayish blue, harmonizing with the tones of delft china. Or, if the dining room is less well lighted, a rich warm tone of yellow gives a sun- ny atmosphere to the room. But avoid yellow of a greenish or lemon cast.
For the hall, a suitable color is green. And for the living room, green or a warm shade of russet brown, to harmonize with the green of the hall.
Bedrooms should be preferably in light and delicate colors.
WALL COVERINGS
The materials commonly used for. wall coverings are chiefly of three sorts, paper, cloth, and paint, or washes applied direct to the walls. The last method is much more gen- erally used than formerly. Wall pa- pers are cheaper but less durable than cloth. Suitable tints and stains in water colors and calcimine are cheaper than either, and also more durable.
Wall Papers. — Perhaps the com- monest wall coverings are the wall papers of various grades, from the ordinary wood-pulp paper costing but a few cents a roll, to the highest grades of cartridge, ingrain, or duplex papers, imitations of leather, and other specialties.
Wall papers are very cheap, and anyone can readily learn how to hang them. Hence there is no reason why rooms should not be repapered as often as is necessary to keep them fresh and clean.
Wall papers are especially suitable to walls that are rough or uneven, and to walls of houses that are not suffi- ciently well built. By suitable treat- ment paper can be hxmg on almost any wall, and it assists in keeping the rooms tight and warm.
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
37
Colors and Patterns. — The plain cartridge, ingrain, or duplex papers in solid colors are the most approved and among the most satisfactory wall pa- pers, especially for living rooms in general use. The absence of any pat- tern or design brings out in full relief the pictures upon the walls and other ornaments, and helps to give a quiet air of luxury to the apartment. But these arre somewhat more expensive than ordinary wall papers, and require a smoother wall surface and better care in hanging. The edges must be trimmed on both sides and " butted," or brought together side by side, tight enough not to show the wall between them, instead of being overlapped, as with ordinary papers. Otherwise the thickness of the paper would make a ridge which, on account of the solid color, would be plainly visible. This requires some skill, but with a little practice can be done by anyone. The edge should be trimmed with a sharp knife by means of a straightedge rather than with shears.
Next to the ingrain papers, the two- toned or double-toned papers, having a subdued pattern in another shade or tint of the same color as the ground- work, are preferred for the living room.
Good taste demands the selection of a paper having a comparatively small and simple design, and without large figures or striking and glaring con- trasts of color. Large-figured papers deprive pictures and other ornaments of all artistic effect and make the wall, which should be merely a background, stand out obtrusively.
How to Choose Wall Paper. — The effect of wall papers cannot be well judged from small samples. Hence when possible choose from the stock itself and have two or three widths unrolled side by side to get the gen- eral effect. Remember that vertical stripes make a room seem higher than it is, that large figures and dark col- ors make it seem smaller, and that a simple design in natural outlines, as a landscape or flowers and foliage^ has perspective and tends to give an effect
of greater width. Hence it may be suitable for halls or narrow apart- ments.
Figured papers in dainty patterns, as poppies, roses, or other natural blossoms, are more suitable for bed- rooms than for living rooms. They can be selected to suit almost any kind of color scheme. Solid colors seem to make the walls retire; hence they give the effect of broadening and enlarging the apartment. This is especially true of the lighter shades. Mother Goose and other figured papers in suitable designs may be had for children's rooms and nurseries, imitation leather for dining rooms and halls, and water- proof oilcloth papers for bathrooms, kitchens, etc.
Ceilings. — Various desirable effects may be produced in wall coverings by the treatment of the ceiling. Low rooms may be given an effect of great- er height by the use of a two-toned paper in narrow, vertical stripes, car- ried clear to the ceiUng without a
" Vertical Stripes Carried Clear to the CeiJivg."
border, and by fastening the picture molding as close to the ceiling as it will go. On the other hand, rooms that are too narrow in proportion to other dimensions may be given a bet- ter effect by lowering the picture molding one to two feet or more and papering up to the molding, but not above, the upper part of the wall be- ing whitewashed or calcimined in the same materials as the ceiling.
Ceilings that have rough or crooked
38
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
places which cannot be repaired may be hung with a paper of the same quality as the walls, but usually of a lighter tint. The border may be put on around the edge of the ceiling in- stead of around the top of the wall, thus giving the room the effect of greater height.
Or ceilings may be whitewashed or calcimined, or tinted with water col- ors, with or without stenciled borders or frescoes.
Dadoes. — The effect of any room may be improved by a chair rail around the walls three feet from the floor. Suit- able material can be procured from dealers in picture moldings. This will, of course, be painted the same color as the woodwork.
On the wall below hang cotton or linen cloth previously painted with boiled linseed oil and well dried, or cheap ingrain paper, and when dry paint this wall covering the same color as the woodwork.
Or this dado may be developed with picture molding, the corners being mitered the same as picture frames. With the aid of a homemade miter- box anyone who is handy with tools can do this work.
Test for Wall Paper.— To test green wall pa^er for the presence of arsenic in dangerous quantities dip a sample in aqua ammonia. If arsenic is pres- ent, the paper will turn from green to blue.
Or light a piece of the paper with a match, and when burning briskly blow it out. The presence of arsenic ma_y be detected by an odor similar to that of garlic.
Wall Coverings — Cloth. — ^^^arious grades of prepared cloth wall cover- ings are obtainable, as silk, linen, and burlap. These are more expensive than paper, and are objected to by some on the ground that they catch dust and are tmsanitary, unless regu- larly swept and dusted every day. But these materials when of good quality are very durable, and furnish perhaps the most artistic of all backgrounds for pictures and other decorations. Burlap is more suitable for outer halls
or rooms furnished with heavy oak or Mission furniture. Silks and linens harmonize with mahogany and with the lighter and more graceful furni- ture of parlors and drawing-rooms.
To Color Walls. — The Arts-and- Crafts movement is introducing the custom of tinting walls in waterproof
" Stencil Added Above."
colors without the use of cloth or pa- per hangings, either in solid colors or with the addition of designs by means of stencils. The wall is usually tinted in a solid color, and the stencil added above the picture molding by way of border.
"Protected hy Means of a Dado."
Or the walls may be painted for half or two thirds of their height and
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
39
sanded and tinted above, a light molding of simple design being used to divide the two surfaces. The molding should be painted the same coloi* as the woodwork.
Or a chair rail and painted dado may be used, and the waUs tinted above.
Stairways. — Paper for stairways may be the same as the hall paper. It often becomes soiled along the bot- tom, and may be protected by means of a dado about three feet high car- ried around the hall and up the stairway, and surmounted by a light wooden molding painted to corre- spond to the adjacent woodwork^
FLOOR COVERIITGS
The principal kinds of floor cover- ings in common use are rugs of vari- ous kinds, both Oriental and domes- tic; carpets, and oilcloths, including linoleum. Of carpets, the most im- portant in the order of their value and desirability are Chenille Axmin- ster, Wilton Axminster, Moquette, Velvet, Brussels, Tapestry Brussels, Ingrain or Kidderminster, two or three ply, Venetian, and old-fash- ioned rag carpet.
Chenille Axminster is an imported carpet, consisting of worsted chenille woven in strips upon a jute backing. It comes three fourths of a yard wide in rolls, and may also be obtained in whole rugs or carpets specially de- signed for any kind of room. Thesj are imported, principally from Scot- land.
Domestic Axminster and Moquette are much alike. They have a thick, high, tufted pile, which is very dur- able. The Axminster is usually of better material and construction than the Moquette. The groimdwork of these carpets is jute or cotton. The pile consists of tufts of soft woolen yarn fastened upon the groundwork so as to make the design. As each color in the design of these carpets is furnished from a separate roll, acting independently, any number of colors may be employed. Hence the most
elaborate patterns and shadings of color may be had in these carpets.
Wilton and Brussels are made upon a groundwork of linen with a face of worsted in raised loops. In Brus- sels carpet these loops remain uncut, whereas in Wilton they are cut and the pile is sheared smooth. These loops are formed of woolen threads of continuous colors which, to form the design, are thrust through the warp threads at intervals by means of wires. As each color comes to the surface independently of the others, the de- signs are exceptionally clear and per- fect, but the number of threads that can be employed conveniently is lim- ited ; hence there are fewer colors and much less shading in these carpets than in Axminster or Moquette.
Velvet and Tapestry Brussels are constructed on the same principle as Wilton and Brussels, except that the worsted threads which form the sur- face are not of continuous colors, but have the colors forming the design printed upon them before the fabric is woven; hence, without any addi- tional expense, any number of colors may be employed. For this reason the designs of Velvet and Tapestry Brussels are much more* elaborate in color and shading than the Wilton or Brussels carpets. Tapestry carpets are more commonly used than any other kind except Ingrains, and hence they give rise in this country to the most important branch of carpet manufacture.
Ingrain or Kidderminster carpet is the only kind of which both warp and woof is of wool. Hence it may be turned and worn on either side, al- though it shows a right and a wrong side in point of color. Its name of " Kidderminster " is derived from the city in which it was formerly manu- factured on a large scale. The names "Ingrain" and "three-ply" arise from the fact that there are two grades, one of which consists of two layers interwoven or " ingrained " to cause the colors of the design to change or mingle, whereas the other has three layers similarly put together.
40
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
Venetian is made on a coarse ground of hemp filling with a woolen warp. It usually comes in stripes and is largely manufactured for stair cov- erings.
Oilcloth consists of a foundation of burlap covered with a number of coat- ings of coarse paint. The pattern is printed on the surface with wooden blocks, one for each color. Oilcloth may be obtained in any width from three feet to twenty-four feet, but is ordinarily sold in narrow widths and mediiun weights.
In purchasing oilcloth first look at the back and choose a grade of cloth the background of which is closely woven. Next see that the coating of paint is of good weight or thickness, and choose a cloth having a smooth surface rather than one which is coarse or has a raised pattern. These portions are the first to wear.
Oilcloth improves with age as the paint hardens; hence select, if pos- sible, a piece which has been a long time in stock.
Linoleum is a coined word for a floorcloth consisting of a mixture of oxidized linseed oil and pulverized cork. This is laid upon a foundation of coarse burlap and made to adhere by pressure. Linoleum was invented by an Englishman, William Walton, and was formerly sold at rather high prices on account of a monopoly in the use of the patents in the United States. The patents have now expired and linoleum is being sold in competi- tion with oilcloths for floor coverings. It presents a better appearance, is much more durable, and hence is cheaper in the long run. Oilcloths and linoleums, if of good quality and properly laid, are perhaps the best of all floor coverings for kitchen, pantry, laundry, or any other room where wet or greasy substances are likely to be spilled or where there is a great deal of wear. A good grade of linoleum in a solid color also makes a desirable background for Oriental or other rugs as a substitute for a hard-wood floor.
To Lay Oilcloth. — The floors of many rooms, especially in houses that
have been standing for many years, become very rough. The cracks widen, and some boards wear or settle more than others, making the surface un- even. This condition presents two difficulties: the cracks admit draughts from beneath, and the sharp and un- even edges wear the floor coverings. Linoleums and oilcloths being stiff and brittle are especially liable to wear and break along these cracks; hence, before laying these floor coverings, put down a number of thicknesses of newspapers. These will also prevent the floor covering, when heated by the sun or by the heat of a stove, from sticking to the floor.
Or use carpet felt or cai'pet linings obtainable from dealers for this pur- pose.
Or cover the floor evenly with saw- dust by working it into the cracks as much as possible.
Or spread over the floor a rather thick coating of fine dry sand.
Any of these methods makes a solid filling that increases the life of the oilcloth many years.
To Varnish Oilcloths. — Oilcloth and linoleum may be much improved in appearance, and also indefinitely pre- served by an occasional coat of var- nish. To apply a fresh coat once in three months is not too often. This freshens the colors, prevents the oil- cloth from cracking, and, by lessening friction, makes it much easier to clean. If linoleum is used as a background for rugs in bedrooms or living rooms it may be painted, in imitation of va- rious colors of wood, with any of the modern varnish paints which contain stains, and dry with a smooth, glossy surface. When so treated a good lino- leum makes an imitation of a hard- wood floor, which can hardly be ex- celled either for beauty or durability. It is especially useful in those cases where a large rug is used for the cen- ter of the room with an open border about it. It is, of course, much bet- ter in such cases to cover the entire room with linoleum, and to lay the rug upon this.
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
41
To Renew Linoleum. — Old pieces of linoleuin may often be made as good as new by first washing them with a strong solution of sal soda, ammonia, and soapsuds to remove the original color. Then apply a coat of any good light-colored paint, and lay over this any desired color of varnish paint in imitation of the woodwork. Instruc- tions as to what paint to use may be had from the dealers. Always allow paint and varnish to become thor- oughly dry and hard before walking upon it.
Use of Floor Coverings. — Floor cov- erings doubtless originated in the use by our primitive ancestors of the skins of animals as rugs, and the earliest floor coverings used by civilized na- tions were in the form of rugs. This usage still continues in the Orient.
The later custom of manufacturing carpets and other floor coverings in long, narrow strips, to be joined to- gether, grew out of the desire to cheapen the process of naanufacture by adapting the size of the fabrics to the uses of the loom. The custom of covering the entire floor of a room with carpet or other floor covering doubtless arose, in great degree, from the desire to cover cracks, knots, and other unsightly defects in cheap and badly made floors, to prevent soft- wood floors from wearing, and also to lessen draughts from the cracks be- tween floor boards.
The present tendency among well- to-do people is back to the original idea of scattering rugs upon a smooth, polished surface. The ideal floor is undoubtedly of hard wood, properly laid and highly polished. This is the most sanitary, durable, and beautiful of all floors. It is the easiest to clean, and furnishes an ideal foundation as a basis for any interior decoration. The growing wealth of farmers as a class throughout the great central West and elsewhere, by reason of im- proved machinery and modern scien- tific methods of agriculture, has re- sulted in the building and furnishing of many homes having floors of this sort in the smallest towns and rural
districts throughout the United States. Moreovei", modern means of transpor- tation, as trolley systems, interurban electric railways, automobiles, and the upbuilding of local telephone systems, have promoted the building in rural neighborhoods of a vast number of summer homes. There is hardly a community in the United States where modern houses constructed with pol- ished hard-wood floors and furnished with Oriental or domestic rugs as floor coverings is not to be seen.
Another great educator has been the periodicals devoted to home making and especially catering to the class of suburban residents above mentioned. These models have set the fashion for bare floors and rugs, and there is no doubt but that as time goes on this custom will become increasingly popular.
Hard-wood floors may be laid under certain conditions over old floors, and be all the better for having another flooring beneath them, but they are somewhat expensive. Hence numerous ingenious methods have been used to secure the same result by imitation.
To Imitate Hard-wood Floors. — Ob- tain a suitable hard-wood filler, and
"Apply a Good Stain."
press it into the cracks in the floor according to directions. Take care to
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
smooth the filler exactly level after the cracks have been filled. When this substance hardens, the floor will be smooth and even, and all danger from draughts will be permanently done away. Next apply a good stain of any desired color to match the wood- work, or apply a suitable paint mixed with varnish that will dry, leaving a hard, smooth, glossy surface.
Soluble Glass for Eloors. — Instead of the old-fashioned method of using wax for polished floors, etc., soluble glass is now employed to great advan- tage. For this purpose the floor is first well cleaned, and then the cracks are well filled up with a cement of water glass and powdered chalk or gyijsum. Afterwards a water glass of 60° to 65°, of the thickness of sirup, is applied by means of a stiff brush. Any desired color may be imparted to the floor in a second coat of the water glass, and additional coats given until the requisite polish is obtained. A still higher finish may be given by pumicing off the last layer, and then putting on a coating of oil.
Or denim of good quality in solid colors may be laid upon the floor as a background for the rugs. But when this material is used the rugs must be large chough and numerous enough to cover most of the surface and receive the greater part of the wear.
Or use heavy building paper pasted smoothly to the floors, and apply to this two or more coats of varnish paint. This material wears well and presents a good appearance.
Or heavy unbleached cotton or denim may be treated by tacking it against a building or laying it on a floor which is not in use, and applying with a paint brush one or two coats of lin- seed oil. After this is dry, apply a coat of varnish or " lac " paint, let dry and apply a second coat. After- wards apply a coat of varnish. Let the cloth dry thoroughly before using. This is a good and cheap substitute for oilcloth and linoleum for kitchen floors and all other purposes.
Or matting may be used, especially in bedrooms, sewing room, sitting
room, and even in the parlor if the rugs are of the right size and number and of sufficiently good quality.
Or the floor may be covered, espe- cially in the sitting room, where there is more or less tracking in of mud and dirt, and in bedrooms, with a good quality of linoleum, which may be stained and painted in imitation of a hard-wood floor, or to correspond with the woodwork.
The great advantage offered by the bare wood or a smooth surface such as linoleum is that it can be readily kept clean and free from dust, dirt, and all sorts of vermin. Rugs may be taken up and beaten out of doors and thoroughly aired on the line, and every particle of dust and dirt can be readily removed by wiping over the floor with a damp cloth drawn bag -fashion over the head of a broom. Good rugs, both Oriental and domes- tic, are no more expensive than the same grades of carpet, and their use is to be decidedly recommended for artistic and sanitary reasons as well as from a labor-saving standpoint.
Denim. — Denim is perhaps the most generally popular floor covering as a background for rugs when cost is taken into account. But it is not, of
ipiiiiii
ill |!|»!
f
"Filling . . . Transfarmed into Rugs."
course, as durable as carpet, and does not come in fast colors. When partly worn, however, denim may be woven into rugs or converted into carpet rags. Filling. — An all-wool ingrain " fill- ing" in greens and other solid colors is another popular floor covering much used as a background for rugs. This is very durable, but like denim tends to fade in comparatively few years, and must then be redyed or trans- formed into rugs.
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
4S
To Choose Carpets. — The effect of design in carpets is much the same as in wall paper. Large patterns tend to make a room seem small, and bor- ders about the carpet have the same effect. The present tendency favors carpets in solid colors or having small and delicate patterns. Large patterns and all sorts of glaring contrasts of color should be avoided. Both very- dark and very light carpets are diffi- cult to keep clean, and carpets con- taining blue, green, or other delicate colors, when exposed to sunlight, tend to fade.
As to color, carpets should, of course, harmonize with the general color scheme of the room. But as they cannot be changed as frequently as the wall coverings, they should, as a rule, be in neutral colors that will harmonize with almost any other scheme that may be adopted.
A point in favor of carpets having small patterns is that the two webs of which the carpet consists are much more closely interwoven if the design is small than if the pattern is a large one. Hence the carpet having a small design is likely to be more durable. Moreover, where there are no large patterns to attract the eye the results of wear are not so noticeable.
As to material, ingrain or three-ply carpets being of wool and capable of being turned and worn on both sides, probably give most wear for the money of any carpets on the market. But Brussels and tapestry carpets, which are somewhat more expensive, are also, on account of their beauty and excellent wearing qualities, in very general use.
Rag Carpet. — This is the cheapest carpet of all and can readily be made on a hand loom at home. It makes a thick and serviceable covering for the floors of kitchen or living rooms in winter. To make rag carpet, use a warp of strong cotton thread, and weave in any kind of rags twisted into small rolls.
To Color Eag-carpet Warp. — First use a strong cotton yarn reeled into skeins of five knots. About one skein
to the yard of carpet will be required, with about three knots additional for binding at the end of each breadth.
For tan color first soak the warp thoroughly with lime water; next boil it in a brass or copper kettle in a strong solution of extract of hemlock bark in water. This is used by tan- ners for making leather, and may be obtained through a tanner or dealer in dye stuff.
For black color soak the warp in strong copperas water instead of lime water, and use iron or tin vessels in- stead of brass or copper. Afterwards boil in the hemlock solution.
For slate color use weaker solu- tions of copperas and hemlock.
For brown use a weak solution of copperas and a strong solution of hemlock. Thus, by a little experi- menting, the shades of color may be varied at will.
Carpet Rags. — The contents of the rag bag should be first picked over, and rags intended to be used as car- pet rags shoiild be washed and ironed and afterwards ripped apart. Seams and worn spots should be rejected. They should then be sorted according to the colors of materials, and if not needed at once, stored away for fu- ture use in paper bags. Woolen rags should be protected against moths by pasting the tops of the bags together.
Rags of fast and satisfactory col- ors need not be dyed. But better effects may often be obtained by dye- ing all rags to suitable colors.
To cut carpet rags, trim around the outside of the rag, clipping off square corners, and continue cutting round and round until the rag is all cut up. By this means small pieces may be utilized, the rags will be of satisfac- tory length, and will require less sew- ing. Cotton rags and rags of fine dress goods make a smoother and bet- ter-looking carpet than rags of heavy woolen colors. Hence the latter had better be kept separate and made into rugs or kitchen carpets.
The quantity of rags required for a carpet may be estimated by weight. For each yard one and one half to two
HOUSEHOLD. DISCOVERIES
pounds of rags, depending upon the material, will be required. In sewing, it is better to mix the different shades of the same color so that the stripes will be of an even and uniform shade. Thus the breadths will present the same appearance. But if the pepper- and-salt pattern is desired all the colors may be mixed together. For this kind of carpet short pieces may be utilized. Rag carpets also come by the piece and may be bought in shops by the yard, the same as others. But when made at home or woven to order they can be ordered to fit the room, the breadths being made exact- ly to measure and bound up at the ends. Allowance in ordering should be made for shrinkage, as the breadths tend to become a little shorter and wider with wear.
To Cut Carpets. — Before cutting a new carpet, unroll a little more than twice the length of the room, double this in the middle so that the edges will come side by side, and work it back and forth so as to match the pattern at a length a little longer than that of the room. The required num- ber of strips can thus be cut in such a way that the pattern will be matched exactly without waste.
Try 'both ways on the floor before cutting, as it may be more economical to cut the lengths for the short way of the floor. Any pieces wasted in matching the pattern may be used to make rugs or foot stools, or to fill in recesses.
To Sew Carpets. — Sew with the through-and-through stitch, very close together.
Straw Matting. — ^When purchasing straw matting it is advisable to buy the best grade of fine white or uniig- ured matting for all rooms alike; thus as it wears out it can be readily matched or replaced by putting good matting from two rooms together in one.
Matting Rugs. — Cut suitable lengths of matting and hem with twine string for use as summer rugs. Two or more breadths may be attached together if desired to make wide rugs. Use plain.
or apply paint, or stain of any desired color. A large square rug can be made in this way to occupy the center of the flooi-, a border being made by l^ainting or staining the floor, or cov- ering with green denim or drugget.
Rag Rugs. — Very durable and use- ful rugs may be made of all sorts of old rags in the same fashion as a rag carpet, or by braiding, or they may be knitted or drawn through burlap or canvas as in embroidery. Small pieces may be utilized by commencing at one side and cutting the width of a car- pet rug almost to the end, then turn- ing a corner and cutting along the side, and so going around the outside until the piece is cut up. After clip- ping off the square corners the rag will be foiuid to be of convenient length. Carpet rags should be wound 'into balls of uniform size. They catch less dust, and do not become tangled. When ready to tack them, have a sew- ing bee, or run them up on the sewing luachine. This will enable you to do them very quickly.
Old stocking legs make especially pretty rugs.
To Make Drawn Rugs. — First pre- pare a frame by nailing together four pieces of lathe or other light pine stuff, and stretch on this a piece of strong burlap or coarse canvas. Pre- pare the rags by cutting them in a uniform width of one half inch or less, and wind each color in a separate ball. Draw the rags through the burlap by means of a hook, that can be extem- porized from a piece of wire. Insert the hook from above between the warp and woof of the burlap, and draw the rag up from below so as to form loops projecting at uniform heights above the burlap. This is the prin- ciple upon whicli Axminster carpet is made. A design may be traced on the burlap by means of chalk or char- coal, and the outlines drawn with two or three rows of rags in different col- ors. A little experience will indicate how closely together to draw the loops, which should project a half inch or less above the burlap. If desired, the loops may afterwards be clipped, as
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
45
is done with the Wilton carpets, by means of a sharp pair of scissors.
CURTAINS, SHADES, AND DRAPERIES
The use of curtains originated be- fore the invention of glass, when win- dows were either open or imperfectly protected against draughts. They originally hung straight down across the sash.
At present the object of window shades and curtains is primarily to regulate the amount of light in the room, and to screen the interior, when desired, from observation from with- out. It is a prime rule of good taste in decoration that it must not be al- lowed to interfere with the purpose for which a thing is intended. Hence curtains and draperies that cannot be drawn aside to admit the light, or let fall to exclude it, are objectionable. Curtains for French windows shovdd be arranged with cords and pulleys so as to be brought out of the way when the windows are opened, or ad- justed on rods long enough so that they can he drawn to one side.
Window Curtains. — Some city houses have three or four sets of
"Simpler Methods . . .Are Gaining Favor.**
curtains, but the simpler methods of country houses are gaining in favor. One set is suflBcient, and more than
two are undesirable. A thin semi- transparent curtain of lace, net, or muslin, in white or ecru, may be used next the glass. This may either be crossed at the top and hang straight down or be draped at the middle sash with a band. This is a question of taste and depends upon the propor- tions of the room and the window. When an inner curtain of heavy ma- terial is used the lace or net curtain should usually be draped to soften the outlines. Lace or net curtains are usually, but not always, used down- stairs, and less expen^jive curtains of muslin are used for bedrooms and other upstairs windows.
Materials for Window Curtains. — Lace curtains may be purchased ready made. Or curtains may be made of bobbinet or similar material and edged with ruffles or suitable lace. Or Cluny lace may be used by way of insertion. Plain scrim, with no other decoration than hemstitched hems, makes hand- some curtains. They launder easily and well. If they bleach with time they can be restored to their original color by being dipped in dilute coffee. The best materials for bedrooms are dotted Swiss or other muslins. Other serviceable materials are India linen, Aberdeen linen, Persian cotton, cre- tonnes, and linen taflPetas. The reps of various fabrics — cotton, wool, and silk — all hang well and are soft and graceful.
Any suitable material may be scal- loped along the edge by means of a tumbler. Mark around this with chalk or pencil. Buttonhole the scallops and work in them polka dots or other sim- ple design.
Muslin Curtains. — For bedroom curtains it pays to buy various cotton materials like dimity and muslin bj' the piece, and to make them all the same style. It is wise to keep to the same pattern, as dots or small rings, and to buy new pieces the same a^ the old, or as nearly so as they can be matched. Then new curtains can be used with the old. As the curtains begin to wear they can be put to- gether as pairs, or changed from
46
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
room to room as long as any two are left.
Or when curtains from the living rooms wear on the edges, trim them off, hem them neatly, and turn the edged border toward the sash. They will make good curtains for bedrooms or other inconspicuous windows that will last for years.
Dyeing Curtains. — All cotton mate- rials can be readily dyed by dipping them in dye stuff after they have been washed and rinsed in the laundry. Thus the curtains can be made to conform to any desired color shade.
Cheese cloth when dyed in suitable colors makes pretty and inexpensive curtains. Hemmed bands or borders of striped silkoline or other suitable material add a decorative effect. Dark green trimmed with a stripe in Orien- tal design and coloring makes a very pretty curtain.
Or take cheese cloth or unbleached sheeting which may be any old mate- rial as old sheets, from which pieces of suitable size can be cut for cur-
" Decorative Border in Oil Paints."
tains, and dye them in any suitable shade. White cotton dipped in a deep brown dye and afterwards in a deep green gives a beautiful gray-green color.
Or unbleached cotton sheeting can be stenciled or hand painted with a decorative border in oil paints thinned slightly with turpentine, and thus given a very artistic effect. Cut the curtain wide enough so that the inner
edge of each pair may be turned over eight inches. Fold this strip top and bottom into squares. Mark the squares by means of a stencil and paint any design to form the border.
To Hang Lace Curtains. — To hang lace curtains without assistance, first adjust the pole; throw the top of the curtain loosely over the pole; then, by means of a common pin or tack, fas- ten each scallop to the skirting board just above the carpet or along the floor. The curtain may then be drawn up rather firmly over the pole so that when the pins are removed the cur- tain will have been stretched just enough to lift it off the floor. This, without jumping down to look, in- sures the curtain hanging evenly.
To Mend Lace Curtains. — To mend delicate lace and net curtains when fliey first show a tear, take very fine thread and a hook and fill up the space with a single crochet stitch. When laundered the mend will defy detection.
Or when lace curtains are much worn, take one or two of the worst for patches, and after the others are laundered cut a patch to match the design of the torn part, dip it in thick starch, lay it carefully over the rent, and iron it down. The starch wUl cause it to adhere until the curtains are laundered again. Strips of net or illusion may also be used in the same way.
Sash Curtains. — Use p'artly worn muslin or silk curtains for sash cur- tains. The tops and bottoms of old curtains that have not had the direct rays of the sun will usually be found best for sash curtains. The middle part can be discarded. Make a wide hem top and bottom through which to run the rod. A wide hem is not so likely to tear, and the curtains can be used either end up. Slip a rounds headed hat pin into the hollow of the rod to run them in the hems, and they will pass easily through. Rods may be fixed inside the sash so as to be elevated with the window and not to lean against the screen. Cords tacked across the window will prevent the
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
47
sash curtain from beating against the screen.
Or instead of rods use quarter-inch iron wire painted over with gold paint or otherwise gilded or silvered. This makes the wire look better and pre- vents it from rusting. This wire is suitable for shams, mantels, and closet curtains, and many similar purposes in house decoration. It answers the same purpose as brass rods, and is much cheaper. It can be purchased at any hardware store, cut to any de- sired length.
riour Sacks. — Large flour sacks may be utilized for sash curtains by carefully washing out the print and finishing with a suitable design in fancy work.
Curtains for Broad Windows. — Di- vide a broad, low window, or two win- dows together, by running two shelves across, one at the top of each sash. Paint or stain these to match the woodwork. Fit sash curtains to both shelves by means of rods or quarter- inch iron or copper iron, and hang
"Divide a Broad Low Window."
from brass rings. Let the hangings match the woodwork or conform to the color scheme of the room. The upper shelves may be treated as a plate rail, and the lower shelf may hold pots of ferns or other green plants.
Window Shades.— A double set of window shades — an inner dark shade to harmonize with the color scheme of the room, and an outer white shade — are desirable, but both are not neces- sary. It saves carpets and other things from fading to exclude the sunshine when a room is not in use, and also assists in keeping sunny rooms cool in summer. Hence, a dark or tan shade is to be preferred, unless the house is fitted with blinds. In that case only the white shade is necessary.
To Renew Window Shades. — Trim off the soiled or worn part at the bot- tom, make a new hem, and put back the stick. To do this lay on an iron- ing board, curled side down, th^ part of the shade that has been curled up over the roller and press it with a hot iron. This makes it easy to turn a hem, which may be stitched on the sewing machine. Let the stitch out as far as it wiU go so that the fabric will not pucker.
Or, if the shade is too short to trim, change the ends by opening the hem at the bottom, taking the shades from the roller and tacking the bottom of the shade to the roller. Make a new hem and put back the stick.
To Hang Window Shades. — To ad- j ust the spring on new window shades, roll them tight, fasten them into the sockets, and draw them down full length. Take them out of their sock- ets, roll them up again by hand, and again draw them down until the spring is as strong as desired.
To Prevent Blowing' Window Shades. — To prevent the window shades from being drawn out at the top of the window or blowing back and forth when the upper sash is low- ered for ventilation, attach the cord from the bottom of the shade to the back of a chair, and move it a suffi- cient distance from the window to give a free circulation of air under- neath it.
Substitute for Window Shades. — To economize on window shades, the upper rooms of a house may be fitted with shades of white cotton, having the selvage on one side and a very
48
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
fine hem on the other. By the addi- tion of a little glue size or gum ara- ble to the starch, they can be made very stiff. They look from outside almost equal to ordinary shades of Holland linen. They can, of course, readily be laundered when soiled.
Draperies. — Portieres and other draperies must be selected with due regard to the size and shape of the room, as well as to the color scheme. Heavy, thick drapferies make a small room look close and stuffy. But light, airy hangings are equally out of place in a large room. To im- prove the effect of a room that is too narrow and high between joints, or a room having too high and nar- row doors and windows, lower the window shades twelve or fifteen inches from the top and fill in the
'Lower the Bod."
space with a grill, a rope network, a shirring of silk, or similar decora- tion. If the doors open outward, or if a door is taken down and hung with draperies, lower the rod twelve or fifteen inches and fill in above with shirred silk or silkoline to harmonize with the portieres or draperies.
Or run a shelf or plate rack across the top of the door on a level with the top of the window shades; by these means the room is made to seem lower and larger in proportion to its height.
Or lower the curtain from the pole by means of cords to match the dra- pery. Lace over the pole and through the hooks on the pins.
Portieres. — In addition to the vari- ous grades of draperies on the mar- ket, burlap and other suitable fab- rics may be made up for this purpose at much less expense.
Or brown leather scraps may be purchased from bookbinders at a few cents a pound, cut in strips about half an inch wide, and tied in lots after the manner of carpet rags. These make very cheap and effective 'draperies for libraries and living rooms.
Choose preferably materials that will not catch and hold dust more than is necessary, and avoid flounces, fringes, and tassels coarse enough to allow dust to accumulate in them. It is a good plan in summer to take down heavy draperies, shake and clean them, and pack them away un- til fall in a moth-proof box or chest. They will last longer, and the house will be much cleaner, more airy, and comfortable without them.
Or, if desired, replace the winter draperies with cheap draperies of dark green or other color of burlap. Lower the pole a foot or more from the casing to let the air pass through, and let them swing clear of the floor.
Curtain Hings. — Rub the curtain poles occasionally with a rag dipped in kerosene oil to make the rings slip easily.
To Clean Draperies — Draperies and tapestries hung upon the walls may be cleaned by pouring gasoline into a shallow pan, and brushing them M'ith this by means of a soft brush or whisk broom.
LIVING BOOMS
The old custom of setting apart a "best room" or parlor to be used only
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
49
on special occasions, as for weddings, funerals, or the entertainment of com- pany, is happily passing away. Only very wealthy people now have draw- ing rooms reserved for state occa- sions. The present tendency is to call all the lower rooms of the house "liv- ing rooms," and to have all the mem- bers of the family use them freely. A room set apart from ordinary use, and hence shut up much of the time from sun and air, is not good for the physical or moral health of the house- hold. Hygiene demands that sun and air should be admitted freely to all parts of the house. The furnishings themselves, if good care is given them, will be improved rather than injured by ordinary wear, and guests will receive a far pleasanter impres- sion from the easy and graceful at- mosphere imparted to a room by daily use, than from the stiff and formal restraints imposed by the old- fashioned parlor. A hostess who takes her friends into a sitting room and tells them frankly that she pre- fers to "live in her own parlor" will have more friends than critics. The arrangement is plainly for the good of the family, and all who visit such a home will enjoy being taken into the wholesome family life.
When possible, it is pleasant and convenient to have two living rooms thrown together by folding or sliding doors, with a grill and portieres or other suitable draperies across the opening. The effect of many country homes could be greatly improved by cutting an arch or square opening abowt the width and height of two ordinary doors placed side by side or slightly wider, so as to throw two living rooms into one. Suitable fold- ing or sliding doors, while desirable, are not necessary, as the oj^ening can be closed by means of heavy hang- ings sliding on a rod,
"Front Room." — Large houses and ample means will, of course, suggest other living rooms, as the library, music room, a special sewing room, and the like. But these are neither necessary nor possible in ordinary
households, and the "front room" may be made not only more habitable but also more attractive to callers and guests by the presence of a piano or other musical instrument, and by low bookcases built along the walls, three or four shelves high, to hold the family collection of books, and stained or painted to match the woodwork. Tlie top of these book- cases may be finished by a shelf about breast higli, or slightly lower, on which plaster-of-Paris casts, vases, or flowers and other appropriate ob- jects may be displayed. A "front room" having the walls hung with suitable cloth or paper in solid col- ors, or two-toned shades of brown or green, with shades of green or tan, and hangings to match the M^all cov- erings; a hard-wood floor waxed and oiled, or floor stained or painted in imitation of hard wood, or a solid- color floor covering of denim or in- grain filler, with rugs of Oriental patterns and appropriate furniture, will have a. distinctly modern and artistic atmosphere.
Couch. — Couches and sofas having a raised headpiece or arms at either end are giving place to plain couches, after the fashion of the Oriental di- van, without head or arms, and cov- ered by appropriate couch covers. An ordinary folding canvas cot bed and a common cotton top excelsior or hair mattress thick enough to pre- vent sagging in the middle is really superior to a sofa or davenport cost- ing much more money. Imitation Bagdad or other suitable couch cov- ers in cotton fabrics are inexpensive, and a row of fancy pillows can be readily made of washable material at slight expense. Thus the entire couch and furnishing may be had at the cost of but a few dollars.
On the otlier hand, by purchasing an iron or steel couch with wire- spring top and hair mattress, and adding a real Bagdad or other Ori- ental couch cover and pillows to cor- respond, a couch may be had that will be in keeping with the most lux- urious surroundings.
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
Center Table. — Have a low center table, with a reading lamp or a hang- ing lamp suspended over it, drawn out from the wall, and covered with books and periodicals, so that all the mem- bers of the family can gather about it. Cover this with a suitable cloth to harmonize with the color scheme of the room. The opportunity thus sug- gested of drawing up a number of chairs invites- just the sort of infor- mal social life that is so much needed in every community, and that cements the family bond as well as strengthens the ties of neighborliness.
work are graceful, comfortable, and satisfactory. Of course, mahogany and
'Have a Low Center Table.
Tea'Table.— Have, if possible, in one corner of the room a small, low table with an alcohol lamp and suitable tea things for making a cup of tea with- out going for it to the kitchen. This simple expression of hospitality gives a note of good cheer that is much needed in modern social life. There need be no formality suggested by a cup of tea offered to a caller even in the most quiet neighborhoods, and having all of the needful articles at hand helps to give the serving of tea an air of grace and naturalness.
Chairs. — Select chairs as other fur- niture for simplicity and durability, and avoid complicated affairs such as the patent rockers, carved or stamped furniture, and all elaborate designs and decorations. Tlie lines of the Morris chair suggest ease and comfort, and they are to be strongly recom- mended. Chairs of willow and wicker
" The Lines of the Morris Chair."
other hard woods will be selected by those v/ho can aiford them. As to design, the Colonial models and the Craftsman and Mission styles of furni- ture are among the most satisfactory.
Taboret. — The low stand or taboret holding a graceful fern or other potted plant in a suitable jardinifere adds an agreeable touch of grace and color to the living room.
Music. — 'The modern invention of the mechanical piano player has un- locked many a dusty piano and opened the whole world of music to thousands of homes. Heretofore the cost of a musical education has restricted the natural love of music in most families to but a few simple hymns and tunes that almost anyone could play. Hence the piano need no longer be regarded as necessarily confined to homes where some member of the family has a pro- nounced musical talent. Certainly nothing signifies more, with the pos- sible exception of a collection of good books, than a musical instrument in the family living room.
Care of Piano.— To keep the piano or organ in good condition, arrange to have the atmosphere of the room dry, but not too dry, and at a moderate and even temperature. If the atmos- phere is damp, there is a tendency for the wires to rust and the keys to stick. A dry heat without any moisture in the air will tend to check the varnish and also to injure the adjustment of a musical instrument. Hence, if rooms are heated by hot air, hang a smaii galvanized iron pail containing water
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
51
from the under side of the register, so that the heated draught in coming up will bring a small amount of mois- ture with it.
Or, if gas or coal stoves are used for heating, place a suitable vessel of wa- ter on the top of the stove. The slight resulting moisture will be beneficial to all the furniture, although the piano will perhaps suffer most from the lack of it. The slight humidity is also good for the health of the family.
Do not stand the piano close against an outer wall, which may be damp or chilled from frost in winter, and if pos- sible keep it out of a direct draught. If an upright piano, tack a dust cover of denim or other suitable material across the back to exclude dust, leav- ing flaps wide enough to be thrown over the piano when sweeping. These can hang down behind the piano when not in use. Take care that no small articles laid on the keys find their way inside of the instrument. Have a mu- sic cabinet, so as to keep the top of the instrument free from books and sheet music. Keep the piano closed when not in use, and have it tuned three or four times a year, or oftener, if necessary. If it is not kept up to pitch it will not stay in tune when required. An hour or two of practice on a piano each day will keep it in the best condition. But, if possible, every key on the keyboard should be struck at least once daily.
Care of Sheet Music. — Have a music cabinet, homemade if necessary, with shelves large enough for a piece of sheet music, and close enough together to admit of keeping the pieces classi- fied. Bind two or more pieces of mu- sic of the same general kind together as desired by means of brass brads sold by stationers. The use of these is very simple. Lay the sheets one upon the other in the order desired, cut a slot top, bottom, and middle a half inch from the back edge with a penknife, insert the brad and turn down the edges.
Or, to bind music together, take a piece of strong manila or other tough paper two inches or more in width.
and as long as the music is high. Fold this lengthwise in the middle and paste one side to one piece of music, the other to another. Run over this with a hot flatiron to insure its dry- ing quickly and evenly without wrin- kles. If the sheets tear apart, insert a similar strip between the torn sheets, and when all have been reenforced in this way take a similar strip of tough paper or muslin wide enough to go round the back of the whole collection and lap over an inch or more on either side. Slush the back well with paste or glue, lay on this strip, rub down tightly, and let dry under a weight. A manila folder or cover the same size as the music itself may be " drawn on" in a similar way to correspond to the cover of a bound book.
Pictures — Good and Bad Taste. — A good illustration of what to avoid is found in the family photographs en- larged by the carbon or imitation nas-
"Much Less Seen than Formerly."
tel process, and surroimded by massive frames at the recommendation of en- terprising manufacturers, whose prof- its are in proportion to the size of the frame and the elaborateness of the molding. Only the eloquence of the venders could give such pictures even a temporary popularity, but they are seen everywhere. Family photographs should be, as a rule, confined to sleep- ing apartments rather than displayed in living rooms, and much better re-
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
productions can be had in smaller sizes than upon a large scale. Carbon and other reproductions have little deco- rative value, and even when enlarged should be framed as simply and un- obtrusively as possible. This work can usually be done at a lower rate and of a better quality by a local photog- rapher. The difference in expense will usually furnish the living room with a good photographic reproduction of one of the masterpieces of the world, that will be equally interesting to strangers and instructive to the in- mates of the home. Happily, public taste is rapidly improving in these matters. Heavy and elaborate mold- ings with intricate designs made of putty and covered with gilt paint, or oak molding stamped in imitation of hand carving, and the like monstrosi- ties are much less seen than formerly. The object of picture molding is, of course, twofold — to protect and to de- fine the picture ; hence the frame itself should be unobtrusive and should in no way attract the eye to itself. If the wall coverings are in solid colors or quiet two-toned effects, and the picture frames are simple and appro- priate, the picture itself stands out in all of its natural beauty. Thus the object 'Is attained for which the pic- ture was hung. A few pictures of reasonable size and real merit, simply but appropriately framed, give a much more artistic eflfect than does a wall crowded with a large number of sub- jects among which those that are in- ferior must necessarily suffer by con- trast.
Pictures to Choose. — Select for liv- ing rooms landscapes, reproductions of still life,, ideal heads and faces, and reproductions of masterpieces por- traying scenes, or subjects that might properly be the subject of conversa- tion in the social circle.
For the music room, photographs of eminent composers and other musi- cians, or reproductions of paintings suggested by the use of the room, are appropriate.
For the library, photographs of lit- erary and other public men, and re-
productions of public buildings of all ages and in all parts of the world, are in order.
Reserve for the privacy of sleeping apaitments photographs of friends or relatives of the family, children, and all ither pictures that, however inter- esting they may be to the owner, can
The Frame Should Be Unobtrusive.'
be of no general concern to those who are not members of the family.
To Hang Pictures. — Do not make the common mistake of hanging pic- tures above the line of sight, so as to make it necessary to strain the ej'^es in looking up at them. Pictures should not, as a rule, hang more than five and one half feet from the floor — about on a level with the eyes of a person of average height when stand- ing. But, of course, the different pic- tures, for the sake of variety, are hung slightly above or below this line, according to their size and other cir- cumstances, and not at a uniform level. Remember that in looking at a picture the eye falls, not at the ex- act center, but at a point about in- termediate between the center and the top of the picture, or at about one third of its depth from the top. Hence, if a picture is hung so that the line of sight of a person of aver- age height when standing falls on this point, it is displayed to the best advantage.
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
53
Do not hang a picture in direct light, as exactly opposite a sunny window. When possible, a picture should be located with reference to windows and other openings so that it will be lighted as the artist in- tended; that is, the shadows in the picture should appear to be cast by the light that falls upon it.
Suspend large and heavy pictures from a picture molding which may be as near to the ceiling as possible
On a Level toith the Eyes."
to give a low room the eifect of greater height, or lower it from the ceiling to give a high room a broader effect. Use as little picture wire as may be. Two wires and hooks, one near either end of a large picture, rather than a single hook with wire running from it diagonally in either direction, are to be preferred. Sus- pend small pictures preferably from small hooks or tacks driven into the wall behind the picture itself, and by means of rings or screw eyes in the back of the frame, all of which will be concealed from sight when the picture is hung. That is, have as little picture wire visible as possible. Ordinary woven picture wire is now
inexpensive and can be used again and again. It not only looks better but is safer than cord. Ordinary "silver" wire is suitable for most pur- poses. It can be touched up with a little bronze paint to hang gilt frames, or wlien it becomes tarnished. Picture hooks of brass may be painted white or otherwise, to conform to the color of the picture molding and thus be less conspicuous.
In order to get the most effective arrangement, when in doubt where to hang pictures, do the experimental grouping on the floor. Thus the pic- tures may be shifted about until the most tasteful way is found. This saves many trips up and down the stepladder. When taking down pic- tures from the molding, make a dot with a pencil point on the wall back of the molding, where it will not show, exactly where the hook was hung, or leave the hook in place so that the picture when cleaned may be re- turned to its place without the neces- sity of measuring again. But if the wall coverings are of material that shows the effect of fading, as do most solid colors, especially greens and browns in ingrain papers, burlap, and the like, change the position of the pictures occasionally. Otherwise the wall covering behind the picture will not fade, and when for any rea- son a change becomes necessary the outlines will be unsightly.
Mats for Pictures. — Use common ingrain or moire wall papers of various colors in place of mats or picture mounts. It is cheaper and equally effective. Mount the pictures on the mats as photographs are mounted.
Magazine Covers. — The cover de- signs and full-page illustrations of several of the leading monthlj' and other periodicals are reproductions of the best works of prominent artists and illustrators. These are freely used in many homes to decorate the walls of libraries, dens, and some- times living rooms, either framed or bound in passepartout binding or merely neatly trimmed with a straight-
54
HOUSEHOLD. DISCOVERIES
edge, and attached to the ' wall by means of brass-headed tacks or thumb tacks. A series of cover designs of one or more periodicals makes a very interesting and attractive frieze for the den or library.
SLEEPING ROOMS
The objects and nature of sleep should be understood as a basis for the intelligent furnishing and care of the bed and bedroom. Perhaps no other subject in connection with the household is more important or less understood. Where more than one person occupies a sleeping room each individual should have a separate bed, even if the requirements of space or other conditions make it necessary for two or more beds to stand side by side. It is especially important that children, after a very early age, should have separate cradles or cribs provided for them and be taught to occupy them. The reason for this custom is that individuals vary greatly in the amount of heat required to keep the body in a normal condition during sleep. Children require less covering than grown persons, and aged persons require much more cov- ering tKan those in middle life. Sep- arate beds admit of each individual adjusting the covering to his own re- quirements. Again, while the bodily sensations are dormant during sleep, they are not absent, or else a person could not be awakened. The body is still sensitive to outer impressions. Hence the motions of another sleeper or the changes in temperature pro- duced by the addition or removal of coverings to accommodate a bedfel- low may awaken a sleeper who by his restless motions will keep his com- panion awake, and no sound sleep may be enjoyed by either person. Fortunately, the invention of cast-iron and other cheap metallic bedsteads that may be obtained in half and three-quarter sizes makes it possible for many families to afFord separate beds, a luxury which would formerly have been denied them.
The introduction of iron and brass bedsteads in many homes on sanitary and hygienic grounds, and the con- sequent discarding of old-fashioned wooden bedsteads that are heavy, dif- ficult to clean, and that by collecting dust and furnishing harboring places for vermin are constantly contribut- ing to the labor of the housekeeper, gives an opportunity to introduce this
"The Introduction of Iron and, Brass Beds."
cleanly, healthful, and agreeable cus- tom. Moreover, single or half beds can be readily moved from one room to another and from place to place, and are easier to care for.
Ventilation of Bedrooms. — The ef- fect of entire lack of ventilation is illustrated by the celebrated case of the "Black Hole of Calcutta." About 150 Europeans taken at the capture of Fort Williams in Calcutta in 1756 were confined in a dungeon about twenty feet square, haviftg two small windows. The following morning only twenty-three remained alive. In a similar case, on the steamer London- derry, 150 passengers were confined in a small cabin for a number of hours. Of these, seventy died from constantly rebreathing the air con- taminated in the lungs and by various exhalations of the human bodJ^ In breathing (and also in the combustion of fuel, as wood or coal, or of oil or gas for illumination), a part of the oxygen of the air which is necessary for human life is converted into car- bonic-acid gas. The atmosphere con- sists of about 78 per cent of nitrogen, 20.96 per cent of oxygen, 1 per cent of
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
55
argon, and .04 per cent of carbonic- acid gas mixed together. Each breath converts about one fourth of the available oxygen in the air into car- bonic-acid gas; hence in an air-tight space death from suffocation would very quickly ensue.
Ordinary dwellings are, of course, by no means air-tight, and are par- tially ventilated through the narrow openings about window frames, by the occasional opening of doors, and through various cracks and crevices. But these sources are not sufficient to supply the volume of pure air required for human breathing. Rooms occu- pied by a number of persons are al- most invariably so close that a great deal of air is necessarily breathed again and again. The results upon bodily health are in their nature the same as those which produce death by suffocation. Only the exhaustion is more gradual and extends over a lon- ger period of time.
The effects of insufficient ventilation are perhaps less during our waking hours than during sleep. Most per- sons move about a good deal during the day and are in and out of doors. Moreover, the lungs are active, and if the air is impure, they may make up the deficiency by more frequent respi- ration. When a person is conscious, the discomfort of close air, resulting in headaches and a sense of incipient suffocation, affords warning that it is time to change the air in the room or take a walk outside. But a sleeper is usually unconscious of any warning sensations. The respiration is slower, and there is nothing to check the evil effects of breathing again and again the air that has been robbed of its oxygen. The result is the impairment of all the vital processes that normally make up during sleep for the daily wastes of the body. Hence sleeping in poorly ventilated rooms leads im- mediately to headaches, a sense of having rested badly, with exhaustion and fatigue, and eventually to such wasting diseases as consumption, ca- tarrh, and other affections of the head, throat, and lungs.
The Fresh-air Cure. — It is now well known that consumption, the most wasting and fatal of all human dis- eases, can be cured in many cases by simply breathing pure air out of doors, both day and night. Modern sani- tariums have sleeping porches of can- vas or tents in which patients sleep out of doors, even in cold climates in winter, the body being protected by suitable covering. The contrast be- tween slow suffocation from lack of ventilation and the cure of consump- tion by breathing pure air both day and night should impress upon every- one the absolute necessity of thor- ough ventilation, especially in sleeping apartments.
When to Ventilate. — It is a sure indication that, when the air in a room seems close and has a musty odor to a person coming in from outdoors, it is so impure as to be injurious to health. If, after stepping into the open air in the morning and taking a few deep breaths, «^ne returns to a sleeping room and finds the air insuf- ferably close, the room has not been sufficiently ventilated during the night, and evil consequences are sure to follow.
Or place a shallow glass dish con- taining lime water in a room to de- termine the presence of carbonic-acid gas. If there is much of this sub- stance present the water will quickly become cloudy.
Or, to test for marsh gas, sewer gas, and the like containing sulphureted hydrogen, expose to the air moist car- bonate of lead, which will turn black if this substance is present.
Night Air. — There is a superstition prevalent in many parts of the country that night air is injurious. There may be some ground for this belief where the Anopheles mosquito is abroad in malarial districts, or the vicinity of swamps wherever a mist may arise at night and spread contamination. But in most localities this notion is en- tirely groundless and misleading. If we do not breathe night air at night, pray what shall we breathe? Either it is necessary to breathe over and over
56
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
the air that has been in the sleeping room all daj% or else to admit fresh air from outdoors, and whatever the dan- ger in breathing night air, it is certain- ly less immediate than quick or slow suffocation from lack of ventilation.
To Ventilate Bedrooms. — The prob- lem of ventilation is twofold: first, to let in the pure air; second, to let out that which is impure. There should be windows on two sides of the bed- room, and also, if possible, a fireplace for ventilation. The bed should be located so that the air will circulate freely around and beneath it without a draught. If possible, the door when open should screen the bed, or a screen should be interposed when necessary between the bed and the open door or window.
The simplest means of ventilation is to lower the upper sash of a window for several inches and raise the lower sash either of the same window or of one on the opposite side of the room. If there is an open fireplace in the room, it will remove the impure air by creating a draught and causing suction.
Or lower the, upper sashes of two windows opposite one another.
Or open the bedroom door and ad- mit the fresh air to an adjacent room or hall by means of two or more win- dows in such a way that a draught passing near the bedroom door will create suction and draw the impure air out of it. The direction of these air currents may be determined by holding a lighted match or candle in them.
Just before retiring open all the windows and change the air in the room.
To Prevent Draughts. — To prevent a direct current of air crossing the bed on raising a window sash, take a piece of any firm, tightly woven cloth, as duck or light canvas or strong flan- nel goods, the width of the windov/ and about eighteen inches deep. Make a heading at top and bottom to admit sash-curtain rods. Adjust one rod at. the bottom of the window frame and the other about twelve or fourteeu
inches higher up. Thus when the sash is lifted as high as the upper rod the entering current of air will cause the cloth to belly out into the room, and the current will be turned on both sides and driven along the wall. A current of air, like a current of watei,
" The Air Will Follow Along the Wall."
has a tendency to stick to any surface over which it flows; hence the air will follow along the wall, and even to some extent around the corners of the room, as can be seen by testing with the flame of a candle.
Or either end of this cloth screen may be closed by means of a pin or buttonhole and button, and the entire current turned in the opposite direc- tion. Ordinary sash-curtain rods or even rollers such as are used for cur- tain shades or sticks used for the lower part of curtain shades may be ad j usted permanently for this purpose in sleeping rooms.
Or the patent spring sash-curtain rods, that have a spring inside and rubber tips at the end to keep them adjusted, may be utilized to make one or more removable screens. These can be adjusted according to conditions from time to time on any windows in any part of the house.
Or stretch a piece of cheese cloth over the opening and tack it fast.
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
57
Or tack cheese cloth on a small re- movable frame that will fit into the opening.
Or put a sheet of finely perforated metal in place of one of the upper panes of glass in one of the windows.
Or tack a strip of thin wood or stiff cardboard eight to twelve inches wide across the lower part of the window frame, an inch or two from the glass. When the sash is raised the current striking this obstruction is turned up- ward into the air and may, be thrown entirely over the bed, just as a cur- rent of water might be thrown from a hose.
Or place a piece of board in the window casing below the bottom of the sash. When the window is closed down upon this board a space is left between the upper and lower sash which admits a current of air.
Or place an ordinary fire screen or wooden frame covered with cloth or paper between the window and the bed, as is often done in hospitals.
Or make a little curtain of sheeting to fit the head of the bed and tie at the four corners by means of tape.
Any of these devices may be used to ventilate other than sleeping apart- ments.
Sleeping Porch. — In the vicinity of the great sanitariums where sleeping out of doors has been proved to be a cure for consumption and other dis-
' The Porch Should be Screened.
eases, many persons have formed the habit of sleeping thus. Any porch somewhat excluded from view and in a sheltered location can be utilized. The porch should be screened and pro-
vided with storm curtains of tent can- vas that can be drawn and buttoned like the curtains of a carriage. If the porch is used during the day a bunk or folding bed may be hinged to the wall on one side, with legs that will let down on the other. When folded up this may be concealed by a waterproof curtain. Or one of the so- called hammock beds may be suspend- ed by hooks from the ceiling.
If suitable blankets are provided it is possible to sleep out of doors the year round in most parts of the United States, with the exception of a very few nights, and probably no practice would be more invigorating, healthful, or pleasurable, especially in the sum- mer months.
Bedrooms. — Furnishings and decora- tions of bedrooms should conform to the object for which the room is in- tended. Simplicity should be the key- note. Wall coverings in geometrical designs or large-figured patterns of any sort and all bric-a-brac and use- less flounces and decorations should be avoided. The fewer objects not actually necessary in the room the bet- ter. Finish the woodwork in natural colors, oiled or stained, and preferably with oil paint or varnish. Tint the walls or hang them with &. colid col- ored or double-toned paper, or a sim- ple stripe. Hang at the windows light muslin or cheese-cloth curtains, either white or dyed to conform to the gen- eral color scheme. If the floors are smooth, oil and wax them, or stain or paint them with any of the lac paints or varnishes. Floors not smooth may be covered with either linoleum or matting as preferred. Avoid, as a rule, the use of carpets in bedrooms. A plain stained or painted wood floor with rugs is much easier to keep clean and is more sanitary.
Beds. — Iron or brass beds fitted with woven wire or other suitable wire springs are to be preferred. The iron beds in white enamel harmonize well with birch and other light-colored woods and enameled furniture; and brass beds with mahogany, walnut, and other hard woods in darker col-
58
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
m
ors. The furniture should be of sim- ple design, without carving or un- necessary decoration. The mattress should be of hair or cotton felt, of good quality, and made in two parts, for convenience in turning and airing. The bed clothing should be light and warm, consisting of linen or cotton sheets, blankets, and a white spread.
Beds and Bedding. — The ideal bed for health and comfort is of metal, either white enameled iron or brass, with a box spii'al shelf spring or woven wire spring having enough spi- ral springs through the middle so that it will not sag. Iron and brass beds are now so cheap that they are being rapidly substituted for wooden bed- steads in all parts of the country. In choosing enamel beds see that the brass fittings are of good quality and- well put on. The brass parts are the first to show wear, especially if they are loosely adjusted; and if they come ofl', the loss will spoil the appearance of the bed.
Enameled beds may be renovated by going over them with white or black enamel paint; to make them look like brass use gilt enamel. Any of these can be washed with soap and water. Thus a metal bed can be easily kept in perfect sanitary condition, free from dust, dirt, or vermin. Hap- pily, the old-fashioned slat and cord bedsteads are rapidly becoming things of the past.
Mattresses. — The bed should not be softer than is necessary for comfort, and the surface should be smooth and nearly level. Feather beds are advisa- ble for healthy adults only in ex- tremely cold weather or cold climates, and in unheated rooms. They may be used for children or the aged in ordi- nary temperatures, but they should rather be packed tightly in thin ticks than loosely in large masses. Mat- tresses with suitable springs and bed coverings are to be preferred in most cases. Tlie best material for mat- tresses is curled hair, although the much-advertised modern mattresses of felted cotton are also good and cheap- er. Mattresses of excelsior and husks
with cotton tops and ticks filled with clean hay or straw, or even beach-tree and other leaves are still used in many
" The Much Advertised Modern Mattress."
parts of the country. Any of these are hygienic and comfortable, and are to be preferred for adults in good health to feather beds.
The best material for pillows is curled hair, but if feathers are used the pillows should be tightly packed so that they will not allow the head- to sink into them. The use of thick pillows is inadvisable. The pillow should be of just about the right thickness to support the head in its natural position when lying on the side, or to allow it to incline slightly backward.
Bed Springs. — The upholstered or box springs are the best. Make a cover of heavy unbleached drilling slightly larger than the springs, or cover them with a worn sheet or faded quilt. Fasten brass rings in the cor- ners of the cover and attach them to brass-headed tacks or nails driven into tlie under side of the spring. This prevents the cover from slipping, but makes it removable for dusting. Or with a darning needle and cord tack the cover neatly and firmly in place. This prevents the springs from stain-> ing the mattress with rust.
Bed Covers. — As the muscles are entirely quiescent during sleep the body generates much less heat than in waking hoiirs. Hence tlie bedclothes should furnish greater warmth than the ordinary clothing. On the other
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
59
hand, the bed should not be warm enough to interfere with normal evap- oration or overheat the body so as to cause undue perspiration.
Light bed covers of a suitable non- conducting material, as wool or eider- down, are much better than hea\y or numerous covers of cotton, as home- made quilts and comforters. Wool blankets are perhnps the best of all bed covers, and nothing else except a suitable coverlet for the purpose of decoration should be used if blankets can be afforded. Linen sheets are preferable to cotton for the reason that they are more absorbent. Hence they take up more readily the per- spiration of the body. For the same reason they are much cooler in sum- mer. They are more durable and it will be found a wise economy in the long run to purchase sheeting of un- bleached linen rather than of cotton material.
Bedspreads. — Net, with lace inser- tion and edges, over an inexpensive lining of any color to match the other furnishings, makes an attractive bed- spread.
Or dimity or dotted muslin may be used.
Or an old pair of lace curtains may be utilized by sewing the scalloped edges together to form the middle of the spread, and lining with any suit- able colored fabric.
Valances. — The use of a valance is much less customary than formerly, as it is nov/ thought more sanitary to allow the sunlight to penetrate to ad parts of the room and the air to cir- culate freely. But if a valance is used, it should not be fastened to the frame of the bed, but so adjusted as to be easily removable for the laundry. Hence, to make a valance, cut a sheet to the size of the top of the mattress; make the valance in four sections, one for each side and for the top and bot- tom of the bed, and just long enough, allowing for the hem, to reach from the bottom of the mattress to the floor. Baste these sections to the edge of the sheet like a ruffle. Do not join the top and bottom to the sides.
but leave the corners open. Try this on to see that it fits exactly before stitching. When completed, spread the sheet over the springs, and put the mattress on over it, so that the val- ance will hang down on all sides like a ruffle. Thus the valance always stays in place, but can easily be removed for washing, and the old sheet to which it is attached serves to protect the mattress from the springs. Deli- cate Swiss or other light washable fabrics are more suitable for this pur- pose than cretonne or other heavy figured material.
Use of Feather Beds. — Formerly feather beds were much-valued lux- uries, and the possession of a store of them was a matter of family pride. Happily, however, they are rapidly being replaced by mattresses, which, on account of improved methods of manufacture and the use of new ma- terial, are much better and cheaper than they were formerly. Feather beds are open to many objections. They are difficult to keep clean and they conform too closely to the shape of the body; hence they heat the body and do not admit of proper ventila- tion. Their use is always debilitating, and can only be justified by extreme cold weather, or for infants or very aged persons.
Feathers for Beds and Pillows. — The best feathers for this purpose are live geese feathers or other feathers plucked from the live birds; but chicken, goose, or duck feathers may be preserved and used for beds or pil- lows by putting all the soft feathers together in a barrel as they are picked from the birds after scalding. Leave the barrel open to the sun and rain, simply covering it with an old screen to prevent the feathers from blowing about.
Or purchase the feathers in quan- tity from the nearest poulterer and purify them yourself. Thus you can obtain plenty of feathers for pillows and feather beds at very little expense.
Feather Pillows. — Feathers arc open to the same olijections when used in pillows as in feather beds. By con-
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
forming to the sliape of the head they i^revent ventilation and tend to overheat the scalp. This wealvens it and may lead to premature baldness or other affliction. Curled hair should be substituted for feathers whenever possible.
To Fill Feather Pillows. — To trans- fer feathers from an old feather bed to pillow ticks, or from one pillow tick to another, open a small part of the seam in the tick containing the feathers, draw over it the opening in the tick to be filled, and tack it to the full tick with basting thread, using large stitches. Feathers can then be shaken from one tick to the other without the white fluff getting about. Remove the basting threads and pin the openings together until you have time to stitch them firmly. This can be done in such a way as not to lose a single feather.
To Make Pillow Cases. — Pillow slips and bolster cases usually give out first at the corners from being hung on the line with clothespins and from the impact of irons against the sewed ends. Hence, by leaving both ends of the case open, you can distribute the wear over it all and double its life. Such sases are also much easier to iron. Both ends may be trimmed with lace or insertion, and two or three buttons and buttonholes may be left at each end to button the pillow in. Pillows thus trimmed will not need pillow shams.
To Protect Ticks.^ — To protect mat- tresses and pillow cases from becom- ing soiled make covers for them of unbleached cotton cloth or any suit- able washable material, cut the cloth to measurements of the mattress and pillows, and finish one side or end with buttons and buttonholes, so that the cover can be easily slipped off and cleaned when necessary. Or the mattress protector may be tied on with tape. Bed linen often falls short of covering the mattress completely while in use, hence the extra slip, is needed, especially to protect from the dust the under side of the mat- tress. These slips can be removed
and laundered twice a year or oftener when housecleaning; the pillow covers may be removed oftener if desired. Ticking treated in this way will be fresh and clean at the end of a dozen years' hard usage, when other- wise it would be so worn and soiled as to be unfit for use. A dozen or two yards of cheap material will make cases for all the ticks in an ordinary household.
Or old sheets, jjillow cases, or wornout garments may be utilized for this puri^ose. Cloth flour sacks make excellent jjillow covers. Of course, the usual bed linen will be needed in addition to these.
Mattress Top. — A soft top for a husk or excelsior mattress may be made of old cotton or woolen blankets .that have outworn their original use. Place between the blankets several thicknesses of cotton batting and tie the same as for comforters.
Sheets. — Linen is, of course, the best material for sheeting, for com- fort, appearance, and durability, but cotton sheeting is more commonly used, because it is less expensive. Buy unbleached linen or cotton for sheets and pillow slips, as it is not only less expensive, but much more durable and can be easily bleached when being laun- dered.
To Make Sheets. — When making sheets, tear off one length, pin the first end of this length to the sheet and measure off the next. Then sew up as you have pinned. Thus the threads run the same way and the sheets will never pucker in the middle when washed.
Look over sheets before they go to the laundry and mend any tears at once. Sheets usually wear first and split in the middle. When this hap- pens tear them down the middle, sew together the outer selvage edges to make the middle of new sheets, and hem the torn sides. This should be done as soon as tlie sheets begin to wear thin, without waiting for them to tear. It will double the life of the sheet.
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
61
Bathroom. — "When possible, cover the floor of the bathroom with tile, cement, or other washable material, but linoleum is a good substitute for these. Or use cork carpet, which is warm to the feet and is washable and desirable, although it spots easily.
Hang the walls with waterproof paper. Or tint the walls with a natural cement that has no glue and does not require a glue size.
THE DINING ROOM
Besides the regular dining-room furniture, tables, chairs, sideboard, and serving table, the addition of a plate rail or rack for plates, pitchers, and other decorative china objects, and of a china cabinet with glass doors for displaying the best china, help to give a room character and beauty. The effect of these articles will be very much heightened if the wall coverings are in solid or double- toned colors, and, as in other living rooms, hard-wood floors or floor cov- erings in solid colors, with a large rug or drugget coming within a few feet of the wall all around, make perhaps the most effective treatment. The color scheme of the dining room should preferably be in cheerful tones, as blues, yellows, or reds, according to the amount of light the room re- ceives.
China Closet. — The china cabinet is a useful and beautiful article of fur- niture, but in the absence of such a cabinet any ordinary closet opening into a dining room may be utilized as a china closet by removing the door and replacing it with a decora- tive door with diamond panes of glass, and lining the interior with denim to correspond in color with the furnishings of the room.
Or the door may be removed and replaced by a suitable drapery hang- ing from a rod, and drawn aside when the dining room is in use. Screw hooks on the inside of the shelves of the china cabinet or closet from which to hang cups to display them, save space, and prevent breakage. Tack a
narrow strip of board two or three inches from the back of each shelf, as a rim to hold up the plates. Or 23ut in a row of brass tacks standing an eighth of an inch above the shelf for this purpose.
Table Pad. — A pad of table felt sold for the purpose should be laid over the dining-room table, both to protect the polish and to save the linen tablecloth. But an old blanket or thick cotton flannel may be used for this purpose, or clean carpet lin- ing can be utilized by covering it with white muslin smoothly pasted on. This will last for months and can be readily replaced.
To Store Table Leaves. — Fasten un- der the lower shelf of the pantry the frame in which the extra boards of the extension dining table come, and slide the boards in. Thus they take up no extra space and are always at hand.
China. — Select a stock pattern when buying china, and preferably a stand- ard design of some sort, as the well- known willow or onion design, or some other that can be readily re- placed as pieces are broken. When possible it is, of course, a good plan to have two sets of china, one for best, to be displayed in the china cabinet and only used upon special occasions, and another for ordinarj'' wear, which may be less delicate and expensive.
THE KITCHEN, STOREROOM, AND PANTRY
The kitchen, as the workshop of the house, is the room in which many housekeepers spend most of their waking hours. Hence it should be perhaps the lightest, airiest, and most cheerful room in the house. It is safe to say that much more atten- tion might well be given to the matter of kitchen conveniences than they usually receive. There are very few housekeepers indeed who could not, by intelligent forethought in plan- ning and arranging the contents of the kitchen, pantry and storeroom,
62
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
save themselves daily miles of useless traveling to and fro.
Color for Kitchen. — Try to make the kitchen a room in harmonizing tints by painting or tinting the walls in light greens and the floor in dark green. Or a clear, light yellow is a good color for the kitchen walls, with the floor in brown. Or, if the room has a southern or western exposure, gray walls, vidth the floor in drab or slate color, will give a cooler effect.
Kitchen Walls. — Kitchen walls should be covered with washable ma- terials; hence ordinary wall paper
TT
/\ /\/\>x/
" The Cracks May be FillecL*^
and calcimine are less suitable in tlie kitchen than in other parts of the house. If the walls are new and smooth, tint them in waterproof ce- ment or paint them with water colors and coat with soluble glass. Both these processes are inexpensive.
Or washable paper is excellent. It can be washed and kept perfectly clean, and does not absorb grease or moisture.
Or paint the walls with common oil
paint of good quality and finish with a coat of enamel paint or soluble glass, so that they can be mopped the same as the floor. For this purpose fit a large sponge into a mop handle. But paint is not as easy to wash down as washable paper or oilcloth, hence, where the walls are in good condition, the latter is preferable.
Kitchen Floor. — A tight, smooth floor of unpainted wood, hard enough not to splinter and to admit of being scrubbed, is perhaps the best floor for a kitchen. But if the floor is of soft wood, or is uneven and has unsightly cracks in it, the cracks may be filled and the floor painted with oil paints, and varnish or " lac " paints contain- ing varnish may be used.
Or the floor may be covered with linoleum, which is perhaps, all things "considered, the most satisfactory floor covering. Before laying the linoleum on a rough floor, cover the floor with a layer of sand, or sawdust, or old newspapers, to prevent its being worn by the cracks, and give the linoleum a coat of paint and varnish three or four times a year. When thus treated it is practically indestructible.
Or oilcloth may be substituted for linoleum and cared for in the same fashion. This is inexpensive, and with proper care will last a long time.
Kitchen Sinks. — The sink may be of iron or other metal, with or without enamel, or of stone, or even of wood lined with lead, tin, or zinc. But it should stand on four legs, and all the waste pipe should be exposed to sun and air. Take away all woodwork from about the sink, and paint the pipes and under part the same color as the walls and woodwork.
If the air is admitted freely to all parts, no moisture can accumulate to cause the decay of organic matter which produces diphtheria, typhoid and other fevers. Physicians say that when these diseases occur in any household, the first thing they look at is the sink and the arrangements for drainage about the kitchen door. Each day rinse the dishpan with boiling water in which dissolve a tablespoon-
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
63
ful or more of washing soda or aqua ammonia, and pour it dov/n the spout boiling hot. Once a week flush the pipes by filling the sink with boiling water, in which dissolve a teacup ful of chloride of lime. Use a quantity of water great enough so that it will run through the pipes with force. This is the best disinfectant, is cheap, and just as good as any patent preparation.
Have the drainage carried to a suf- ficient distance from the house into a covered cesspool, whence it will leach off into the soil, and see that it does not leach into the well. Never throw dishwater from the kitchen door. Have a receptacle for all garbage, and feed it regularly to the chickens, or, if no fowls are kept, see that it is burned, buried, or at least removed to a distance from the house. Scald the garbage receptacle with a solution of chloride of lime — half a teacupful to a quart of water — twice a week.
Kitchen Table. — A bench or table, homemade if necessary, at the left of
"Homemade if Necessary."
the kitchen sink and as large as the room will admit, is indispensable to saving steps in the kitchen. Have this
overlap the edge of the sink and cover with zinc, which will not rust. Turn up the zinc over a molding around the sides of the table, except at the end over the sink, so that water will drain back from it into the latter. Carry the zinc, if possible, eighteen inches or two feet up the kitchen wall be- hind the table and the sink. This is lasting, easily kept clean, and is not injured by hot pans or kettles. If scrubbed clean it can be used as a molding board. Particles of dough which adhere to it can easily be scraped off with a knife. Zinc that has done duty under a stove may be used for a kitchen table. Cut a V out of the corners, lap over the edges, and nail closely with long, sharp steel tacks.
Or cover the kitchen table with oil- cloth. This will last a long time if the table is padded with sheet wad- ding or several thicknesses of news- paper covered with an old sheet. Draw the padding smooth and tack it under the edge of the table.
Kitchen Rack for Utensils. — Cover the wall back of the kitchen table and sink with zinc or oilcloth about two feet in height, tacking a strip of inch- thick pine or other soft wood about three inches wide along the top. Along the middle of this fasten a narrow strip of leather or a strip of doubled oilcloth, with tacks at intervals of one and a half or two inches, making loops through which cooking spoons, knives, forks, can openers, etc., may be thrust. Thus these articles are always in sight and ready for use. Above put up a number of six- or eight-inch shelves to any desired height to hold breakfast foods, coffee, salt, pepper and other spices, glass jars or tin cans containing nuts, rice, beans, sugar, and various dry groceries. On the upper shelves can be stored soap, canned goods, and the like. Insert hooks on the under side of the lower shelf to hold measuring cups, tin pails, or anything that can be hung up out of the way. Cover the shelves with oilcloth so that they can be kept clean. Hang from the cleat against the wall
64
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
a board of any desired size, say 16 by 24, which may be of weathered oak or any hard-wood stuff cleated to pre- vent warping. In this screw small brass hooks on which to hang the strainer, baking spoon, egg whip, roasting fork, meat cleaver, bread toaster, etc. These shelves and the rack save thousands of steps to the pantry and take the place of a costly kitchen cabinet.
Blotters in the Kitchen. — Obtain a supply of ordinary desk blotters and have a place for them on the rack above the kitchen table. If fruit juice or grease spatters or spills on cloth- ing or table linen apply the edge or corner of a clean blotter, and most of the liquid will be taken up.
Or, if gi-ease is spilled on the floor, a blotter will take it up quickly while warm and save the labor of removing - a grease spot that has soaked into the boards.
Tin Hack. — Hang near the range a plate rack, which may be homemade, or fasten a cleat against the wall for tin lids, kettle covers, pie tins, and the like. Thus these are always dry and convenient.
Pantry Shelves. — Paint the pantry shelves white, or cover them with a coat t- of white enamel. Wash the shelves with cold water as soon as the enamel dries, and it will harden quickly. Such shelves will not require oilcloth or paper, can be easily wiped off with a damp cloth, and always show M^hen perfectly clean.
Or cover the shelves with white oil- cloth. Cut the oilcloth to exactly fit the shelf, turn down over the edge, and paste on. While somewhat ex- pensive, this lasts for years, cleans easily, and always looks well.
Or use ordinary building paper, which is better than newspaper and by the roll is very cheap. It can be wiped off with a damp cloth almost as easily as paint.
Or use washable paper, the same as kitchen walls are hung v/ith, pasting it to the shelves.
Or, if newspapers are used, fold a whole newspaper the longest way of
the full sheets and place the fold in the front of the shelf. Then when cleaning the pantry it is only neces- sary to slip a paper cutter in the fold of the outer sheet, cut it clear across, and take off the soiled upper part.
Tack a narrow strip of wood (any left-over pieces of picture molding will do) along the back of the pantry shelves, about three inches from the wall. To save space, stand platters and large plates with their edges rest- ing against this.
Run a one-inch strip of wood against the wall, held away from it by wooden brackets; in this put kettle lids and covers of all sizes.
Screw suitable hooks on the under side of the shelves for dishes having handles, as pitchers, cups, and the like.
Dampness in Closets. — Place a bowl of quicklime in a damp pantry, cup- board, or closet. This not only re- moves dampness, but kills all odors.
Range Shelves. — Have near the range a shelf to hold the many things needed in cooking, as pepper, salt, and other seasonings, flavorings, and the like, to save steps to the pantry or to the shelves over the kitchen table. Have another shelf covered with zinc on which to put down hot kettles and articles taken fresh from the baking oven.
"Mounted on Large Casters,
Rolling Table. — Have made at home or by a carpenter a small, strong table about 3 feet or i?^ by 3 feet, mounted
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
65
on large casters or small wheels, which can be bought at small expense at a hardware store. Have a shelf part way down in addition to the top. When clearing or setting the dining- room table load this serving table and draw it to and from the kitchen. Thus one trip will do for all.
Kitchen Slate. — Try making a pro- gramme each morning of the things to be done through the day. Or jot down from time to time those that must be done at the first opportunity. You will be surprised to find how quickly these things will be disposed of. When cooking or preparing com- pany dinner, make a list of the arti- cles to be prepared, and glance at it occasionally.
Homemade Receipt Book. — Have at hand a blank book in which to paste or copy valuable recipes. Cover this with white oilcloth neatly pasted on. Have a special part of this book or a separate book for menus. This will help to solve the problem of what to have for dinner.
Kitchen Lounge. — Remove the old sofa to the kitchen, and put in its place a modern couch with an artistic couch cover.
Or make a homemade lounge out of a long packing box or tack together two of the right height. Put on a cover with hinges. Line with wall paper or building paper. Make a suitable mattress which may be stuffed with straw, husks, or any convenient material, and cover with any suitable material as cretonne, baize, or calico. Or use washable material, as red-and- white bed ticking. The mattress may be adjusted so that the lid can be lifted and the inside used as a re- ceptacle for various purposes. While waiting for the kettle to boil, for bread to rise, and the like, drop down on the kitchen lounge and rest. It is just such little economies of strength that in the long run save time and preserve health.
SMALL ECONOMIES
The reason many things are wasted in every household is that the family
has not formed the habit of making uses for them. The following ways to use string, paper bags, wrapping pa- per and newspapers, lard pails, and various cans and bottles that come into the house every day from the grocers and other merchants, will be found not. only useful small econo- mies but also valuable household con- veniences.
Uses of Common Twine. — Save all bits of string or twine, and teach the children to sort them and knot the different sizes together. Roll the com- mon white twine up into a ball, drop it inside a box, with the end protrud- ing through a hole in the lid. Or use the accumulated twine to knit or cro- chet dishcloths eight to twelve inches square. Bath slippers can also be made of it.
Wind coarse twine on a roller or fishline reel and hang it up on the back of the pantry door.
Paper Bags. — These are not only convenient to wrap up articles, but are especially useful to polish stoves and lamp chimnej'^s, to wipe up milk, grease, or what not, as they can be quickly disposed of by burning when soiled.
Tissue Paper. — This is useful for polishing glass, wrapping up laces, ribbons, and other delicate articles.
Oiled Papers. — Oiled papers that corr.e over butter and lard may be used for papering cake tins. The waxed papers that come on the inside of cracker or biscuit boxes are useful to wrap up cheese and other articles which will deteriorate if exposed to the air, also for wrapping lunches, for school and factory lunch pails, and picnics.
Wrapping Paper. — This may be used to slice bread and cake upon, roll crackers, pare apples or potatoes, and dress chickens on, after which it may be rolled up and dropped into the garbage pail.
Or it may be spread over the gar- bage pail and all garbage ])laced on it to save trouble in cleaning.
Flour Bags. — Large paper flour bags are useful for bleaching gloves
GQ
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
and other small articles with the fumes 01 sulphur, and dry cleaning with magnesia, corn meal, and similar substances. The cloth sacks may be used for dish towels and dishcloths.
When emptying flour sacks, a small amount of flour will adhere to the sack. Turn the sack inside out, lay it over the molding board, and knead the bread upon it. This will cleanse it eifectually.
Newspapers. — Spread clean news- papers under the carpet, especially if the floor is rough. They make a smooth surface, prevent wear, and also check draughts through the floor cracks. Also use them for polishing windows, mirrors, lamp chimneys, stove tops, and nickel.
Spread a newspaper before the stove when taking up ashes. Light news- paper in the open grate when taking. up ashes, or shaking down a grate fire. The resulting draught will carry the dust up the chimney.
Cover plants on frosty nights with newspapers, or if indoors, put them between the plants and the windows. Fold a newspaper across the chest and attach with safety pins under the cloak or coat when exposed for a long time in cold winds, as in sleigh- ridipg.
Also use newspapers for wrappin?^ furs, velvets, and other articles when storing them to protect them from moths.
Tin Cans. — Lard, kerosene, and other oils are sold in various parts of the country in five-gallon cans. These can be obtained from the grocer for a small sum and make excellent boil- ers to wash out small articles too dainty for the regular wash. They can also be used with a small wash- board as tubs.
Or they may be used as flour bins, bread or cake boxes, and the like.
Or, by removing the top and making holes at each side and attaching short pieces of copper wire with a broom handle between, convenient ])ails may be made out of them. These pails may be made of any desired depth by cutting off the can with a cold chisel
and hammer and turning back the sharp edges.
Such cans are also convenient to salt down pickles, steam fruit, etc.
Lard Pails. — These may be used for storing sugar, coffee, cereals, anc rice. Or for potting plants, especially as hanging baskets. They are also use- ful both in five- and ten-jDound sizes for steaming brown bread and Indian puddings. A five-pound lard pail placed inside a ten-pound pail, and slightly raised from the bottom of the latter by small stones or otherwise, forms a good substitute for a double boiler.
Or an earthen j ar or common sauce- pan may be used for the outer recep- tacle, and rice, cracked wheat, oat- meal, prunes, etc., may be cooked without danger of burning.
They are also useful for storing and carrying milk, butter, and eggs.
Baking-powder and Cocoa Cans. — One of these cans, with a few nail holes in each end, is a good soap shaker. This will utilize all the scraps of soap.
Or soak off the wrappers, paint these cans with any color of enameled paint, and label them with gilt or any other colored letters. Use these for all sorts of spices, which may be bought in bulk much cheaper than in cans. These cans are air-tight and will preserve the sti'ength of the contents.
Or use for this purpose empty vase- line and cold-cream jars with screw tops. These being of glass, their con- tents can be seen at a glance, and no labeling is required.
Cereal Boxes. — The stiff pasteboard boxes in which breakfast foods are sold may be labeled and set in a row on the pantrj^ shelf. When paper bags of dry groceries come from the grocer's, they may be dumped in the proper box, thus saving the time and trouble of opening first one sack and then another to find the right article. Use these for rice, beans, tapioca, corn meal, oatmeal, starch, salt, hominy, buckwheat, sugar, etc.
Labels. — Everything should be la- beled for the convenience of every
I
HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATING
67
member of the family. Beat up the white of an egg and dilute with a pint of warm water. On ironing day ap- ply this both to the label and to the glass or tin, and afterwards run a hot iron over the surface to set it. Tack pasteboard tags on wooden boxes, and on bags containing pieces of cloth of all descriptions tie cloth labels.
Kitchen Cabinet. — A good kitchen cabinet, with metal bins for flour, meal, and other substances that mice are fond of, is an investment which will save time and strength for the
".d Good Kitchen Cabinet.
housekeeper and will be a money saver in the long run. These bins should be removable, so that they can be regularly washed, scalded, and dried.
To Order Groceries. — A child's school slate hung on a nail in the wall of a kitchen, with a slate pencil attached by a strong cord, will be found a great convenience in ordering gro- ceries. When any supplies run low, make a note on the slate of what is wanted. The whole family will soon get into the habit of making these memoranda, and many steps in run- ning errands will be saved. Also make an alphabetical list of groceries in a little indexed alphabetical memoran- dum book and hang this up on the same nail. When the grocer calls
run over this list to refresh your iTiind.
If the various dry groceries, as tapi- oca, rice, raisins, etc., are kept in glass jars, it will be easy to see what is wanted, and they will be protected from mice and insects. Fruit jars of various sizes are useful for this purpose.
Or use a pad and pencil to keep memoranda of articles wanted. The paper can then be detached when go- ing to market and forms a convenient memorandum.
Storeroom. — A cellar having a ce- ment floor and water-tight walls, if kept clean and sanitary, makes an ideal storeroom, but many houses do not have one. A small storeroom can be made in a corner of the cellar at much less cost than is commonly supposed, by putting up walls of concrete made of sand or gravel and cement. Rough boards may be knocked together with very little trouble to make a mold. The cellar walls, if they are tight and dry, will make two sides; or they can be faced with cement by building a board-retaining wall an inch or two from the siu'face of the cellar wall and pouring the cement back of it. The whole, including the floor, can thus be made solid concrete at a trifling cost. When furnished with a suitable door, this storeroom will be damp proof and free from dust, germs, and all other unsanitary pests. There should be a cellar window pro- tected on the outside by wire netting, and having on the inside a removable screen of cheese cloth to keep out the dust.
Slat shelves painted with white paint and a coat of enamel may be built up in this storeroom in the same manner as book stacks in a library, i. e., back to back, with just enough room between them tor a person to walk. On these shelves preserves, pickles, canned goods, butter, eggs, and other groceries can be stored the year round in perfect safety.
In a cellar thus equipped can be stored canned goods and other gro- ceries bought at wholesale when prices
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
are low, thus saving in many cases 25 per cent of the cost of such articles.
Door Mat. — A great deal of mud is tracked in at the kitchen door. Make door mats of several thicknesses of old carpets, turning in the raw edges and sewing them together with carpet tacks. Attach stout loops to the cor- ners and fasten these over strong nails on the porch floor. These keep the mat in shape and place, and allow it to be readily removed and cleaned.
Verandas. — One of the most notable changes that have come over American
''Living Gut of Doors.'
life hi recent years is the increase in the custom of living out of doors. The old-fashioned porch, formerly a mere rain shed over the doorstep, or small outer vestibule, is being gener- aily replaced by a wide structure ex-
tending a considerable distance along one side of the house, if not entirely along two or more sides. The words " porch " or " piazza " are often im- properly applied to these improve- ments in place of the right name, " veranda," a word coming from India, which suggests a kind of living room out of doors. It is becoming more and more customary to furnish the veranda with suitable furniture that will not be harmed by exposure to the air, and use it in summer as a living room.
Many verandas have regular win- dow casings fitted with removable hinged frames for glass and screens, and with ordinary roller shades, so as to admit, when desired, of all the privacy of an indoor apartment. By means of one or more suitable low tables, chairs, and other necessary ar- ticles, tea or lunch may be served on the veranda, sewing may be done, call- ers entertained, and social entertain- ments given.
Suitable vines, as the clematis, Ma- deira vine, woodbine, or passion flower may be trained to run around the veranda and furnish grateful shade and privacy. A box couch in a shel- tered spot against the v/all will be found useftil as a receptacle for ham- mocks, old shoes, and various articles used about the lawn and grounds. It may be fitted with a suitable padlock, and chained or otherwise fasiened to the wails.
CHAPTER II
HEATING, LIGHTING, AND REFRIGERATION
KINDS OF FUEL— HEATING SYSTEMS— CHIMNEYS AND FLUES— FIRE EXTINGUISHERS AND FIRE ESCAPES— FIREPROOFING AND WATERPROOFING — ARTIFICIAL ILLUMINATION — COAL GAS, GASOLINE GAS, AND ACETYLENE— KEROSENE OIL— ICE AND REFRIGERATION
KINDS OF FUEL
The principal kinds of fuel used in this country are anthracite or hard, and bituminous or soft, coal, coke, gas, petroleum or kerosene, and wood, either hard or soft. Peat or turf fuel is quite common in European countries, and some attempts have been made to introduce it in the United States in the form of "briquettes" and "eggettes," but thus far without much success. The cost of the various kinds of fuel naturally varies according to local conditions, but where all kinds are equally plenti- ful, wood is the most expensive. About eighteen cords of the best hard wood is required to heat the home of an average family for a year. At six dollars a cord this would cost nine dollars a month. Anthracite or hard coal is the next most expensive fuel; its first cost is higher and it is not an economical fuel to use, the estimated cost of heating an average home with hard coal being about seven dollars a month. The cheapest forms of fuel in common use are bituminous or soft coal and coke. Where plenty of coke is available it may be regarded as perhaps the cheapest fuel, its cost being estimated on an average of about five dollars a month in temperate latitudes. Bi- tuminous coal is, ton for ton, cheaper than coke, but as somewhat more is
required for fuel, the cost may be regarded as practically the same. Gas is, perhaps, the ideal fuel. It is clean, convenient, and M'hen the price is not unduly advanced by monopolis- tic control, it is cheaper than any other fuel. Under present conditions it is usually somewhat more ex- pensive, although the extra cost is, perhaps, more than made up by in- creased convenience and efficiency.
Coal as Fuel. — Coal in its natural state consists of solid carbon com- bined with various proportions of hydrocarbons (or compounds of car- bon with hydrogen, which may be driven off in the form of illuminating gas) and various impurities. Thus coal is really made up of two kinds of fuel: coke — which is jiractically all carbon — and ordinary illuminating gas. It is much more convenient and satisfactory to use coal in these two separate forms than in its natural state. Very little bituminous or soft coal is used for domestic purposes in most parts of the United States, notwithstanding its cheapness, be- cause of the dirt, dust, coal gas, and cinders consequent upon its use. Anthracite or hard coal is somewhat less troublesome, but its use is waste- ful because little more than the hydro- carbons driven off as gas is really consumed, the remainder being left in the form of cinders, which are usually thrown away.
69
70
HOUSEHOLD DlSCOVERlEJs
Sizes of Coal. — The large sizes of coal are the most wasteful, as the volatile gases are rarely all driven off and the heart of the large chunks is not usually consumed. The result is a residue of cinders and clinkers that choke up the grate and create a great deal of labor and discomfort. By the use of suitable grates and some care and attention, the smallest sizes of coal (which are also ton for ton much cheaper) may be utilized.
Coal — Small Sizes to Use. — The smallest size of coal in ordinary use is known as " pea coal." This requires a special grate, but after a fire has been kindled in an ordinary grate, and a good bed of coals has been made, pea coal may be used if care is taken not to shake down all the ashes at once. There is a still smaller size known as " buckwheat coal," which is even cheaper than pea coal. This may be used in place of cinders to bank down the fires at night, the advantage being that when coke or larger coal is added to the fire next morning, the buckwheat coal will be entirely con- sumed, whereas a bank of cinders tends to deaden the fire during the day.
Coke as Fuel. — Coke is produced in large quantities as a by-product of illuminating gas, and in the vicinity of gas plants in cities it is usually sold at low prices. Coke is cleaner than coal (whether hard or soft), easier to kindle, burns more freely, and leaves a much smaller residue of ash, with practically no cinders or clinkers. The principal objection to its use is, that unless care is taken it may produce too hot a fire. But this difficultj' may be overcome by bank- ing the fire after it is well kindled with buckwheat or pea coal.
Gas as Fuel. — The advantages of gas as fuel are manifold, and its use, especially for cooking purposes, is be- ing rapidly extended. It is clean, convenient, and eificient, and will be the most economical fuel when proper arrangements are made for selling it to the public at a reasonable profit. It is probable that good gas can be manufactured and sold to the public
in most localities in the neighborhood of fifty cents a thousand, and that under stress of competition new and approved appliances might be pro- duced that would decrease still fur- ther the cost of manufacture. Even at prices ranging from $1 to $1.50 and upward per thousand, the use of gas, if proper care is observed, must be regarded as economical.
HEATING SYSTEMS
The principal systems of heating dwelling houses are the use of steam, hot water or hot air, generated by furnaces (located usually in a base- ment or cellar), and the use of closed coal, oil, or gas stoves, or of open grates, which may be placed in stoves or in fireplaces. Each of these sys- tems has its advantages and disad- vantages, but, disregarding the first cost, it is probable that, from the double standpoint of efficiency and economy, they may all be rated about as follows: First, steam; second, hot water; third, hot air; fourth, the open grate; fifth, the closed coal stove; sixth, closed oil stove; seventh, closed gas stove.
Furnaces. — Fiu-naces vary greatly in the amount of coal that they con-
"Most Notable is the Underfeed System."
sume to produce a given temperature. At best only a small ^percentage of
HEATING, LIGHTING, AND REFRIGERATION 71
the actual heat value of the fuel is realized, and the future will doubtless witness great improvement in this di- rection. At present a number of new devices are on the market, of which one of the most notable is the under- feed system. This furnace is so con- structed that the fuel is deposited in a chamber below the fire box, where it is gradually warmed before being forced from below by means of a lever into the fire box. Thus the heat is saved which is wasted in other types of furnaces by raising fhe tempera- ture of cold fuel thrown directly upon the blaze, and less fuel is consumed to produce a given increase of tem- perature. There is also less imneccs- sary combustion. The difference may be illustrated by the burning of two candles, one right side up and the other upside down. The former coii-
The saving in the use of these devices would far exceed the difference in the first cost, even if they were much
"An Inevitable Waste."
sumes no more fuel than is necessary; the latter produces an inevitable waste.
Another device consists in a perfo- rated plate of metal, placed across the fire box so that the flame is broken up into a large number of small jets of burning gas. The plate also be- comes exceedingly hot and thus assists the combustion of the gases.
Other important devices •'.re means to prevent heat from being wasted by radiation in the cellar or basement or by escaping up the chimney. The in- direct-draught furnace contains a de- vice which causes the heated products of combustion to circulate in such a way, before going up the chimney, as to heat every part of the furnace.
Hot-water Radiation."
more expensive than other types of heating apparatus, which is not neces- sarily the case. Hence, their univer- sal use is to be recommended.
Steam and Hot-water Heating Sys- tems.— The first cost of installing a steam or hot-water system is consid- erable, and both require a good deal of care to produce satisfactory results. They also demand some provision for ventilation, which is an additional ex- pense. Both steam heat and hot wa- ter are difficult to adjust to sudden changes of temperature. In mild weather, steam heat is not economical, because the furnace must be kept hot enough to boil water in order to pro- duce any steam at all, and hot-water heat is inconvenient, since, if the weather becomes suddenly mild when the pipes are filled with hot water, the house will be too warm. On the other hand, if the water is allowed to cool and the temperature again changes, considerable time is required in either system to reheat the boiler.
Thermostat. — The most satisfactory results with the steam and hot-water systems are obtained by the installa- tion of the thermostat, an instrument which can be adjusted at any given temperature, so that if the heat falls below this standard the furnace draught will be automatically opened; if it rises above, the furnace draught will be closed. Thus a imiform tem- perature can be maintained v/ith the least possible attention.
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
The Ideal System. — Probably the ideal system of heating is the so-called vacuum steam system, by which a par- tial vacuum is formed in the steam
"7/ the Heat Falls
the Draught Opens."
pipes. Thus, steam may be produced in the pipes at a temperature below 213°. An attachment, known as the automatic vacuum valve, which pro- duces a similar effect, can be supplied to ordinary steam radiators. Prob- ably, then, an underfeed, indirect- draught furnace with a system of ventilation and a suitable thermostat, while somewhat expensive to install, would give the most perfect and sat- isfactory results.
Hot-air Systems. — The advantages of the hot-air systein of heating, after the first cost of installation, are that it does not require a supplementary system of ventilation, can be easily cared for, and readily adjusted to changes in temperature. The disad- vantages oftenest complained of are the dust and gases that sometimes rise from the register, the difficulty caused by high winds blowing into the cold- air boxes, and dryness of the atmos- phere caused by delivering the heated air at too high a temperature. But these disadvantages may be overcome
by proper construction and installa- tion.
To Prevent Dust. — Dust may find its way either from above or from below into the stream of warm air that rises from the register. To pre- vent its rise from below, the outer opening of the cold-air box may be screened with cheese cloth or other thin fabric, and over the seams of the cold-air box and flues may be placed a metal protector with tightly soldered joints. Thus the gases and any foul air that may be in the cellar will be excluded from the draught, and the supply of air coming in from out of doors will be fresh and pure as well as warm. To prevent dust from en- tering the flue from above, the regis- ters should be closed while sweeping and should be removed each day after sweeping and dusted out of the win- dow; one or more thicknesses of cheese cloth or netting should be stretched under the register and across the flue so as to screen the current of air as it rises. Registers set in the wall naturally receive less dust from sweep- ing than floor registers do. They also give the warm air a somewhat better circulation.
How to Hegulate Hot Air. — Hot air is a misnomer. Overheated air is detrimental to health and also in- jurious to woodwork and furniture. The term " warm air " is preferred by most authorities, and the best results are secured by having a relatively large furnace that, by delivering a large quantity of air at a moderate temperature, will heat the house com- fortably in the coldest weather. The air should not be delivered at a tem- perature greater than 120°, and under no circumstance should the fires be allowed to rage imtil the fire box is red hot.
To Overcome Dryness. — The dry- ness of the atmosphere caused by the warm-air furnace may be overcome by keeping a supply of water in the receptacle usually furnished for that purpose inside the jacket of the fur- nace; or by hanging a small tin pail of galvanized iron from a hook below
^
HEATING, LIGHTING, AND REFKIGERATIONi 73
one or more of the registers in the room, so that the current of air there- from will receive a small amount of moisture.
Hot Air — To Prevent Waste. — A great saving can be effected by casing the jacket of the furnace and the hot-air pipes with several thicknesses of asbestos paper to prevent direct radiation in the basement. Heat which would otherwise be wasted may also be utilized by the addition of a hot-water attachment. This combina- tion of the hot-air and hot-water sys- tems affords, perhaps, the greatest
" The Same Flue Will Serve Two Registers."
possible economy in fuel. The hot- water piping may be used in distrib- uting the heat to any parts of the house not equipped with the hot-air system. When possible, the hot-air flues should be so adjusted that the same flue will serve two or more reg- isters. Thus, by closing the register in the lower rooms, the heat can be
diverted through the same flue to the upper part of the house, with the least possible number of pipes and waste of heat.
The Franklin Stove. — The cele- brated device invented in 1783 by Benjamin Franklin, and called by him the " Pennsylvania fireplace," is still in some respects the most satisfactory contrivance in existence for heating individual rooms. Oddly enough, in modern stoves of this pattern a prin- cipal feature of Franklin's invention has been neglected. The Franklin stove had an air chamber behind the grate, communicating with tiie outer air through a pipe passing beneath the hearth; by this means a current of pure, warm air was admitted to the room for ventilation. If this device could be revived and widely adver- tised, there is no doubt that its supe- rior advantages would be generally recognized. The modern Franklin stove is similar to an ordinary closed stove except for its open hearth. It combines the cheerful open grate of a fireplace with economy of the heat lost in a fireplace by passing up the chimnej^ The Franklin stove can be connected by means of stovepipe with an ordinary flue.
Closed Stoves. — Closed stoves burn- ing coal, oil, or gas as fuel are, of course, in very general use for heat- ing individual aj^artments. Of these, the coal stove has the very decided advantage that the products of com- bustion pass through the stovepipes into the chimney, whereas both gas and oil stoves vitiate the air with car- bonic-acid gas and other injurious substances. For this reason, gas logs and gas grates should not be used ex- cept immediately under a chimney flue, nor should small gas stoves or oil stoves be used in living rooms or bedchambers without abundant ven- tilation.
Open Grates. — The old-fashioned open fireplace is the most cheerful and sanitary means of heating, and would be by all means to be preferred were it not that so much of the heat escapes up the chimney. It has been
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
estimated that only 5 per cent of it is thrown into the room. A re- cent invention known as the venti- lating grate overcomes this difficulty. This is an open furnace, to which fresh outdoor air is introduced by pipes which pass below the hearth and are heated by circulating around the grate, and flues through which the l>roducts of combustion escape. The pure air thus warmed is admitted into the rooms through registers. By a suitable arrangement of the flues, the warm air from the ventilating grate can be distributed through the walls to adjacent or upper rooms, and thus two or more of these grates can heat a house of six or eight rooms at less cost than a furnace.
Open fireplaces may also be profit- ably utilized for supplementary heat in connection -with different systems, _ as they afford the most perfect system of ventilation obtainable.
Economy of Stove Heat. — The heat from an ordinary stove or a Franklin stove may be economized and utilized in upper rooms by adjusting a mod- ern drum radiator to the stovepipe. A number of small tubes within the drum absorb the heat and radiate it into the apartment. The open flames of lamps and gas jets also give a good deal of heat which can be utilized by equipping them with small detachable radiators that operate on the same principle.
Gasoline Stoves. — Those who have generator gasoline stoves often com- plain that the gasoline smokes and ruins wall paper. To avoid this gen- erate the fire with wood alcohol. Keep the alcohol in a glass bottle holding about a quart. Or a machine-oil can holding about a pint will be found convenient. If the latter is used, a piece of cork should be inserted in the end of the spout to keep the gaso- line from evaporating. Or use a piece of Irish potato for this purpose.
Pour a little alcohol in the gen- erator cup, and light it the same as gasoline.
Gas Stoves. — These are of two sorts, adapted for heating and cooking re-
spectively. Gas stoves for heating may be obtained in a variety of sizes, from small cylinders to large-sized stoves of the radiator pattern. These are cleanly, cheap, and efficient, and have nothing about them to get out of order. Gas stoves for cooking may be had in all sizes, from the one- burner stove of the hot-plate type, costing about $1, to the gas kitchen range, ranging in price up to $50. The average type is a two-oven range that will broil, roast, or bake, and can be fitted with laundry conveniences. The standard size has two 16- or 18- inch ovens, and is provided on top with one double and three single burn- ers. These are equal to every require- ment of a complete kitchen range, and
"Demonstrate Superiority in Summer.
unlike the latter have no fire brick to burn out, or other parts likely to be- come warped, cracked, or injured, A gas range has every possibility of service of a coal range except heat- ing, but of course demonstrates its greatest superiority in the summer months, when cooking can be done with a minimvun of heat and fuel con- sumption.
The temperature of a gas oven can always be accurately gauged, and it is possible to have a slow fire and a hot fire at the same time, on different parts of the gas range, which is im-
HEATING, LIGHTING, AND REFRIGERATION 75
possible with a coal range. Further, a gas range is always clean, requires no blacking, kindling, or carrj'ing of coal, removal of ashes, and similar nuisances.
Gas Water Heaters. — A gas water- heating appliance attached to an or- dinary kitchen boiler will consume about thirty feet of gaS in an hour for a thirty-gallon boiler, or forty to forty-five feet for a sixty- to eighty- gallon boiler. A smaller quantity of hot water for ordinary household pur- poses can be heated in ten or fifteen minutes at a cost of less than one cent. A similar appliance may be put into the bathroom, which would heat water sufficient for a bath at a cost of from two to three cents. This is an ideal summer arrangement. But care must be taken that accidents do not occur with these, by persons lock- ing the bathroom door and being over- come by the gas.
CHIMNEYS AND FLUES
Chimneys have a twofold object — to remove the smoke and gases pro- duced by combustion, and to produce a draught to increase the rate of com- bustion. They were first introduced in Europe about the twelfth century. The first chimney in Rome was built in 1368. Chimneys did not come into general use in Europe until the seven- teenth century. Formerly — and to this day in many parts of the world — firss were built on stone or earthen hearths in the center of the room, the prod- ucts of combustion being allowed to escape through a hole in the middle of the roof.
The draught produced by a chimney depends iipon its height and propor- tions. The higher the chimney, the better the draught. The flue should be about one fifth or one sixth the area of the grate.
Chimneys are the best of ventila- tors, hence there should be one or more extending from the bottom of the cellar and opening by means or suitable flues and fireplaces into every living room in the house.
To Prevent Dampness in Chimneys. — Let the chimney start from the bot- tom of the cellar, or, if built at the side of the house, from the foundation wall, and rest on a flat stone laid in water cement. This will prevent the bricks from absorbing moisture. A chimney resting on a foundation in the upper part of the house may ac- cumulate water during a rain storm, which will saturate the bricks and communicate dampness to adjacent walls.
Chimneys — To Prevent Soot. — Mix salt freely with the mortar in which the bricks on the inside of a chimney are laid. This Avill cause tliem to at- tract moisture in drmp weathei', which will loosen the soot and cause it to fall. It will also prevent the chimney from becoming infested with chimney swallows.
To Ventilate Chimneys. — An open fireplace communicating with the chim- ney is an ideal ventilator; or a chim- ney may be built double, having two columns side by side or one within the other, one being reserved for ven- tilation and communicating with each room through an opening in the ceiling.
Or a double chimney may have one column within the other, the air space between the two being connected with the rooms by ventilators.
Chimneys — To Prevent Smoke. — Build a long, narrow flue 4 or 5 inches deep and 15 to 18 inches wide, thus having an opening of 60 to 90 square inches. Let the flue open into an air chamber in the chimney of twice its size, i. e., an area of 120 to ISO square inches or 11 to 16 inches square, but this may be reduced toward the top of the chimney if desired. Carry the chimney as high above the roof as good taste will permit, and let the flue approach the chimney at an angle, or, if possible, by a number of turns. Usually the more crooked the flue the better the draught. A straight fun- nel does not usually draw well.
To Cure a Smoky Chimney. — First note the cause. Either too much air is admitted below, or the draught is insufficient, or the wind blows dov^Ti
76
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
into the chimney from above. Hence, according to circumstances, contract the draught by narrowing the entrance to the grate or fireplace, or increase the height or crookedness of the flue and shaft, or place on the top of the chimney a wind shield or turn cap, which will revolve with the wind in such a way as to prevent the gusts from blowing down the chimney.
The draught is caused by the fact that hot air rises and tends to create a vacuum, which by suction draws cold air after it. Hence, anything that chills the column of air in the chimney tends to check the draught. Therefore avoid admitting, across the top of the fire in a grate or fireplace, enough cold air to cool the flue. The fire should be located in such relation to the flue that the rising current of hot air will have the right of way and tend to fill the flue, to the exclusion of the cold air of the room; thus the latter will be sucked up through the fire itself, assisting the combustion and strengthening the draught.
To Kindle Fires without Smoke. — To start a draught without smoke, on kindling a fire in an open grate when the air in the chimney is cold and the first flame is feeble, use a sufficient quanti>ty of very combustible sub- stances, as kindlings, to create flames. These will heat the air in the chimney before cold or solid fuel is added, which burns less perfectly.
Or reduce the opening to the grate or fireplace by means of a blower or light screen lined with asbestos and placed across the opening so as to admit air only in the required quan- tity and beneath the grate.
To Prevent Smoke. — A hot fire will consume its own smoke. Hence, to prevent the formation of smoke, heat a hot bed of coals and add fresh fuel in such limited quantity as not to lower the heat of the fire below the smoke-consuming point. Push the coals back and put on fresh fuel so that the smoke will pass over the bed of live coals, where it will be con- sumed.
Or adjust a wire screen having
forty or more wires to the inch, to prevent the escape of smoke.
To Clean Chimneys. — Prepare a bed of hot coals in the stove, throw open the draughts and dampers, and throw on the coals some pieces of old zinc, as the zinc from an old washboard. This will clean out all soot from the chimney.
Or the chimney may be swept if the shaft is straight by attaching a heavy stone or other weight to the butt of a small pine or hemlock sapling and fastening a rope to its upper part. The weight will carry the sapling down the chimney, and when it is dragged back the extending branches will sweep clean the soot. Care must be taken to use a rope sufficiently strong and a sapling not too large, so as to prevent the rope from parting or the brush from lodging in the shaft.
To Stop Leaks in Chimneys. — Make a cement of coal tar and sand, and apply as may be convenient within ov without.
To Put Out Fires in Chimneys. — Throw sulphur on the fire so that the fumes will ascend the flue. Take pre- cautions not to breathe the fumes of burning sulphur.
Or ascend to the roof and throw salt down the chimney. Or shut off the draught from below if possible by covering the opening to the fireplace with wet blankets or otherwise. Or, if the fire is not too strong, put a tight cover over the top of the chimney.
FIEE EXTINGUISHEESs AND SIRE
ESCAPES
To Extinguish Fires. — The objects to be attained in putting out fire are principally two: to cut oif its source of supply in the oxygen of the air, and to lower the temperature of the burning substances below the point of combustion. Drenching the burning parts with water accomplishes both objects. It prevents the access of air and chills the burning parts.
A heavy woolen cloth thrown over or wrapped about burning objects smothers the fire by shutting off the
HEATING, LIGHTING, AND REFRIGERATION 77
air, and if wet, also assists by lower- ing the temperature.
Chemical fire extinguishers produce noninflammable gas, as carbon dioxide, which flows over the burning parts the same as water, temporarily shutting off the supply of air; hence the fol- lowing suggestions for extinguishing fires:
Close the doors and windows to pre- vent draughts. Seize the burning ob- jects if small and movable, as lamps, curtains, and the like, and throw them out of the window, or wrap them in rugs or woolen table covers or bed covers.
Or, if solid, heavy objects are on fire, seize a woolen blanket or other heavy woolen article, and if possible beat out the flames. If a small quan- tity of water is at hand, dip the woolen cloth into it and beat the fire with that. A single pail of water will go further if soaked up in a blanket than if dashed directly on the flames.
Or, if plenty of water is at hand, dip a mop in it and beat the flames, or dash it on the fire in small quanti- ties from a dipper, directing it in- telligently to cover as much space as possible.
To Put Out Burning Garments. — If a person's clothing takes fire, he should be rolled up in a woolen rug, overcoat, table cover, or blanket to smother the fire.
Or, if alone, he should roll himself up in one of these articles as quickly as possible; roll over and over on the floor or bed; or tear up the carpet and roll up in that.
To Extinguish Fire with Chemicals. — To make a chemical fire extinguish- er, prepare a mixture of substances that will produce carbonic-acid gas in the presence of water, and arrange so that a stream of mingled gas and water will be thrown upon the flames by the expansive power of the gas. This is the celebrated patent of Will- iam A. Graham of Lexington, Va., that was contested during nearly fifty years in the United States courts. It is the principle of most chemical fire extinguishers now upon the market.
The substances most commonly mixed to produce carbonic-acid gas are common soda and sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol. Numerous practical devices have been patented for stor- ing these two, or other substances, in a suitable receptacle side by side, but
" The Celebrated Patent of Graham.
so arranged that they will not minglf until wanted. Then, by turning the receptacle upside down, or turning a stopcock, tlie acid is precipitated into a solution of bicarbonate of soda in water and the water is thereby charged with carbonic-acid gas, which, by its expansive power, ejects the stream of mingled gas and water through a flexible rubber tube and a nozzle.
One device consists of a tank or jar containing a strong solution of bicar- bonate of soda or common baking soda in water in which is immersed a
78
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
tightly stoppered bottle containing oil oi vitriol. The stopper of the bottle may be pulled out by means of a wire running through the cover of the tank, thus allowing the acid to mingle with the soda solution and produce car- bonic-acid gas. To imitate this device, take an old milk can or a five-gallon oil can and have a tinsmith fit it with a screw top and a stopcock fitted with a flexible rubber tube and a nozzle. Plain rubber tubing or flexible gas pipe is suitable for this purpose. The longer, the better. Fasten to the re- movable screw top by means of wire a glass bottle containing sulphuric acid and having a glass stopper. Fas- ten another wire about the neck of this stopper, let it protrude through the cover, and end in a ring by means of which the stopper may be with- drawn. But care must be taken to use wires strong enough so that, should the stopper stick, the bottle may be broken off if need be without remov- ing the screw top of the can. When required, carry the extinguisher to the vicinity of the fire, pull out the stop- per, and shake the can to mix the oil and soda solution. Turn the stop- cock and direct the resulting stream of water charged with carbonic-acid gas ifpon the flame.
Or an ordinary pair of pliers or nippers used to handle wire may be set in the screw top of the can to hold the neck of the bottle of acid between their teeth. Then by closing the han- dle of the nippers the neck of the vial may be broken, allowing the acid to drop into the soda solution. This should be a little below the mouth of the can, so that the pliers themselves will not be immersed. They may be protected from rust by coating with rust-proof varnish.
Or get a cylinder or pipe of tin, zinc, or other suitable material, and by means of a perforated partition neo* one end divide into t\vo com- partments, one much larger than the other. Fit the opposite end with a stopcock, a flexible tube, and a nozzle. The larger compartment contains the solution of bicarbonate of soda iu
water; the smaller contains sulphuric acid in the form of a dry powder or crystals too coarse to pass through the ijerforations in the partition. This cylinder when not in use must, ot course, be kept upright so that the soda solution will not come in contact with the acid; when required for use it must be inverted, the soda solution will then fall through the perforation? upon the dry acid, and the mixture >^dll produce carbonic-acid gas.
Or the partition may be operated bj' means of a plunger which wil) knock it out of the way so that the dry soda will fall into the soda solu- tion. Any tinsmith or person of me- chanical ingenuity can construct at a very nominal cost either of these de- vices and charge it with the same ma- terials as are used in the most expen- sive fire extinguisher upon the market But take care to use a strong recep- tacle or to open the stopcock so as to give the mixture a vent by means of a suitable tube and nozzle as soon as the acid and the soda solution are brought into combination. This will prevent an explosion. Take care also to combine the materials in the right proportion.
The proportions in which sulphuric acid and bicarbonate of soda unite to form carbonic-acid gas are 5 parts of sulphuric acid and 6 parts of bicar- bonate of soda (which is ordinary baking soda), by weight. Commercial bicarbonate of soda requires 13 times its weight of water to fully dissolve it. Hence a sufficiently large I'ecep- tacle would require 6 povmds of bak- ing soda dissolved in 78 pounds of water and 5 pounds of suliDhuric acid so arranged as to be poured into the soda solution when required.
To fill a smaller tank in the same projDortions, place the tank on the scales and note its weight. Now fili about two thirds or more with water. Note the total weight and subtract the weight of the tank. Divide this amount expressed in pounds by 13, and the result will be the number of pounds of soda required. The weight of acid required will be five sixths the
HEATING, LIGHTING, AND REFRIGERATION 79
weight of the soda. Dissolve the soda in the water and place the sul- phuric acid in a glass bottle so ar- ranged that when required for use the bottle may be turned over by a crank or otherwise and the acid spilled into the charge of soda water. Carbonic-acid gas will be generated at once under strong enough pressure to force the whole contents with con- siderable power through a nozzle di- rected against the fire.
Or dissolve copperas or ferrous sulphate, 5 parts; ammonium sul- phate, 20 parts, in water, 125 parts.
Or dissolve in 75 parts water, cal- cium chloride, 20 parts; salt, 5 parts.
The two last may be kept conveni- ently at hand for use with a hand pump.
Hand Fire Extinguisher. — Another device consists of a mixture of suit- able substances combined in a glass vessel, which must be thrown upon the fire with sufficient force to break the glass. To make hand grenades or fiie extinguishers of this sort take pint or quart fruit jars or any large bottles and charge them with a mixture of equal parts of sugar of lead, alum, and common salt, dissolved in water. Keep these tightly corked in various parts of the house. To extinguish a fire throw one or more of these bot- tles into or just above the burning parts, so that the liquid will fall upon the wood or flames.
Or charge these bottles with a mix- ture made of 2 pounds of common salt, 1 pound of muria;te of ammonia, and 3 quarts of water. Dissolve, bot- tle, cork, and keep at hand in various parts of the house for emergency. Throw the bottles into the fire with force enough to break them.
Or dissolve pearlash, soda, wood ashes, or common salt in the water which is being dashed upon the flames from pails or pitchers, or in which are soaked cloths to beat out the flames.
Fire Extinguisher Hand Grenades. —Fill round bottles of thin blue glass with a mixture of equal parts of com- mon borax and sal ammoniac or cal-
cium chloride. Add just enough water to dissolve these substances, thus making strong saturated solu- tions.
Fire Drills. — Boys should be en- couraged to prepare, under proper supervision, one or more of these fire extinguishers, and practice with them in putting out fires made out of doors for this purpose. A few experiments will insure that the directions have been understood, and will give valu- able practice as a sort of fire drill in advance of the emergency, as there is always danger of fire, whether from lightning or other cause, in isolated farmhouses and other buildings, not within reach, as in cities, of a fire de- partment. A conflagration may not only destroy the results of the labor of a lifetime, but also lead to loss of life from the flames or from conse- quent exposure in severe weather. Hence the importance of such prepa- ration can hardly be overestimated, especially when it can be done at very little expense. Moreover, such experi- ments have an important educational influence.
To Extinguish Kerosene Fire. — Do not throw water on the flames of burning kerosene, gasoline, benzine, naphtha, or other petroleum products. The water will spread the flames and not put them out. Instead use milk, which forms an emulsion with the oil and extinguishes it.
Fire Escapes. — ^You may remember Mark Twain's story of the " poor white " in Arkansas whose roof leaked so badly that the bed in which he slept was wet by every storm. When asked why he did not mend the roof, he replied that he could not do so when it rained without getting wet, and when the weather was fair it was not necessary.
That is the attitude of many per- sons in regard to fire escapes. Suit- able provision for escape from attics, chambers, and other upper rooms is rarely thought of, except in the actual moment of danger, when stairways may be choked with smoke and flames. Many persons have escaped from up-
80
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
per windows of cottages and other low dwellings by knotting sheets and other bed covers together to form a strong rope, fastening one end to the bedpost, and sliding down this to the ground. This plan should be talked over in the family circle so as to be
"Suitable Provisions for Escape.
clearly understood by children and others in case of emergency.
Or, if the rooms are too high from the ground to admit of this mode of escape, fasten a strong iron hook to the window casing, and have at hand a knotted rope long enough to reach to the ground.
Or, if this is not to be had, the bed may be thrown out of the window to assist in breaking the shock, and the person may make a rope of the bed covers and slide down as far as pos- sible before dropping on the bed. A skylight should be cut in the roof of every dwelling and a permanent lad- der fixed to give access to this, and also from thence to the edge of the roof and to the ground. This will admit of escajDe if the staircase should take fire and fall.
To Escape from Fires. — As the heated air, smoke, and noxious gases produced by combustion tend to rise, the purest air Is next the floor. Hence, in escaping from fires, creep or crawl with the face near the floor. If time admits, a handkerchief or other thin cloth dipped in water and held over the nostrils will to some extent pre- vent drawing smoke into the lungs. Bystanders may assist in the escape of persons who are obliged to jump by holding a horse blanket or other large, strong cloth or canvas to receive them. The larger the cloth, the more persons holding it, and the higher it is held from the ground, the better.
FIREPROOriNG AND WATER- PROOFING
To Prevent Fires. — The following substances are recommended for fire- proofing cloth and other materials: Alum, borax, vitriol, copperas, sul- phate of ammonia, soluble glass, tung- state of soda, and phosphate of am- monia; also various combinations and preparations of these.
To Fireproof Cloth. — Mix equal quantities of alum, borax, and vitriol, or copperas ; dissolve with boiling wa- ter or a thin size made by melting an ounce of glue or gum arable in a gallon of water. Use no more water than is necessary to dissolve perfectly. Dilute the mixture to liquid form and soak the fabric in this. .This prepara- tion is for articles to be used about stoves and flames, as holders, fire screens, and the like.
To Fireproof Garments. — ^Mix tung- state of soda with boiled starch, or dissolve alum in water, or both. The timgstate of soda does not interfere with the ironing and is the best sub- stance to fireproof children's garments, lace curtains, and other light fabrics which are in danger of tak'ng fire.
To Fireproof Fabrics. — Dissolve 13 ounces of borax and 9 ounces of sul- phate of magnesia in 5 pounds of boiling water. In this immerse the fabric when cool.
Or dip the fabric in soluble glass.
HEATING, LIGHTING, AND REFRIGERATION 81
diluted with boiling water to 25° B. Hang to drip dry without wringing. While still damp, immerse in a solu- tion of 1 pound of sulphate of alu- mina and 1 pound of sulphate of copper in 10 pounds of water. Dry without wringing in the open air.
To Fireproof Canvas. — To fireproof canvas awnings or other coarse mate- rials, make a hot solution of 3 parts of alum and 1 part of copperas. Im- merse the articles three times, letting them drip dry between each immer- sion. Finally let dry and by means of a brush apply a solution of cop- peras mixed with pipe clay to the consistency of paint. This is a cele- brated German recipe.
To Fireproof Wood. — To fireproof wood impregnate it with alum, borax, or copperas, or a mixture of these.
Or mix 2^ pounds sulphate of zinc, 1 pound of potash, 2 pounds of alum, and 1 pound of manganic oxide with lukewarm water in an iron kettle. Stir and add slowly 1 pound of sulphuric acid, 60 per cent pure. Dissolve the same proportions by weight for larger quantities. To apply, build up the pieces of wood coi-ncob fashion, and wrap them at their points of junc- ture with sufficient wire to keep them at least an inch apart. This method ad- mits of immersing the greatest quan- tity of wood in the smallest bulk of liquid. Place the wood thus prepared in an old iron sink or tank and pour the liquid over it. Allow it to soak three or four hours, afterwards to drijj drj'', and season under shade in tiie open air.
To Waterproof Cloth. — Substances recommended for waterproofing cloth are alum, acetate of lead (sugar of lead), linseed , oil, and solutions of India rubber, isinglass, and wax in turpentine and other solvents, or mix- tures of the above in varying propor- tions. India rubber and other close waterproof fabrics are impervious to air as well as moisture ; hence they are hot, close, and uncomfortable, besides being imhealthful. Ordinary fabrics, as wool, linen, or cotton, duck, canvas, and the like, may be made waterproof
by immersing in any of the above mix- tures without afPecting their porous qualities.
The following methods are recom- mended: Dissolve in a wash boiler 1 oimce of yellow soap in 4 gallons of water and bring it to a boil. Allow the liquid to cool and when cold im- merse the fabric for twenty-four hours. Remove without wringing, and let it drip till partially dry. While still moist immerse it in a solution of A pound of alum and ^ pound of sugar of lead in 3 gallons of water. Dissolve these substances separately each in 1-1 gallons of water, stir vig- orously, and mix the two solutions. Soak the fabric in this for three or four hours, and hang it up to drip dry. When nearly dry it may be dipped again if desired.
Or, for delicate fabrics, allow the mixture to settle, pour off the clear liquid from the sediment, and immerse in this. Fabrics thus treated are par- tially fireproof as well as waterproof.
Or dissolve one pound of alum in a gallon of boiling water. Allow the liquid to cool and soak the fabric in it, but this is not equal to the mixture of alum and sugar of lead.
Or put 5 pounds of sulphate of alu- mina in Ih gallons of water; in a separate receptacle dissolve 3 pounds of oleic acid and 1^ quarts of alcohol. Stir vigorously until dissolved. Now add the sulphate of alumina in a thin stream, mix and allow it to settle for twenty-four hours. Pour off the clear liquid, which may be discarded. Dry the residue with heat, and pulverize. Make a solution of this substance at the rate of 1 pound to 10 gallons of water to waterproof any silk, linen, or woolen fabric. Immerse the cloth or garment until it is thoroughly sat- urated, and afterwards allow it to drip dry.
Or mix 4 ounces of isinglass, 4 ounces of alum, and 3 oxmces of yel- low soap, and dissolve in hot water to form an emulsion about the consist- ency of milk. Apply with a stiff brush to the wrong side of the fabric, rubbing thoroughly. Remove the es-
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
Incandescent gas or gasoline gas at %! per 1,000 it. costs Jc. per hour. Equals breath of 3 persons; b. Acetylene gas costs |c. per hour. Equals 2 or 3 peisons; c. Kerosene lamp costs Ic. Equals 7 or 8 persons ; d. Open flame gas costs Jc. Equals (i persons; e. Electric bulb costs lie C onsumes no oxygen; f. Candles cost &ic. Each candle equals 12 persons.
cess by sponging with water, or with a brush dipped in water, and rub smooth with a dry brush.
Or dissolve pure India rubber and turpentine to a thin solution, and ap- ply with a brush. Afterwards apply a coating of sugar of lead dissolved in water.
To Waterproof and Color Black. — Raise to a boil 4 quarts of linseed oil and stir in 1 ounce of burnt umber, 1 ounce of acetate of lead, and 15 ounces of lampblack. Dry and apply a second coat of the same solution, leaving out the sugar of lead. Allow this to )dry and rub it down witli a stiff bristle brush. Apply a third coat if desired.
Or raise to a boil 4- quarts of lin- seed oil. Add 3 ounces of burnt um- ber, 2 ounces of sugar of lead, 1^ ounces of sulphate of zinc, ii ounces of Prussian blue, and IJ ounces of verdigris. Stir these into the oil and add 10 ounces of lampblack, stirring vigorously. Apply with a brush as in painting. Two or three coats of either of these mixtures should give a hard, durable waterproof surface of a black color and having a high gloss.
To Waterproof Canvas Tents or Awnings. — Mix 8 pounds of white lead with one fourth by bulk spirits of turpentine. Stir in 1 ounce of su- gar of lead and 1 ounce of white vitriol. Dilute with boiled linseed oil to the consistency of paint.
First boil the fabric in suds and
rinse clean. Or scrub with soap and water and a stiff brush, afterwards applying water with a brush to remove all traces of soap. Apply the water- proofing with a painter's brush and stretch tightly while drying.
ASTIFICIAL ILLUMINATION
Use of Systems of Illumination. — Artificial light is the third most im- portant of the necessities of civiliza- tion, taking rank after the items of clothing and shelter. A comparative statement of the annual value of illu- mination in the United States shov/s the following results: Acetylene (esti- mated), about $11,000,000; illumina- ting gas, §60,000,000; kerosene, $133,- 000,000; electricity, $150,000,000; or total of $360,000,000, being about $4 for every man, woman, and child in the United States. Probably 10 per cent of the light thus generated is wasted through misuse and ignorance, which would amount to forty cents per capita for the entire population of the country, or a total of $36,000,- 000. Including all items pertaining to the lighting industry, it is probable that the grar.d total of expenditure would reach annually $500,000,000.
Cost of Lighting Systems. — An av- erage period for the burning of arti- ficial liglit per twenty-four hours is perhaps from 6 to 10 p.m., or about four hours. A careful comparison of the cost of different systems of light- ing shows that each twenty-four can-
HEATING, LIGHTING, AND REFRIGERATION
8S
die power of light produced from gas at $1 a thousand with a Welsbach burner, or from gasoline gas with a Welsbach burner, would be f cent for four hours, or about $2A6 a year; the same candle power produced from acetylene would be 1 1% for four hours, or $5.85 a year; from kerosene- 2| cents a day, or $8.76 a year. From gas at $1 per thousand without a Welsbach burner, 3 cents a day, or $10.95 a year ; from incandescent elec- tric lamps, 5 cents a day, or $18.25 a year. But of course allowance must be made for varying prices and other local conditions.
Effect of Artificial Light on Health. — It is not commonlj^ known that most ordinary lights vitiate the atmosphere of living rooms to a greater extent than does the breathing of several persons. The incandescent electric light has a great advantage in this respect, as it is inclosed in a vacuum, and so consumes no oxygen and gives off very little heat. The next least injurious form of lighting is the Welsbach burner with any illuminat- ing gas, which consumes about the same amount of air as three persons. The ordinary gas jet without the Welsbach burner vitiates the air about as rapidly as the breathing of five persons; the common oil lamp, about the same as that of eight persons; and the ordinary tallow candle is equal to the breath of twelve persons in the amount of atmospheric oxygen it consumes.
COAL GAS, GASOLINE GAS, AND ACETYLENE
Gas. — Gas for illuminating pur- poses was invented by William Mur- doch in 1793 at Redrutch, Cornwall, England. It was first used in the United States in 1806 by David Melville, of Newport, R. I. It was introduced in Boston in 1823, and in New York the year following. Gas is now used for heating and cooking as well as for illuminating purposes by upward of half the population of the United States. As its convenience and economy become better known.
the number of towns and villages to introduce gas will no doubt steadily increase.
Coal gas is made by distilling bi- tuminous coal with heat in a retort, condensing and separating it from the water, vapor of tar, and other solid substances, and purifying the result- ing product to remove the compounds of sulphur and carbonic-acid gas. A by-product of this process is coke, about one-third of which is required for heating the retorts; the rest is sold. Other by-products are ammonia water and coal tar.
Illuminating gas consists of nearly equal parts of hydrogen (which burns with a blue flame, giving heat but no light), marsh gas, and other hydro- carbons (which burn with a luminous flame, but deposit soot if not fully consumed), and small quantities of carbonic oxide, and nitrogen, which are impurities and diminish the illu- minating power of the gas.
Gas, after being purified, is usually stored in a cylindrical tank with a conical top made of iron plates float- ing in a cistern of water. This is so arranged as to exert a uniform pres- sure on the gas equal to that of a column of water 6 inches high. The pressure serves to distribute the gas in the mains. These are usually made of cast iron from 24 inches down to 3 inches in diameter and laid about 3 feet under ground. The mains are connected with the buildings of con- sumers by service pipes, which should be below the frost line. Otherwise they may be closed by hoarfrost caused by the freezing of the watery vapor contained in the gas. The gas is measured by means of a house meter before being distributed.
Gas Meters. — The gas meter is not constructed like a clock, as the dial seems to suggest; hence, contrary to common belief, a gas meter in good order cannot run either too fast or too slow. The meter is an engine in which the gas is the motive power. Unless the gas actuallj^ passes through the meter, the latter does not move. The dials mechanically and actually
84
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
fecord the number of revolutions in cubic feet. The popular notions that gas meters are often inaccurate, and that an increased pressure or the practice of turning on the gas with full force when first lighted may make the meter spin faster and record against the consumer, are erroneous. Of course the meter records all gas which passes, including that which is wasted as well as that which is used. Hence gas jets should be regulated so as to prevent " blowing " or the pass- ing of unconsumed gas. This regula- tion neutralizes the effect of any in- crease in the pressure in the gas mains. Contrary to common belief, most in- juries to a meter work against the company. Any apertures caused by use in the interior of the meter may allow the gas to get through without being recorded. Not infrequently the valves of a meter become fixed so as to let gas through without being reg- istered. Hence meters are tested at intervals by inspectors, who pass a certain number of cubic feet through them and note whether or not the dials make proper record.
Amount of Gas Consumed. — Learn to read the gas meter and thus note what amount of gas is being con- sumed.'" The ordinary flat-flame burner should consume 5 or 6 feet of gas an hour. If badly adjusted or of faulty construction, it may consume 10 to 15 cubic feet an hour. A Welsbach burner uses only about 3 feet an hour. A medium-sized two-oven range with all burnei's lighted consumes about 60 feet an hour. A gas cylinder stove about 2t feet an hour. At least once a month make a test by reading the gas meter in the morning, noting care- fully the time each burner is lighted, and again reading the gas meter at night. If the quantity consumed is greatly in excess of the above figures it indicates that the burners are poor- ly adjusted. In that case notify the gas company, whose duty it is to regu- late the burners, and to keep them in order. Gas is the most economical of fuels if used with intelligence and care.
To Burn Gas. — There are a right way and a wrong way to burn gas. In other words the illmnination ob- tained from the gas burned depends
Sf?: TIP ^FT. T/PO
"A Right Way and a Wrong Way."
upon perfect combustion at the burner tip. And this combustion cannot take place unless the tip itself is in good condition.
The picture on the left shows a 5- f oot tip ; the shape of the flame is full and regular, giving the fullest illu- minating power of the gas consumed. On the other hand, the picture on the right shows a 3-foot tip burning 5 feet of gas per hour and giving poor light ; the flame is irregular and the com- bustion imperfect, due to the use of a burner tip not designed to burn over 3 cubic feet.
It is obvious, then, that it is highly important to see that the burners and tips are intelligently selected and that they are kept in good condition, if gas is to be used economically, and the full illuminating power of the gas consumed obtained.
To Read the Gas Meter. — The fig- ures on the index at the right hand denote even hundreds. When the hand completes the entire circle it denotes
•OOOO iooo lOO.EACIi
" The Figures on the Index."
ten hundred, and is registered by the hand in the center circle pointing to 1; each figure in the center circle de- notes a thousand, this entire circle
HEATING, LIGHTING, AND REFRIGERATION 85
being ten thousand, which is registered at 1 on the index of the left-hand circle by the hand, each figure there denoting ten thousand.
The quantity of gas which passes through the meter is ascertained by reading from the index at the time tlse amount is required to be known, iind deducting therefrom the quantity shown by the index at a previous ob- cervation.
If the whole is registered by the hands on the three circles above, it indicates 49,900
Amount at previous observa- tion, as shown by the dotted lines 42,500
Amount which passed through since last taken off 7,400
I'he register at all times shows the tjtiantity that has passed through since tiie meter was first set. Deducting from this the amount that has been paid ror (without any regard to the time wnen), the remainder shows what is unpaid.
Or, in different words, the dial on the right hand (marked 1,000) indi- cates l(/0 feet from one figure to the next. The middle dial (marked 10,- 000) indrcates 1,000 feet from one figure to tne next. The dial on the left (markea i00,000) indicates 10,000 feet from one figure to the next.
If the hann on the right-hand dial is between the figures 2 and 4, the lesser of the two numbers is read, the index reading x^UO feet. If the hand on the middle dial is between 1 and 0, this dial reads 3,000 feet. If the hand on the left-hand dial is between 0 and 6, the reading of this dial is 50,000 feet. The complete index as indicated on the three dials reads 53,200 feet.
At $1 per thousand feet, the hand on the right-I.ind dial passing from the zero point 0 to the figure 1, would indicate that ten cents' worth of gas has been registered on the meter. This hand would have to make one entire revolution of this dial and reach the cero point again to register $1 worth
of gas, and the hand on the middle dial will have moved just one point, or from the zero point 0 to the figure 1, indicating the 1,000 feet of gas which has been registered in hundreds on the right-hand dial.
The small (2-foot) dial which is on the face of the consumer's meter is not read except for testing purposes, and registers only two feet of gas for each revolution of the hand.
Shades and Chimneys. — The use of shades and chimneys causes a very considerable loss of light on account of the conversion of the light from flame into heat. The loss from a clear glass is 10 per cent or 11 per cent, from ground glass about 30 per cent, opal glass over 50 per cent, orange- colored glass about 35 per cent, pur- ple, ruby, or green, over 80 per cent, or transparent i^orcelain over 95 per cent. Hence care should be used that the kind of shade or chimney employed does not interpose to cut off the direct rays of light upon the objects to be illuminated. The Ar~ gand chimneys are of two kinds: the straight and the bulb varieties. Of these the straight variety is to be preferred.
Gas Burners. — Gas burners are of three kinds: the common bat-wing burner with a slit, the fish-tail with two oblique holes facing each other, and the Argand, a circular burner with a ring of small holes, a glass chimney, and an interior supply of air. In addition to these are the Welsbach burner having a fiber cap, and the Bunsen burner, used for heating in chemical laboratories.
Burners are constructed in vary- ing sizes to burn 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 cubic feet of gas per hour, accord- ing to the size of the flame when turned on full. Under equal condi- tions the larger burners are more economical than the smaller. That is, a burner which consumes 4 feet of gas gives twice as much light as two burners that consume each 3 feet. Hence there is great economy in the use of a few large burners over man^ small ones.
86
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
Pressure of Gas. — Gas is frequently supplied at a much higher pressure than is necessary to give the best re- sults. Hence if the jet is turned on full some of the gas will escape, caus- ing the well-known " blowing " noise.
"'Burners in Varying Sizes:-
To prevent this, always on lighting the jet turn the stopcock backward as much as possible without percep- tibly d,ecreasing the light. This prac- tice alone, if adhered to, will make a very important difference in the con- sumption of gas.
Or the gas may be partially turned oif at the meter, or a check can be introduced into the burner. One of the best checks is to screw a burner
a. "One of the Best Checks."
b, "Different Types of Burners."
intended to consume 5 or 6 feet of gas an hour over a 3- or 4-foot burner. A low pressure with a burner which secures a supply of air just enough
to prevent smoking gives a maximmn amount of light.
A Welsbach burner having a cap or mantle constructed on the well-known principle of the miner's safety lamp consumes from 3 to 3-J feet of gas an hour and gives about 60 candle power, as against the 16 candle power of the ordinary electric light bulb. In a well-regulated Welsbach burner there should be no smoke. The blackening of the mantle is caused by the im- proper adjustment of the air shutter and consequent clogging of the wire gauze or air holes in the burner which produces an improper mixture of gas and air.
To prevent the heat of the Welsbach light from discoloring the ceiling, put a mica dome over it. This is made to fit into or clamp to the top of the "lamp chimney. Or suspend a glass smoke bell from the ceiling. If Wels- bach lights, after being used for a month or two, become dim, probably the wire gauze of the burner is rusted or dirty. It should be removed and cleaned before a new mantle is ad- j usted.
To Change a Mantle on a Welsbach Lamp. — To change a cap mantle take it up gently and put it down on a steady base, say, on the mantelpiece, handling it by the base or cap. To change a loop mantle, disengage the supporting rod by setting back the set screw. Lift the mantle off care- fully by raising the supporting wire. Slip a stiff wire or knitting needle through the loop in the top of the mantle at right angles with it. Hang the mantle in a pitcher having the ends of the knitting needle rest on each side. Be careful not to jar or knock the mantle in raising or re- placing it. The best of these mantles are exceiedingly delicate and will fall to pieces at a touch.
Gas Troubles. — If the gas goes out, send for the gas fitter or notify the office of the company. But as this may occur at night whca help cannot be obtained it is well to know how to meet the emergency. The cause may be a deficiency of water or an excess
HEATING, LIGHTING, AND REFHIGERATION 8t
of V, ater, freezing of the meter, freez- ing of the service pipes, or the con- densation of water in the house pipes. Close the cocks of all the burners except one. When approaching the meter with a candle or open-flame lamp, keep the light at a distance to prevent an explosion. Turn off the gas at the main cock between the street surface pipe and the meter. Unscrew the plug of the waste-water sj'stem to let out any excess of water.
If the meter is frozen, cover it with a flannel cloth and pour boiling water over it. Afterwards wrap it in dry flannel or protect it by felt, straw, tan bark, sawdust, or sand. If the surface pipe is frozen outside the house, it will be necessary to uncover it and apply heat.
If water has condensed in the pipes it will cause the gas to jump up and down for some days before it finally puts the gas out. Hence, when it jumps or flickers, the gas company should be notified.
Or, on emergency, remove a burner and blow violently Into the pipe. This will sometimes force the water below the hollow. If the trouble persists, the location of the meter should be changed to a lower one, and the pipes inclined so that all condensed water will trickle back to the meter.
Gas Arc Lamps. — These lamps are intended to give a maximum light with a minimum consumption of gas. They are composed of four burners of the incandescent burner or Welsbach type, and give a vronderfully high illumina- ting jjov/er, especially adapted for use in rooms of large area like stores, assembly halls, and churches having lofty ceilings. They are made for both outside and interior lighting, and are especially valuable for commercial purposes.
Gas Leaks. — If a strong odor of gas is detected, probably a stopcock has been left open and the gas thus escapes at full force. Do not go near such an open gas jet with a light, as gas mingled with air is a highly explo- sive mixture. To enter a room filled with gas, first open adjacent doors
and windows to create a draught, throw the doors wide open, rush across the room, and throw the windows wide open, meantime holding the breath. The air is purest next the floor; hence if in danger of being overcome lie face down on the floor, where the air is likely to be comparatively pure. Turn off the open cock as soon as possible. If the odor of gas is slight, it may come from a small leak in the pipe or about a burner. To find such a leak light a match and carry the flame along the pipe from the tip of the jet as far as the pipe is exposed. When the leak is found, the gas will take fire.
Or dissolve half a bar of hard yel- low soap in li pints of water, and apply the mixture to the gas pipe with a brush. If there is gas escaping through holes it will form bubbles which can be seen and the leak de- tected without danger of explosion.
To mend a small leak in a gas pipe cover the place temporarily with yel- low soap; stop it permanently with a cement made of white lead and boiled linseed oil.
Acetylene Gas. — The use of acetylene gas for lighting purposes marks an era in artificial illumination. Acety- lene is produced by the contact of calcium carbide (which has some^vhat the appearance of gunpowder) and water. The result is the evolution of a gas which burns with a pure white light giving the nearest approach to sunlight, and has an illuminating pow- er more than twelve times as great as that of ordinary gas. The introduc- tion of acetylene is comparatively re- cent, and some prejudice against it has been aroused by defects in the style of generators first placed upon the market. The experimental period is now we'1-nigh passed, and the Na- tional Board of Fire Underwriters has approved a large number of genera- tors. If a proper apparatus is select- ed, acetylene may be regarded to be as safe as any other illuminant. The various generators on the markets are of two types: one, in whiclv. the gas is produced by placing the calcium car-
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
bide in a suitable receptacle and al- lowing water to gradually fall upon it; the other, in which a receptacle is filled with a relatively large quantity of water and the calcium carbide is al- lowed to drop into the water in small
"Generators of Two Types."
quantities. The latter type of gen- erator is the safer and is consequently to be preferred. The brilliancy of acetylene flame is so great that a small one the size of a copper cent is sufii- cient to light an ordinary living room. Hence the air is vitiated much less than by most other forms of illumina- tion. Recent experiments at Cornell University show that the light fur- nished by acetjlene has, to a consid-
" The Power of Sunlight in Promoting Growth
arable degi'ee, the power that sunlight has in promoting the growth of vege- tation. It is much less trying to the eyes than electricity or ordinary gas,
* Both lilies had the same treatment ex- cept that the larger was exposed at night to the light of acetylene gas.
and is likely to become increasingly popular.
Gasoline Gas. — Perhaps the cheap- est method of illumination in localities that are not supplied with illuminating gas or that are furnished with the gas at high prices, is tlie use of gasoline gas. A tank of gasoline is located outside of the dwelling house and buried six or eight feet under grouJid. To produce the gas it is only neces- sary to pass a current of air across the surface of the gasoline. A very simple contrivance for this purpose is a blower, which may be operated by windmill, water power, or by means of weights and pulleys installed in the cellar. Of course the necessary pip- ing must be provided to carry the gasoline gas to various parts of the dwelling as required, and also an au- Jtomatic air mixer. When the gasoline tank is outside the premises and un- derground, there is no possibility of explosion. The entire apparatus is very simple, and while the first cost has to be taken into account, the cost of operation is very low, probably not m.ore than one half that of an equal number of kerosene lamps.
Welsbach Burner. — The incandes- cent principle of light, as applied in the well-known Welsbach burner, con- sists in heating a gauze mantle, im- pregnated with certain rare earths, to a white heat by means of a mixture of gas and air. The result is a flame five or six times as strong in propor- tion to the gas consumed as that pro- duced by an ordinary open gas burner. The air in the room is also vitiated much less, and less heat is given off. The Welsbach burner may be used with any form of gas, but is especially useful in connection with gasoline gas, as it admits of a proper mixture of air with the gas, and does away with the necessity of providing an auto- matic air mixer.
KEROSENE OIL
Kerosene lamps. — The use of kero- sene in rural districts and small vil- lages is practically universal. For-
HEATING, LIGHTING, AND REFRIGERATION
89
merly, the oil of the sperm whale was the principal source of illumination in those localities, and before the dis- covery of petroleum the problem of lighting for country districts was a very serious one. Petroleum had been known for many years before the first well was driven in northwestern Penn- sylvania, in 1837, but from that time to this the use of kerosene and other petroleum products has increased rap- idly.
Tc Choose Oil lamps. — Practically all the standard makes of kerosene lamps are now safe and reliable, but the best results are those made on the principle of the German student lamp, having a reservoir of oil placed at a distance from the wick. If the wick protrudes directly from the reservoir of oil below it, the light decreases as the oil is consumed.
Petroleum and Its Products. — Pe- troleum is a liquid containing bitumen, which occurs in a natural state in various parts of the world. It is also called rock oil and mineral oil. It ranges from a light straw color to black, depending upon the locality in which it is found. It sometimes occurs in springs, but is more often obtained by drilling wells.
Petroleum is now conveyed to mar- kets and refineries through pipe lines, and the various oils derived from it are handled in tank cars, in steam- ships, and in barrels. Among the I^roducts of petroleum are gasoline, naphtha, benzine, kerosene, lubricating oils, paraffine, vaseline, and other sub- stances too numerous to mention.
These are obtained by distilling petroleum in an iron still having a condenser of wrought-iron pipes im- mersed in water. When heat is ap- plied to the still the lightest or most volatile constituents are first driven off in the form of a gas. The next heaviest constituents condense at or- dinary temperatures as crude naphtha. These are afterwards distilled into gasoline and ABC naphthas. They have a specific gravity of 65° to 58° B.
W'hen the stream of oil has a grav- ity of 59° B. it is turned from the
naphtha tank to the kerosene tank until it reaches a gravity of about 38° B., or until the color becomes yel- low. The stream is then turned into the paraffine tank until it ceases to flow at a gravity of about 25° B. The residuum contained in the still consists of a thick, heavy tar.
This is, of course, only an outline of the process, which is varied in a great many ways to produce a large number of by-products, as vaseline and numerous others used in medicine and in the arts. The following is a fair average composition of petro- leum: Gasoline, li per cent; naphthas, 14( per cent; kerosene, 55 per cent; lubricating oil, 17i per cent; paraffine, 2 per cent; waste, 10 per cent.
Or, by another process, the same oil could be made to produce: Naphthas, 20 per cent; kerosene, 66 per cent; waste, 14 per cent.
Kerosene, or common illimiinating oil, is the most important product of petroleum. Its appearance and prin- cipal properties are well known. Its density should be from 43° to 45° B.
Gasoline is another important petro- leum product. It is used largely in the carburetors of automobile and other gasoline engines, for purposes of illumination, and also for heating and cooking in stoves especially designed for the purpose.
The uses of crude petroleum and its various derivatives in the arts are verj' numerous, and its influence upon civ- ilization has been hardly less than that of the steam engine and of electricity. There seems to be no reason to fear any shortage of the production of petroleum for an indefinite time to come.
To Test Illuminating Oil. — At ordi- nary temperatures kerosene oil should extinguish a match as readily as wa- ter. It should not give off any inflam- mable gas below 110° F., nor take fire below 125° F. Kerosene is usually freed from naphtha by spraying. If kerosene contains even a very small quantity of naphtha it is highly in- flammable and explosive; therefore it
90
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
is required by law to be tested before it is sold.
There are two kinds of tests: the " flash test," which determines the low- est temperature at which oil gives off an inflammable vapor, and the " burn- ing test," which determines the lowest temperature at which the oil takes fire. This test is made commercially by means of an apparatus having a cup to hold the oil, in which the bulb of a thermometer is immersed, and which is surrounded by a vessel of water heated by an alcohol lamp. The temperature is slowly increased at the rate of about 3 per cent a minute. The oil is stirred at inter- vals, a flame applied, and the point noted at which an inflammable vapor is given off, and also at which the oil takes fire.
A rough test for ordinary purposes may be made by filling a cup with water, inserting an ordinary ther- mometer, and bringing the tempera- ture to 110° over a slow fire. Pour a tablespoonful of oil on the water, and apply a lighted match. If the oil takes fire it is unsafe and is liable to explode. Dealers who sell oil that will not stand this test at 110° are liable to prosecution by law. They should be compelled to take back the oil and refund the price paid for it.
To Purify Kerosene. — The adultera- tion of oil by means of a heavier oil than standard kerosene causes a dim- ness of the flame and charring of the wick. The best kerosene oil is clear and nearly colorless, like water. To puri- fy kerosene oil, add to 100 pounds of oil 1 pound of chloride of lime, mixed with 12 pounds of water to the con- sistency of cream. This must be done in a lead-lined vat, as iron or copper will be corroded by the process. Thor- oughly mix these materials, let stand over night, and add 1 or 2 pounds of sulphuric acid diluted with 20 to 50 parts of water and boil with gentle heat, stirring constantly until a sam- ple tested on a glass plate is perfectly clear. Let the mixture settle, when the oil will rise to the top and can be drawn off, leaving the impurities in
the form of sediment mixed with the acidulated water.
The following four paragraphs arc adapted from Macbeth's '^ Index."
The Care of Lamps. — Lamps smell and give poor light: first, because they are not kept clean; or secondly, the wick is poor or clogged by having been used too long; or thirdly, the chimney is wrong.
Trim, clean, and fill daily, and wipe the whole lamp.
Trim by rubbing the char off the wick; this leaves it even. Don't cut it; you can't cut it even.
Keep the holes in the floor of the burner clear for draught.
Don't fill quite full ; the oil expands with heat and runs over.
Boil the burner a few minutes once a month iii sal soda or lye water.
Empty the fount occasionally for sediment.
Don't open the lamp when hot; there is explosive vapor in It.
Light it with the wick turned low and turn up gradually, or you will get it too high and make smoke.
Move with care a lamp that has been burning long enough to get hot; or, better still, don't move it.
Use the American Fletcher or Hyatt wick; and renew it every month or two, no matter how fresh it looks; it gets clogged and deesn't feed freely.
Use oil of not less than 110° flash for safety; the higher the flash the safer the oil.
Lamp Chimneys. — The object of lamp chimneys is to supply the flame with exactly the amount of air it needs for perfect combustion, no more and no less, with an even draught on both sides of the flame; they must, of course, be clear and transparent. This calls for fit in the full meaning of the word and for clear glass that will stay clear. Thus there is something to know about chimneys beyond the mere size of the bottom. The ordinary notion of fit is a chimney that will stay on the lamp and not fall off. That is part of the fit. The rest is such a shape as to make the right draught for that particular lamp. It
HEATING, LlGMTiNG, AND HEFUlGEEATlON 01
includes the seat, bulb, shaft, propor- tion, sizes in all parts, and length. Good chimnej'S that fit well give more light than common ones. This is due to perfection of shape and proportion and the right balance of draughts.
To Select Chimneys. — Use the chim- ney recommended by the maker of the lamp, or write to a manufacturer of latiip chimneys for his catalogue and order according to directions.
If compelled to buy from stock, Iry one chimney after another, turning up the wick in each case till you get the most light it will give. When you have the right one, you can turn the wick higher and get more light than you can from others, in some cases pei-haps twice as much. It pays to select chimneys with care for two rea- sons: one is, the right chimney gives more light ; the other is, it lasts longer. Chimneys are usually made in three grades, of which it always pays to buy the best. Comparing bad chimneys with good ones, the breakage is ten to one, the light is half, and the price is half.
The Breaking of Chimneys. — Chim- neys break from misuse. A wrong number may break or melt; if the burner is foul, the glass may break; a gust of cold air on a hot chimney may break it; a gas chimney may break or melt from a hole in the man- tle; the hole lets a jet of flame di- rectly against the chimney, the explo- sion of lighting breaks the mantle, and the broken mantle breaks the chimney.
Whenever the chimney is touched by ti)c flame it melts or breaks. Its shape presents touching, unless through some misuse. In central-draught lamps the flame is between two draughts — the central and the outer one. When the burner is foul, this outer draught is partly stopped, and the flame gets pushed too near or against the chim- ney, and breaks or melts it.
Chimneys cannot be made to resist misuse or accidents.
To Prevent Explosions of Lamps. — One common cause of explosions is the upsetting of a lamp; hence select
a lamp which has a broad, solid base rather than one that appears top heavy.
Never fill a lamp while it is burn- ing. To avoid this, buy lamps that have no opening but the one made for the Avick. While it is a convenience to have a lamp with a special opening for filling, it is not safe, as children and others will sometimes undertake to fill it while burning, which may lead to an explosion. Also, when lamps have a special opening for fill- ing, the wick is likely to be neglected until it becomes charred and the burn- er gets clogged up and dirty. In this condition the lamp is ver}^ apt to explode, because the charred por- tion of a wick takes fire, the oil that runs over burns, and heat is generated so low down in the burner that any volatile gases thrown off by the oil may become ignited. The best oil commences to evaporate at about 110° and ignites at 1:^5°, and this vapor, like that which rises from gasoline, benzine, or naphtha, is highly inflam- mable and explosive. Hence do not let a lamp stand with little oil in it, or light one which has stood partly empty for a long time.
The best lamps have an extinguisher to put out the flame, but if this is lacking, do not blow out the lamp without first turning down the wick, especially if the lamp has been burned for some time and the burner and ad- jacent parts are hot. The fact that you may have done tliis safely many times does not prove that under cer- tain conditions a volatile gas from the oil may not meet the flame and cause explosion.
Always turn the lamp low when carrying it about, as movement from place to place in sudden draughts may bring the flame in contact with the gases that form when oil is burning, and that are more or less disturbed by the jar of walking.
Chemistry of Lamps. — The chem- istry of burning kerosene is very sim- ple. The oil is composed of two inflammable substances, a gas (hydro- ren), which burns with a blue flame
92
HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
and a very intense heat, and a solid (carbon), which consists of very mi- nute particles in chemical combination with the hydrogen. When the lamp is lit the flame is raised to a temperature that admits of chemical union with the oxygen of the air. The hydrogen first burns, and produces sufficient heat to allow the oxygen to ignite with the carbon. When for any reason there is an excess of oil as when a lamp is turned too high, or when the heat of the flame is reduced as when the lamp is turned too low, the heat of the burning hydrogen is not sufficient to ignite all of the solid carbon, some of which escapes in the form of a finely divided black solid, and we say that the lamp smokes. This solid carbon is what we call soot, or lampblack. Commercial lampblack is thus ob- tained.
When we breathe the air, a very similar process takes place in our lungs, the oxygen of the air uniting with the waste substances in the blood and purifying them by a kind of com- bustion. Hence every flame in a room robs the air of a certain amount of oxjgen that is essential to human life.
This process, both in the lamp and in the,,lungs, produces a compound of oxygen and carbon called carbon di- oxygen, or carbonic-acid gas. Human beings would immediately suffocate in a room quite filled with carbonic-acid gas, as it contains no free oxygen in the form available for human use. When unburned particles of carbon are thrown off in the form of smoke or soot, the finest of them are sus- pended in the air and find their way into the lungs. Nothing offers so much resistance to chemical and vital forces as pure carbon; hence these particles are difficult to dislodge and exceed- ingly harmful.
Meantime the lamp in burning gen- erates a certain amount of heat. This extends from the burner to the adja- cent parts of the lamp, and in many cases makes the receptacle containing the oil quite hot. The temperatm-e of the oil is thus raised, and at a certain
point it gives off a volatile inflamma' ble gas similar to gasoline, benzine, or naphtha, which, if the lamp should leak, may come in contact with the open flame and cause an explosion.
Or, under certain circumstances, it may be exploded by a sharp jar.
If these facts and principles are un- derstood and proper cautions are ob- served, there need be no danger in the use of kerosene. The fact that kerosene is used in practically every household and that explosions are very rare proves this, but it does not prove that proper precautions must not be observed. Modern lamps are so con- structed as to reduce to a minimum A the dangers due to ignorance and M carelessness, but the fact that explo- sions do take place occasionally shows that care and intelligence are still necessary.
Cautions to Observe. — Buy the best- lamps and the best oil. Trim the wicks and fill the lamps daily. Ad- just the wick neither too high nor too low.
After turning up the wick to the right height, set the screw by a slight turn backward, which will prevent the wick from crawling up as it expands with the increase of heat. Try this, and the sense of touch will tell you what is necessary. Do not leave lamps or carry them when turned too high or too low. Adjust the flame midway and set back the screw.
Night Lamps. — Do not use ordinary lamps as night lamps by turning them low. Instead obtain a small night lamp that will admit of burning a tiny flame turned on full. Or turn up the ordinary lamp until the flame is clear and bright and then shade it from the eyes. The flame of an ordi- nary lamp turned low throws off a large amount of unconsumed carbon and volatile gases, which impregnate the atmosphere and are taken into the lungs with many evil consequences, that are usually attributed to other sources.
Student Lamps. — These are pro- vided with an oil tank at some little distance from the burner and at a
HEATING, LIGHTING, AND REFRIGERATION gi
lower level. Great care must be ob- served to keep a student lamp exactly level. If the oil tank Is raised above the level of the burner, the latter will be overflowed v/ith dangerous results. When filling the lamp, care must be taken not to leave air bubbles in the oil, otherwise the pipe conveying the oil to the burner will be clogged and the light will be made dim.
Lamps on Fire. — When a lamp over- flows or for any reason gets on fire, seize it and throw it out of the win- dow. A moment's delay may result in an explosion that will scatter burning kerosene all about and lead to a con- flagration. Or seize as quickly as pos- sible a heavy woolen rug, table cover, or couch cover, and wrap it tightly around the lamp. This prevents the oxygen ot the air from reaching the flame, and it is quickly smothered. If a person's clothing takes fire from kerosene flames, do not throw water upon him or allow him to run about. Wrap him quickly in a large rug or other woolen cloth, which will extin- guish the flames. If, by the explosion of a lamp or otherwise, burning oil is scattered about a room, do not throw water upon it, as it will only spread it. Throw on milk or any dry, heavy substance, as flour, corn meal, sand, or earth.
Kerosene for lighting Fires. — Kerosene should not be used for light- ing fires, but it is so convenient and efficient that persons will always be found who prefer to take their chances of an explosion. The only caution that must be observed is not to pour oil into the stove from a can, else it will become ignited and the flame fol- lowing the stream will find its way into the can and explode the oil. Even if the fire is supposed to be out, there may be coals or sparks in the ashes sufficient to ignite the fine stream of kerosene. If oil is to be used it should be poured into an old cup, saucer, or other open vessel and dashed at once on the kindling wood. The worst possible result to follow if oil is thus ignited will be a puff of flame, that will do no harm if it does
not catch light garments or other in- flammable substances.
Some persons soak corncobs in kero- sene and use these as fire lighters. When this is done the vessel in which they are kept should be provided with a tight cover and kept in a cool place.
Foot Warmer. — When driving or sleighriding in winter, fill a sirup can having a screw top with hot water. This will keep warm for a long time. It may be used in place of a hot- water bottle.
Or make a square box of pine, 6 or 8 inches deep and large enough to just fit about the base of an ordinary lantern. Leave this open at the top, and have the bottom broad enough so that the box will not readily tip over. Bore a few holes near the bottom of the box to admit the air, and when driving in winter set a lantern in the box and let it stand on the carriage or sleigh bottom under the robes at the driver's feet. If these suggestions are observed the lantern will burn M'ith a clear, steady flame, without smoking, will not tip over or soil robe,^ or garments, and will keep the drivet comfortable in freezing weather.
To Improve Kerosene Oil. — Put a teaspoonful of common salt in an or- dinary hand lamp, and a tablespoon- ful in a large lamp with a B burner. This gives a more brilliant light, and tends to prevent smoking, and hence to keep the wicks and chimneys clean.
Chinese Lanterns. — When using these lanterns for holiday occasions, put a few handfuls of sand in the bottom of the paper lantern about the candle. This keeps them from sway- ing, and also tends to prevent them from taking fire.
Vest-pocket Light. — Put a piece of phosphorus in a 1- or 2-ounce glass vial and fill with olive oil. Cork tightly. When the oil is heated by the warmth of the body or otherwise, the phosphorus will emit light enough to read the time on the dial of a watch in the darkest night. Should the vial become broken do not touch the phosphorus with the fingers, as it will eat the flesh and produce an ulcer.
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
Take it up between two sticks or otlierwise and drop it into water. To give good results it must be kept from the air.
Bonfires. — To make brilliant bon- fires and signal fires, mix 8 pounds of saltpeter, 4 pounds of flower of sul- phur, 1 pound of antimony, and J pound of camphor. Powder these in- gredients, mix and tamp them into an iron socket. When ignited, they will burn for some time with gi-eat brilliancy.
ICE AND REFRIGERATION
Nature of Ice. — Ice is one of a number of substances that occupy a greater volume in the solid than in the liquid state. At the moment of freezing it expands with great force about one-eleventh in bulk, as is testi- fied by the bursting of frozen water pipes.
An interesting experiment consists in passing a wire through a solid block of ice without cutting it in two. The ice should be supported at both ends, leaving the middle free, and the wire over it with weights attached to either end. The pressure on the wire raises the temperature of the ice to the n:^.elting point and allows the wire to sink; but the wire absorbs some of the heat, and causes the water to freeze upon its upper surface; hence the seam is closed, and after the pas- sage of the wire the block of ice re- mains intact. Its course, however, can be traced by the air bubbles which it leaves behind.
Under ordinary conditions water freezes at 33° F., and does not melt until the temperature is raised above that point; but under pressure, as above noted, ice will be converted into water at a lower temperature, having been melted under high pressure at 18° C. If water is perfectly still it may be lowered to 23° F. before freezing, but the slightest jar will cause it to freeze when the tempera- ture rises to 33° F.
TJses of Ice. — In addition to its natural service in transforming lakes
and rivers during winter in northern climates into solid roadways, ice is in great demand as an antiseptic or preserving agent. Formerly it was supposed that meats and carcasses of animals intended for food must be frozen to be preserved. The discoverj-- of the practicability of preserving meats and vegetables by means of ice, but without freezing them, is com- paratively recent. Now, in addition to the household refrigerator, refrig- erating cars convey beef, fruit, and vegetables across continents, and refrigerating steamships take tropical fruits and other products from southern to northern climes and re- turn with dairy products, northern fruits, and other perishable articles tliat could not otherwise be obtained in tropical countries. In niany cities cold-storage houses also preserve, with a very slight percentage of loss, dairy products, meats, fruits, and vegeta- bles for periods varying from months to years. Cold-storage vaults protect furs and valuable garments from the ravages of moths and other insects. Ice is also now regarded as absolutely necessary in the summer months to preserve the bodies of the dead until the time of burial.
To Harvest Commercial Ice. — Ice _J| has been an important article of com- 'U merce since the time of Nero, and in cold countries family ice houses are very common. Sometimes these stor- age places are merely pits or caves under ground, or "partly under ground, but an ice house wholly above ground is to be preferred.
Ice from salt or brackish water is | nearly pure, as freezing expels the mineral ingredients, but it is suffi- ciently contaminated on the surface to be unfit for many purposes. Hence the best ice crop is usually gathered from fresh-water ponds, or lakes, or in rivers above tide water. A great deal of ice is also manufactured arti- ficially. Commercial ice houses are usually built of wood, having hollow walls that may be double, triple, or quadruple, the spaces between beinp. filled with sawdust, spent tan baric,
HEATING, LIGHTING, AND REFRIGERATION
95
or some other poor conductor of heat.
In harvesting ice the usual jDractice is to scrape the snow from the surface of the ice by means of a scraper drawn by horses, to plane off the soft porous top of the ice if necessary by means of a horse planer, and to mark the ice into blocks by running a series of grooves about 5 feet apart and 3 inches deep so as to make blocks 5 feet square. Ice is usually cut when it is about 3 feet thick. After the ice has been marked one row of block: is usually cut through by means of a handsaw, and pushed under out of the way or pulled up on the ice. The succeeding blocks are pried off with a crowbar, towed to the landing place, and loaded into wagons or run up an inclined plane to the storehouse and I?acked away. The blocks are stood on end in a solid mass. A space is left between the ice and the walls of the ice house in which are gutters and drainways to receive and carry off the drainage from the melted ice.
Ice — Domestic Harvest. — To gather ice for home use, cut it as soon as it is thick enough, and before the sur- face has been covered with snow or has had a chance to freeze and thaw a number of times. If a light snow
"To Gather Ice for Home Use."
falls before the ice is gathered it is advisable to clear off a sufficient space before a thaw sets in. A horse plow for marking the ice is desirable, and
one can usually be borrowed if neces- sary, but a crosscut saw may be used. After one row of blocks has been sawed out it is only necessary to saw across the ends of the blocks. They may be separated lengthwise by mark- ing with an ax and splitting off with an ice pick or chisel. It is not de- sirable to cut cakes larger than 3 by 3 feet if the work is to be done by hand. Provide a runway or ice ladder about 26 inches wide and 13 feet long to reach from the sled into the water. Drive two upright planks or timbers into the ice, and attach a crossbar at the top of the sled on which to sup- port one end of the runway, the other reaching down in the water. Two men with ice hooks can pull a cake 3 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 18 inches or more in depth up this runway and load it upon the sled without i idue exertion.
To Preserve Ice. — The two requisites to preserve ice are the exclusion of heat and outer air, and the drainage of the water produced by melting without at the same time allowing the cold air surrounding the ice to escape. A piece of ice of 50 pounds weight exposed at a temperature of 80°, but placed on cross slats so as to be per- fectly drained, will not melt under twenty-four hours. But if exposed at the same temperature in a tight vessel that will retain the water produced by melting, it will dissolve in six or seven hours. Hence ice houses, refrigerators, or ice boxes should have double sides, bottom and top, with a space between the casings filled with nonconducting materials to keep out the external heat, all doors and other apertures should be sealed as nearly air-tight as possible, and the contents should be arranged to provide perfect drainage. All water must be removed at once, and the drainage pipe must be fitted Avith a trap so that cold air cannot escape nor outer air be admitted. If these principles are observed, any in- genious person can build an ice house or refrigerator, or design one to be built by a local carpenter that will answer all practical purposes.
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
To Make an Ice House. — The size of an ice house must, of course, be determined by the number of persons that are to make use of it. The in- terior should be so proportioned as to admit of packing cakes of any pre- ferred size, as 3 by 3 feet, in a solid mass, but with an air space between the outside of the cakes and the wall of the ice house to admit of drainage. Hence an ice house 14 by 20 feet in- side dimensions will admit of a layer of twenty-four cakes with a space of 1 foot clear all around.
Such an ice house Carried up eight or ten laj^ers would last two or three ordinary families for a j^ear. It costs but little more to build a good-sized ice house, and often two or three neiglibors can club together to advan- tage, both to reduce the cost of build- ing the house, and also the labor of filling it.
Or, if more ice is harvested than one family requires, it can frequently be sold to neighbors at a profit suffi- cient to admit of paying for the first cost and for the labor of harvesting the ice each year.
To Build Ice Houses, make a frame of two or three joists, supported on posts raised a foot or more from the ground, and have a shed roof sloping to th^ north. Board up the outside and make another frame inside 10 or 12 inches from the outer boarding, and fill in the space between with shavings, sawdust, or spent tan bark packed as solidly as possible. Lay a solid plank floor and give it a pitch toward one corner with an outlet for draiiiage. Build double doors, reach- ing from the outer to the inner wall and packed solidly with nonconduct- ing material. Or have a separate door in each wall, but the former is the better method.
To Fill an Ice House. — First cover the floor with sawdust, tan bark, or other suitable material at least 3 feet in thickness. Lay on this successive layers of ice in a solid mass, but leave a space of 13 inches all around. Cover the ice and fill the pitch of the build- ing to a thickness of several feet with
nonconducting material, but leave an air space between the top of this ma- terial and the roof. As the ice is
Homemade Tackle.
removed from day to day for use, carefully replace the covering.
To Protect an Ice House. — Build a cheap trellis of slats or rough poles 8 or 10 inches from the walls all around, and also extending over the roof, and train the common woodbine or English ivj^ or even clematis, morn- ing glory, or other similar trailing vine to run over it. This can readily be done in most localities and forms a cheap and eifective shade, that is a perfect defense against the direct rays of the sun. The trellis will prevent the plants from causing the boards of the ice house to decay, and by leaving a space between for circulation of air, will greatly assist in lowering the tem- perature. A mantle of vines also cov- ers the bare ugliness of the cheap l^oarding of an ice house and tends to make it an object of i)eauty.
Or a skeleton ice house may be built by driving posts in the ground to make a frame and boarding them up to any desired height. Sawdust may be laid directly on the ground, but to prevent washouts and provide drain- age it is better to throw in a few large stones, level them roughly, and lay a loose board floor a foot or more from
HEATING, LIGHTING, AND REFRIGERATION 97
the ground. Cover this with a layer of coarse hay or straw to prevent the sawdust from falling through, and on this put a foot or more of sawdust. Lay the ice in the middle in a solid mass, but leave a space of 2 feet all around between the ice and the boards and pack this space and cover the ice with nonconducting material, and lay a roof of loose boards over all, with an air space between. Such an ice house can be thrown up and boarded in a day while the ice is being drawn, and the planks can be taken down and stored away, if desired, as rapidly as the ice is removed in summer.
Or ice may be stored in a pen made of rails built up corncob fashion as the ice is put in. A floor of rails should be laid a foot or so from the ground and covered with straw, on which sawdust should be packed a foot or more deep. Lay the ice in a solid mass, pack with sawdust all around, cover the top with 3 feet of sawdust, and thatch with coarse straw. Over this lay a shed roof of boards tacked down with a few nails.
If morning glories or other quick- growing vines can be trained to run over the rails, it will greatly assist in preserving the ice in summer.
Or a load of sawdust may be thrown on the ground, a pile of ice built up on this, and a rough board frame merely tacked together at the corners about 2 feet distant all around from the pile. This space must, of course, be filled with sawdust, the top covered over to an equal depth, and rough boards or canvas thrown over all.
To Make an Ice Chest. — A practical ice chest may be made by building a tight box of matched boards with double sides 6 inches apart, having an inner chamber 3 feet long, 2 feet deep, and 2 feet wide. This will hold a block of 100 pounds or more of ice, and leave room all around for milk, butter, fresh meat, and other articles. This ice box must be furnished with a double lid packed with charcoal or sawdust and fitting tightly so as to exclude the outer air. It will preserve ice practically as well as an expensive
refrigerator. The inner compartment must be furnished with a small pipe to carry off the water from the melt- ing ice.
Or a cheap ice box may be made by simply setting one dry-goods box in- side of another. There must be a space of 6 inches all around between the two. Pack this space closely with powdered charcoal or sawdust, and make a double lid, packed in the same manner, to fit the larger box. Provide a drainage pipe to remove the melt- ing ice.
Or place a small cask or half bar- rel inside of a large cask and fill the space all around with charcoal. A tube from the bottom of the lower cask will carry off the melted ice. Furnish the inner cask with a remov- able lid and the outer cask with double cover packed with charcoal. Also provide a charcoal bag a foot thick or more to lay over the top of the inner cask. By filling the inner cask two thirds full of powdered ice, or with snow in winter, ices may be frozen in it, or by putting in a cake of ice it may be used as an ordinary refrigerator.
Ice Bags. — To preserve small quan- tities of ice, make two bags of heavy woolen goods, one of which should be 2 or 3 inches wider on all sides than the other. Place the smaller bag in- side of the larger and stuff the space between with canvas. A block of ice placed in a bag of this description will be preserved as long as in an or- dinary ice box. A small bit of rubber tubing should be inserted at one cor- ner to provide drainage.
A Cooling Box. — In tropical regioii?- where ice is scarce, or unobtainablcs it is customary to construct a water- tight box, say 28 inches square and 10 inches deep, which should be filled with water. A shelf 30 by 30 inches is suspended from this by four posts, 2 by 2 inches and 36 inches long. Com- mon burlap sacks are tacked closely about the sides. Pieces of woolen stuff, such as old woolen underwear, are placed around the edge of the box, with one end in the water and the
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
other hanging outside and resting on the burlap. The whole is suspended in a shady place where the air can circulate freely around and through it, and where the sun will not shine on it. The air passing through the burlap causes evaporation of the wa- ter, and the burlap is kept dripping wet by the woolen stufP drawing water from the box as evaporation takes place. This is the principle by which the box is cooled. When the box is first filled the burlap should be thor- oughly wet. Afterwards, if filled reg- ularly, it will keep saturated.
The box is filled with water. On one side the burlap is allowed to hang free over the suspended shelf. This curtain is the door of the cooler. But- ter placed on the shelf will keep per- fectly solid. Even where ice is plenti- ful this is a convenient way to cool hot dishes that you do not wish to put in the refrigerator.
Care of the Refrigerator. — Put a saucer of unslacked lime in the re- frigerator to keep it sweet. Place in the ice chest two or three lumps of chiircoal as large as an egg, changing them two or three times a month. They will absorb all odors of cooked food and the like. Keep everything in the refrigerator covered. Have a number of glass fruit jars with screw, tops m which to place liquids, and a glass jar for drinking water. This will save cracking off ice.
Few housekeepers take the necessary pains to keep the ice box scrupulously clean. It should be wiped out daily, and when the ice is exhausted, be- fore a new piece is put in, a strong
solution of caustic potash or sal soda should be poured through the waste pipes to cleanse and disinfect them.
To Break Ice. — Use an awl or a darning needle and tap it gently with a hammer. Make a row of holes across the ice, which will crack straight through beneath.
To Preserve Ice. — To preserve ice it must be isolated and surrounded with nonconducting material. There must be no access of the outer air to the ice except on top. Cold air is heavier than warm, hence the air which has been cooled by the melting of the ice settles upon its surface and cannot be displaced by the warmer air from above unless the cold air is allowed to escape or is displaied by a current, which must be avoided. The larger and colder a block of ice is, and the less it is exposed to warmth before being placed in the refrigerator, the longer it will keep.
Ice varies in temperature all the way from below zero to 30° F. before melting. Hence the fact that a piece of ice is not all melted by exposure to warm air is no criterion that it is not losing heat and rapidly approaching the melting point. If a piece of ice must be exposed to warm air for a time before being placed in the re- frigerator it should be wrapped up in a heavy cloth or newspapers. If these are left on after the ice has been put in the refrigerator, so much the bet- ter. The larger the block of ice, the slower it melts. Hence it is economy to purchase ice in as large quantities as the refrigerator will hold.
CHAPTER III
HOME SANITATION AND HYGIENE
LOCATION OF BUILDINGS— DANGER FROM ARTIFICIAL HEATING SYSTEMS— WATER SUPPLY— DISPOSAL OF HOUSEHOLD WASTES —ELIMINATION OF FLIES
Not many years ago disease was most often deemed the act of Provi- dence as a chastening or visitation for moral evil. Many diseases are now known to be merely human ignorance and uncleanliness out on public ex- hibition. The sins for which human- ity suffers in the common communica- ble (and many other) diseases are violations of the laws of sanitation and hygiene, or simply the one great law of absolute sanitary cleanliness. The duty of supervising conditions affecting the public health is taken over by the. community itself in the larger centers of population, but in many small towns and in the open country the chief responsibility for siinitary conditions in and about the home devolves upon each individual householder. Every symptom of pre- ventable disease, especially diseases of the respiratory system (bronchitis, pneumonia) ; all fevers (typhoid fever, malaria, etc. ) ; and all other communicable diseases (diphtheria, scarlet fever and the like) should suggest the question: "Is the cause of this illness any unsanitary condi- tion within my control which can and should be remedied?"
Not infrequently landlords and parents shirk responsibility for illness due to unsanitary conditions upon the ground that the cost of the proper remedy would be prohibitive. Such conditions as dampness in cellars, or the pollution of air, soil or water supply by seepage from barnyard manure piles, privy vaults and open
drains, are often thought to be de- termined for all future time by the location of dwellings and outbuildings and are believed to be incurable with- out greater «^xpense than the owner can afford. Men are too apt to say under such circumstances, "What can't be cured must be endured," and to think that the members of their families must take their chance of sickness along with the other risks of life. Such a mode of reasoning is most reprehensible. As sanitary knowledge increases it will un- doubtedly be corrected by law.
The most important asset not only of the individual and family but also of the community is not mere property, but rather the physical vigor of its members. The cost of bring- ing an average child to maturity has been estimated at from two to five thousand dollars. The value to the family of each of its adult members may be taken as their normal earning capacity for the average period of expectation of life. On this basis courts usually grant damages on death claims at the rate of from five thousand dollars upward. And the average of such awards appears to be steadily on the increase. Hence on the economic side alone, it is false economy to risk the loss of one or more lives worth five thousand dollars each and upwards, in order to avoid making improvements costing a small fraction of that sum.
Moreover, with the progress of sanitary science, additional stress is
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
being laid upon the moral aspect of sanitation. Persons who should ex- pose in open vessels solutions of strychnine, arsenic or other virulent poisons would be held guilty of crim- inal negligence if accidental death by poisoning should result. Yet some of the gases, liquids and micro- organisms with which the air, soil and water supply in and about dwellings may become contaminated, are now known to be as fatal under some common circumstances as the most deadly poisons. The only possible excuse for permitting the existence of these nuisances is ignorance. And with the present rapid spread of scientific information that excuse will not much longer avail. Another generation will doubtless see laws passed holding property owners and heads of families responsible for illness resulting from preventable" causes. Consider not alone the economic loss and moral wrong in- volved. Think of the pain and suflFer- ing of illness, the labor and anxiety of nursing, the expense of medicines and medical attendance and the cost of funerals ! Above all must we re- gard the desolation and heart-break caused bj^ the loss of those near and dear to us ! When all these are cast into the scale, the expense of proper sanitation, however great, is clearly seen to be necessary and even negli- gible.
At first thought it might seem that information regarding the proper location and construction of the home and its appurtenances would be of value only to those who are about to build a new dwelling. And of course the founding of a new home aff^ords the best opportimity to put the principles of hygiene and sanita- tion into eff"ect. Yet perhaps a majority of the entire population occupy rented dwellings and are free to remove from them at will. In all such cases a knowledge of the de- mands of proper sanitation is directly applicable to the question whether or not to renew the leasehold of one's present dwelling. In the event of
removal it applies equally to the se- lection of another home. Moreover, the conditions surrounding buildings improperly located may often be remedied by permanent improvements. Or such buildings may be removed bodily to new foundations at an expense trifling in comparison to the original cost of the structures. If, however, necessary improvements to insure sanitation cannot be made, it is far better to sell property even at a sacrifice and remove from it, before sickness or death have brought about their inevitable loss. A knowl- edge of the laws of sanitation is also of vital importance in the selec- tion of temporary homes, such as summer hotels, boarding places and summer camps. Indeed, so funda- mental is this subject to human health and happiness that it should be re- garded as an essential part of the fund of knowledge which is or should be common to every normal person.
The conditions essential to proper sanitation are simply an abundance of sunshine, pure air and pure water, with necessary shade in summer, or, negatively, freedom from pollution of the air, soil or water supply with noxious micro-organisms (germs) or other poisons. Within the dwelling, artificial heat and light must be pro- vided by means which give off into the air a minimum of the noxious products of combustion. And these must be promptly removed by a proper system of ventilation. To ac- complish these results attention must be given to both the location and construction of the home and its necessary outbuildings, and to the in- stallation of suitable systems of heat- ing, lighting and ventilation, water supply, drainage and sewage dis- posal. These will be the topics under consideration in the present chapter.
LOCATION OF BUILDINGS
If a house stands on low damp ground, or if there is swampy or wet land in the immediate vicinity, sickness will follow as sure as night
HOME SANITATION AND HYGIENE
101
follows day. It is far better not to build at all than to occupy such a location unless the site and all ad- jacent pools or swamp are first im- proved by efficient drainage. Mois- ture in and about the foundations of a home adds to the humidity of the atmosphere. This makes the occu- pants more susceptible to both heat and cold. Swamps or pools of stand- ing water afford breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Thus in many locali- ties they condemn in advance mem- bers of the family and their guests to attacks of debilitating malaria. If, however, a house stands in a damp spot which cannot be drained, it should at least be lifted well above the surface of the soil on damp- proof posts or other foundations. Or the cellar, if there is one, should be made thoroughly damp-proof. These steps with proper artificial heat will aid in protecting the family from the ill effects of excessive humidity.
Relative Position of House and Other Things. — The danger from lack of proper drainage is greatly increased if the moisture in the soil is polluted by seepage from any sort of nuisance. No such conditions should be tolerated. Even the choice of a proper site for the house where the soil is porous and there is good natural drainage will not protect the health of the family if the stable or other outbuildings are so located that there is a gradual seepage of polluted water through the ground into and around the foundations of the house. Nor should there be an open sink drain contaminating the earth ad- jacent to the foundations. Not in- frequently buildings of prosperous farmers are so placed that the land slopes from the barn, stable or pig- pen toward the dwelling. In addi- tion to constant seepage through the soil, a flood of filthy surface water during heavy rains flows toward and around the house and cellar. The inevitable result is illness which is most often attributed to other causes. It must also be borne in mind that the underground strata of the soil do
not always coincide with the surface condition. Thus there may be a gentle elevation between the farm buildings and the house which would appear to protect the latter from soil pollution. Yet below the ground there may be a shelf of hardpan covered with a layer of loose sand and gravel dipping direct from under the barn or stable toward the foundations of the house. All such conditions must be carefully observed and studied. The object is to so locate the build- ings that the drainage from the out- buildings occupied by animals cannot carry pollution toward the house.
Air Drainage. — Next only in im- portance to a well drained soil is the question of air drainage. C. G. Hill says: "A hollow, however porous and well drained the soil, will prove a cold and frosty spot in winter, a hot and sultry one in summer. A site too closely shut in by timber will lose what it may gain in shade by the absence of free circulation of air. Every breeze will be cut off dui'ing the sultry days of summer and in winter the absence of sunlight will be a drawback. All things considered a gentle hillside slope offers the greatest advantages. If the highest land is to the north or west little more is to be desired. . . . The prevailing breezes must also be con- sidered and the outbuildings or any fixtures or places which may become sources of offensive odors should be located well to the leeward of the house."
Shade and Shelter. — While tlic house should stand in direct sun- shine and be exposed to thorough ventilation from prevailing winds, the shelter of a strip of timber or a windbreak to the north and west is very desirable, especially in cold climates. This helps to keep the house comfortably warm in cold weather with economy of fuel. It also adds to the comfort of live stock and of those who are obliged to care for them. Every owner of a home should take pride in im- proving the lawn and grounds and
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
planting suitable shade trees. Yet the choice of a site for a new home, other things being equal, may well be determined by the presence of one or more fine old trees already capable of yielding the shade which is so grateful and necessary in summer.
Arrangement of Eooms. — When possible, the living rooms and work rooms of the house should be on the east side so as to receive a good share of sunshine. This side is also advantageous for sleeping rooms so that the morning sun may stream into these rooms and upon the beds before they are made up. Nor should they be made up too early. Moreover, this side of the house does not receive the intense rays of the afternoon sun in summer, nor is it exposed to the prevailing winter winds. Artificial heat also tends from the west toward" the east side of a building. The latter has therefore the advantage of being cooler in summer and more sheltered and warmer in winter. Vestibules, halls, stairs and the least used rooms may sometimes be so placed as to afi'ord protection to other apartments. All these con- siderations are of course equally as important in choosing a house for rental as in building a home for one's own occupancy.
Cellar or Basement. — The vital im- portance of a clean dry cellar is due to the danger of the contamination of the air from soil pollution. The artificial heat in a house, especially in winter, rises and creates suction from the soil beneath and around the cellar. Thus the building as a whole acts as a flue. It draws up and transports to the rooms above what- ever noxious air or gases the earth may contain. Moisture in the atmos- phere of the cellar is thus quickly communicated to all parts of the house. These facts have been abun- dantly proved by experiment.
A new cellar should be so drained as to keep the water level below the cellar floor. Or if this pre;caUtion has been neglected, such a drain may
be put in after the house has been built, provided a proper outlet can be secured.
Oanfifii'Oe^Cour«Q< \ wa
Method of draining cellar walls. Cour- tenu Stale Board of Health of Maine.
The cellar wall laid up dry and then chinked and "pointed" on the inside should be avoided, especially in damp localities. The open crevices admit the water freely from the out- side. The plaster or cement on the inside then becomes wet and even- tually falls off". Cellar walls should preferably be built of concrete or stone laid solidly in cement-mortar and brought to a good smooth face both inside and outside, particularly the latter. This will exclude all vermin as well as moisture. Such a wall, especially if backed with gravel, coarse sand or fine rubble, as shown in the illustration, turns the water and allows it to drain off' rapidly through the tile surrounding the foun- dation.
To drain a cellar after a house has been built, dig a trench outside the foundation wall to a depth at least 13 inches below the cellar bottom and lay 2-inch unglazed tile all around the foundation wall outside of and close to it. Give the tile a slope of 10 or 13 inches on an even grade from the corner of tlie house diagon- ally opposite, around both sides and down to the outlet. If the drain must then enter a sewer, insert a trap well
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outside the cellar wall with a deep water seal which will not go dry at any season. If the ground is very damp, point up the outer side of the cellar wall with good hydraulic ce- ment and fill the trench with loose stone and gravel. If the outlet pipe can be brought out of the ground at a point such that thei'e is sufficient fall, this will provide perfect drain- age. Take care not to disturb the foundations. If the earth is not very firm, dig the trench in sections and fill it as fast as the drainage pipe can be laid.
If the ground under the cellar bot- tom is exceptionally wet, underlay it with tile drains not more than 12 feet apart and converging toward the point of the outlet.
Method of draining cellar bottom. Cour- tesy State Board of Health of Maine.
Damp-proof Courses. — Some kinds of building materials used for foun- dation and the underpinning of houses ai-e porous. These readily absorb water from the soil and trans- mit dampness to the structure and the rooms above. Brick is the worst offender, but concrete and some kinds of building stone are almost equally as bad. Hence insert a damp-proof course laid completely across the foundation wall and extending all around the building. This may con- sist of a half-inch layer of asphalt or of slate embedded in cement. It must necessarily be above grade so that the ground may not come in con- tact with the work above it.
In many old brick houses, or
wooden houses with brick underpin- nings, the ground comes in contact with the brickwork. This is a stand- ing and very cordial invitation to serious forms of illness to visit the occujiants. Hence remove, section- ally, a course of brick all the way around the house above the ground line and below the sills or floor tim- bers, and insert a damp-proof course.
DANGERS FROM ARTIFICIAL HEAT
The various kinds of fuel and systems of heating have been con- sidered elsewhere from the standpoint of their efficiency. We are concerned ' here only with their sanitary and hygienic effect. The most common danger to health is perhaps from over-heating. E. C. Jordan says: "Cold, pure air is a wonderful tonic. It improves the appetite, increases the red corpuscles of the blood and tones up the system generally. Many American children and adults emerge from their hibernation in the spring- anemic and weak. This is largely due to the faults in our methods of heat- ing. We customarily overheat our houses and offices. Seventy degrees or more of artificial heat is enervat- ing. We should accustom ourselves to being comfortable at a temperature at least a few degrees below 70.
"A second serious danger is from the products of combustion. Burning coal, wood, oil or gas generate cer- tain very harmful gases. The utmost care should be taken to exclude these from the air we breathe. Yet leakage of gas from stoves or furnaces not properly constructed or managed is very common. The use of oil and gas heaters is perilously imprudent. They should never be used unless the products of combustion are cai'- ried from the room by means of a pipe connecting with the chimney flue.
"A third fault and danger is want of ventilation. In unventilated living rooms the air is rendered imsui table for breathing by these four things: (1) An insufficient percentage of
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
oxygen; (9) the poisonous products of respiration; (3) the deleterious products of combustion from lights or leakage from heaters; (4) disease- producing bacteria. One principal reason why grip, pneumonia, diph- theria, smallpox, and some other dis- eases are more prevalent in winter than in summer, is that in winter the doors and windows are closed and the bacterial causes of these diseases are concentrated.
"It is a serious yet common mis- take to put in a heating apparatus which cannot easily do the work re- quired of it in cold weather. Such a heating plant is then sure to be crowded and overheated, its period of usefulness is shortened, the great- est practicable amount of heat is not obtained from the fuel, and dele- terious products escape into the- rooms.
"Another prolific source of ill health for those who breathe artificial air is the unintelligent use of damp- ers. Everybody who uses coal knows that, if the damper is turned too soon, we get into our rooms an ill- smelling sulphurous gas. That gas is also dangerously poisonous. But unfortunately most people are un- awaTe that after the damper is turned so that the draft is too slight, an- other gas, without odor to reveal its presence, continues to leak out. This is carbonic oxide.
"Of the two carbon gases found in vitiated air, both will cause death by suffocation if the percentage in ^ the air is large enough. If he is rescued in time and carried into the open air, the victim of carbonic acid gas will quickly recover, and apparently with- out permanent injury. But in cases of partial asphyxiation from carbonic oxide gas, resuscitation and ultimate recovery are very doubtful. The red corpuscles of the blood seem to suffer destruction, or a great diminution of their oxygen-carrying capacity. Re- covery, when it occurs, is usually very slow and incomplete. The person chronically poisoned by habitually breathing this gas in small quan-
tities is having his blood corpuscles slowly destroyed. He comes out in the spring pale and weak, and with his general health impaired. Many persons, with no suspicion of the cause of their illness, feel the need of the recuperation which they can gain in the summer season to enable them to endure the next winter's chronic foul-air poisoning. Any per- ceptible odor of gas from the furnace or other heating apparatus is always an indication of serious danger to health and should have immediate attention."
WATER SUPPLY
Water should be brought into the house and also to the barn whenever possible, and pipes should then be laid to remove the waste water from house and barn and to so dispose of it as to avoid breeding grounds for the bacteria that cause filth dis- eases. There are important reasons why water should be brought to the barn, but if it is not possible to bring it to both places, the house should have the preference. L. H. Bailey says: "The first thing I would now do for the farm home is to put in sanitary water works for the care and comfort of the person. Nothing would so soon lift the home ideals."
Every dwelling should have good kitchen sinks, water closets and a bathroom. Drinking water should be brought in by pipes. Such a water supply means additional comfort, better health, protection against fire, saving of labor and a supply of water for lawn and garden. Various methods are in use, qis gravity from high springs or creeks, or power from windmills, hydraulic rams, small gas or hot air engines, or from tanks which may be filled by pneumatic pumps operated either by power or by hand. The location of the storage tank and the best means of forcing water into it depend upon local con- ditions. The source of supply, the amount of water required, the need of power for other purposes, the
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105
available fuel and the cost of labor all have a bearing on the matter, in addition to the first cost of installa- tion.
A small hydraulic ram can be in- stalled for $50 or less, pipe not in- cluded. This will be practicable if there is a fall of 18 inches or more from the source of supply. The illustration shows the method of set- ting a hydraulic ram.
Spring- ^
Setting of hydraulic ram. (E. T. Wilson.)
The height of the source of supply above the ram — i. e., the head — de- termines the distance and elevation to which the water can be forced. The head may be increased by dam- ming a stream so as to create a reservoir or, if a drain can be secured to keep the outlet free from water, by sinking the ram in a pit. A ram keeps going all the time and re- quires very little attention. The px- pense of maintenance is small. Hence a small ram with a very low head makes a cheap and adequate source of water supply. The water can be forced into an elevated tank or pneumatic tank as desired. The overflow can be utilized by a water motor for pumping cistern water, shelling corn or any of the other numerous ways for saving hand labor. The water which is pumped need not be the same as the power water. By means of a compound ram, im- pure water can be used to pump the pure water without danger of mixing. The size of the ram required will de- pend upon the head, the amount of water required and the height and distance to which it must be delivered. After the pipes are laid, keep them uncovered until they are given a test. This will discover any leaks.
Windmills. — A properly constructed windmill is a good and simple way of securing a supply of water and
can be equipped at small cost with a device which will also furnish power for grinding feed, shelling corn, saw- ing wood, washing, churning, and many other purposes with no expense for fuel. The first cost of a wind- mill varies greatly according to the conditions. But this is perhaps the most economical means of obtaining power. The wind is free and the cost of repairs is very small. The tank should hold a week's supply or about 2,000 gallons for the house, and twice as much for the house and barn, say a tank 10 feet across and 6 feet deep. A windmill to supply such a tank should be at least a 12- footer.
Gas or Hot Air Engines. — These devices are now manufactured ex- pressly for pumping water to ele- vated or pneumatic tanks to furnish supplies for houses and barns. Such engines may be had to burn any kind of fuel — natural gas, gasoline, kerosene, coal or wood. They are not difficult to operate and may be used for other purposes when not needed for pumping. The pipes should be laid as straight as possible and free from elbows and sharp bends. The cost ranges from $60 upwards for 2 or 3 h.p. The cost of fuel is very small. A half hour's pumping a day will furnish a supply of water for an average family.
Distribution of Water. — Whatever the source of supply or method of pumping employed, the water must be collected in some sort of storage tank for distribution throughout the house. This may be an elevated outdoor tank, a tank in the attic, or a pneu- matic tank in the cellar. An ele- vated outdoor tank must be protected from freezing in cold weather by enclosing the exposed pipes in two or more wooden cases with air spaces between. The outer case may be of matched boards and painted. Equip a storage tank in the attic with a suitable float to shut off the supply pipe when the water reaches a certain height and admit the water again when the water level of the tank is lowered. Also to protect against
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
freezing, the possibility of leakage or other costly accident equii) the attic tank with an overflow pipe to carry off surplus water, if the float valve fails to shut it off when the
Hot-ioater circulation. (.E. T. ^¥^lson.)
tank is full. Take care to avoid stoppage of this pipe in winter by freezing. As a rule indoor elevated tanks are not advisable in cold climates unless the whole house can be kept warm by an adequate heating system. An outdoor tank properly protected against the weather is safer. Pneumatic Tank. — To avoid these difficulties use the modern pneumatic tank built of steel plates. Locate this in the cellar, or protect it by a small building outdoors, or even bury it in the ground. Water is distributed from these tanks by means of air which is pumped into them with the
water. This may be done by hand by means of an ordinary force pump, or by any of the above means of using power. The return of the air and water is prevented by means of a check valve in the pipe. The air in the upper part of the tank is compressed by the water which is forced in from below. The pressure is increased by pumping more water into the tank. It decreases as the water is drawn off. A 10-pound pressure will raise the water 33 feet, or a 15-pound pressure 33 feet. A 40-poimd pressure will deliver water to points 85 feet above the tank. A little pumping each day will maintain an average pressure of 50 pounds. A tank 30 inches in diameter and 10 feet long will sujijily the needs of an ordinary family of five. It can be filled in from 10 to 30 minutes a day 'with a good hand force pump. But if more than 100 gallons a day are required, it would be better to employ some kind of mechanical power. If an engine is used, a large tank is more economical. Twenty minutes pumping once or twice a day should furnish the supply.
The first cost of a small tank for an ordinary family of five will be from $100 upward. The expense for repairs f nd maintenance is slight. A large neighborhood plant with a pneumatic tank and suitable engine or other source of power capable of supplying water to several houses could be installed at grfeatly reduced cost to each householder. This would give a much higher pi'essure in case of fire.
The pipes should be run as nearly as possible in straight lines and free from sharp bends or elbows. The farther they are carried horizontally the larger they should be. This de- creases the loss of pressure by fric- tion. If a windmill is used, it should be supplied with an automatic regula- tor which will throw it out of gear when the pressure reaches a given amount and start it again when the pressure is relieved. The advantages of this system are complete security
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against freezing in winter, coolness of the water in summer and incidental fire protection. The tank is wholly closed to dust and light and has the advantage of resting upon the ground.
Hand Force Pump. — If water can- not be supplied by gravity or power
Water distribution ty pneumatie tank system. Courtesy State Board of Health of Maine.
it should certainly be brought from the cistern or well to the kitchen sink and also to the bathroom, if any, by means of a small hand force pump. The steps saved and health gained make a convenient water supply a necessity rather than a luxury. A small force pump may be located at one end of the kitchen sink with a suction pipe reaching to the cistern. If an attic tank is used, this may be connected with the rainfall leader and supplied with an automatic cut- off which will send the water to the cistern when the attic tank is full. The kitchen force pump can also be connected with the tank and used to fill it in dry seasons.
Sources of Water Supply. — For do- mestic purposes water should prefer- ably be what is known as soft rather than hard, and must be clear, pure and palatable. The essentials are freedom from disease germs, turbid- ity, color, odor or taste. The source
of supply of drinking water should be absolutely pure. It is a good plan to have drinking water, especially from wells and cisterns, tested at least twice a year. Water from artesian or other deep wells, springs, cisterns and from the deepest por- tions of large ponds and reservoirs is to be preferred in the order men- tioned. Running streams are not a desirable source of water supply. They may be contaminated at any time without the knowledge of the user at any point above the source of supply. Water is often contami- nated by its proximity to stables, privy vaults, cess-pools and open drains through underground leaching in sandy or other porous soil. Bac- teria of typhoid, cholera and dysen- tery may be taken into the system by impure drinking water. When there is any reason to suspect the water supply, especially if these diseases are prevalent, all drinking water should be boiled. A little lemon juice will take away the flat taste of boiled water.
Physicians frequently recommend drinking water in large quantities, say a pint half an hour before each meal, and the same quantity before retiring at night. The effect of this is to increase the muscular activity of
Pollution of tvater supply from open privy vault and manure pile.
certain internal orgains by distention, and to dissolve certain j^oisonous secretions — as, for instance, uric acid which causes rheumatism. The same course is also recommended in cases of threatened diabetes or kidney disease. It is probable that few per- sons drink as much water as is ad- visable from a hygienic standpoint.
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But, of course, the more water taken into the system the more important it is that the source of supply be pure. Approximately four-fifths of the human body consists of liquids, of which over 60 per cent is water. This fact suggests the importance of sup- plying drinking water of the best quality.
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Wells. — An artesian or other deep well driven through hardpan and drawing water from a deep under- ground stream by means of a tight pipe is perhaps the purest and best source of permanent water supply. The first cost is considerable, but such a well may be regarded as much the most desirable of all permanent improvements. Open shallow wells dug just deep enough to strike run- ning water, usually not more than 20 or 30 feet, are the ordinary source of supply in most localities. Such wells may become contaminated in two ways: by surface water washing into them, or by underground seepage from some source of pollution. It was formerly taken for granted by most persons that the soil acted as a natural filter and freed the water passing through it from all its im- purities. Recent experiments have shown that this is far from being the case. The capacity of the soil to purify water by filtration varies greatly. It depends upon the nature of the soil, the lay and dip of the various strata and the kind and ex- tent of the contamination. Under favorable conditions organic matter and most visible impurities will be filtered out of polluted water before it reaches the well. The water may then be clear and cold, taste all right and be free from odor, but it may, nevertheless, contain chemical poisons in solution. It may also contain the germs of typhoid and other filth dis- eases in great quantities. For these are entirely colorless and so small as to be wholly invisible without the aid of the microscope.
Another common mistake is to as- sume that underground percolation follows the same lines as surface drainage. This, too, is by no means the case. If the top of a well is on higher ground than the open vault or drain, cess-pool or other source of pollution, it will be protected from surface washing. But if the bottom is lower than any of these nuisances there may be a dip of the hardpan underground from them toward the bottom of the well. This, if covered with a layer of porous soil or loose gravel, may be almost as good a conduit for polluted water as an open drain or sewer. The continued pollu- tion of the soil causes these under- ground strata to become charged with various impurities in ever increasing volume. With the lapse of time thesej creep steadily into closer proximity! to the well. Eventually attention is! attracted to the danger by the pres-l ence of a marked taste or odor. But! meantime variovis degrees of ill health may be observed in the family. Orl even an epidemic of sickness may! break out from this cause. Yet these! diseases may have been attributed to^J some other source.
As a general rule it may be taker for granted that a shallow well any- where within convenient distance of! a barnyard or an open vault or drain is dangerous to health. This danger is constantly increasing with the pass- ing years, although meanwhile the family may be lulled into a false sense of security. Among the rem- edies which suggest themselves are piping water from high springs or other suitable sources beyond con- tamination, the use of cistern water, or if the shallow well seems a neces- sity, a change in the location of the barnyard and the elimination of open vaults and drains by means elsewhere recommended.
Dug wells should be lined all the way up either with stone laid in water cement and smoothly faced on the inside with a trowel, or prefer- ably with large tiles or tile piping. This compels the water to come in
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from the bottom. It thus increases the depth of the soil which serves as a filter. The lining of a well, whether of stone or tile, should be
(a) Proper method of Hailing up and protecting private ivells from surface drainage; (6) unprotected private well. {Ritchie's Primer of Sanitation. Copyright, 1909, iy World Book Com- pany, Yonkers, Neiv York.)
brought 18 inches or 2 feet above the surface of the soil and banked up with a mound of earth. This will prevent contamination from surface leaching. Take care that the upper 4 or 5 feet is made absolutely water- tight. Then lay a heavy tight-fitting stone over the mouth to keep out small animals, angleworms, dead leaves and other organic matter. When cleaning old wells not thus protected, the skeletons of these ani- mals are frequently found.
Never lay a sewer pipe or waste drain near a well. Never dig a new well in their vicinity. Such pipes and drains are seldom watertight. Or if a sewer pipe must be run near a well, use cast-iron pipe and seal all joints watertight. Never locate a cess-pool, open vault or drain or throw sloji water on the ground any- where on the same piece of ground as a well. Otherwise in the course of time the well water is almost cer- tain to become contaminated. The only means of insuring the purity of the water supply is to take adequate steps to keep the soil in the vicinity free from pollution.
Springs. — Spring water is usually pure and good for drinking purposes,
but often contains minerals in solu- tion. It is then known as hard water. But springs may become contami- nated in the same manner as wells if located near possible sources of pollution. Hence a spring intended to be a source of water supply should be carefully tested. If the water supply is to be piped from a spring as a permanent source of supply, first find out two things: Is the spring high enough above the house? Is the quantity of water sufficient? You can measure the overflow of the spring by pailfuls. The house alone for a family of ten will need about 600 gallons in twenty-four hours. To get this, the spring should flow fast enough to fill a 10-quart pail in five minutes. If the spring is high above the house and near at hand, |-inch pipe may be sufficient. But if the spring is not high, or if the pipe is long, inch pipe is safer and better.
The spring should be dug out, walled up, and covered with wood, brick, stone or concrete — to be pre- ferred in the order mentioned. The pipe may be either iron, lead, wood or sewer pipe. Sewer pipe costs about six cents a running foot, and |-inch wrought-iron pipe about the same.
If the pressure is high — especially at the lower end, it is better to use iron. Wood or lead pipe is nowadays rarely used.
Cisterns. — Rain water when prop- erly collected at a distance from large towns is pure and soft. In towns and cities it is often contaminated by smoke and fumes in the atmos- phere. Cistern water in such locali- ties should therefore be filtered and boiled before drinking. The rainfall collected in cisterns is a valuable source of water supply in localities where it is difficult or costly to drive a well and also in regions where the water is hard. In some localities this is the only source of water supply available. Rain water is soft and hence especially adapted to laundry purposes.
Cisterns must be carefully screened with wire netting to exclude insects,
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
toads and other vermin and should be so arranged as not to admit sur- face water. They should be kept scrupulously clean. The first rain- fall should be excluded to allow the accumulated dirt to wash off the roof and out to the gutters. For this pur- pose place a cut-off on the rain water pipe to divert the flow from the cis- tern. Various automatic devices of this sort are on th"; market. Locate a cistern close to the house for con- venience, or construct it in a corner of the basement or cellar.
1^^^^
Cistern made of tile.
A cistern may be built of concrete or brick laid upon a solid foundation, and may be either round or rectangu- lar. A round or egg-shaped cistern is preferable to one with square cor- ners. It is more difficult to build but is stronger and easy to keep clean, especially for drinking purposes. A cheap and convenient small cistern and filter may be built of tile. Two styles of this kind of cistern are shown in the illustration. A little in- genuity used in the construction of a cistern and filter will be amply com-
pensated by a pure and abundant supply of soft water for household use. The average rainfall throughout the U. S. on a surface 40 feet square will supply 5 or 6 barrels a day, which is sufficient for an average family.
To Make a Brick Cistern. — Use good hard brick and Portland cement mortar composed of one part cement and two parts of clean sharp sand. Lay the bottom with two courses of brick well bedded iii cement mortar. Lay up the walls not less than eight inches thick and plaster with cement both outside and inside, troweling it down smooth and hard. Make sure that the walls, top and bottom are water tight. A leaky cistern is equal- ly as liable to pollution by seepage as a shallow well or spring. If the water is to be used for drinking pur- poses, build in a filter. And this plan is better in all cases.
To Make a Simple Filter. — Build in an 8-inch partition wall, after the bottom has been paved, to a point a few inches higher than the outlet of the overflow pipe. Lay up the first 10 or 13 inches at the bottom of this partition (4 or 5 courses of brick) without cement for the water to pass through. Plaster the upper jjortion of the partition with cement. Or build the entire partition with soft porous brick laid in cement but with- out cementing the outer surfaces. The water will be filtered very well for a while by passing through the brick, but in time they will become foul and clogged. It will then be necessary to tear out the partition and rebuild it. Hence, it is better, if the first cost can be afforded, to pro- vide a separate chamber containing proper filtering materials.
To Build a Double Cistern. — Con- struct a small compartment (A) into which the water from the roof is to be received. Build next to this the filter chamber (B). Fill this from the bottom upwards, 4 feet in depth in all, first with pebbles the size of the fist, then with very coarse gravel, then fine gravel and lastly sharp, clean sand. Screen these materials to
I
HOME SANITATION AND HYGIENE
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proper sizes and wash them clean and free from loam and other impurities. Carry the wall between the inlet chamber (A) and the filter (B) to the top or above the level of the over- flow pipe. Plaster it on both sides with cement to prevent the water from seeping through and fouling the brick. But leave in the bottom of this partition a number of open- ings the size of a half brick to admit the water from the inlet chamber (A) into the bottom of the filter. Thence it passes upward through the filtering material and overflows into the storage tank (C), its fall being broken by the ledge of projecting bricks at F,
Build the floor of the inlet cham- ber (A) and the filter (B) so as to slope to the outer side of A. Much of the coarse dirt and sediment will then settle at this point and may be readily removed. This relieves the filter and facilitates cleansing. Oc- casionally on a very rainy day, pumjD or bale out the inlet chamber and shift the inlet pipe from the inlet chamber (A) over to the top of the
Tig. a.
V,'
i[iiiii|iiiiii
Fig. B.
Plan of brick cistern. Courtesy State Board of Health of Maine.
filter (B). This will reverse the fil- tering process and flush out the filter chamber. (D) is the inlet pipe which brings the water from the roof and (H) is the overflow from the cistern. The linear arrangement of the three compartments in Fig. A is to show a cross section of the filter
chamber, but in actual construction the ground plan of the filter should be as shown in Fig. B. This cistern may be built of brick laid in Port- land cement mortar, or of concrete. It should preferably be arched over or covered with reinforced concrete leaving a good-sized manhole to serve as a common entrance to all three compartments. Or, it may be provid- ed with a perfectly tight plank cover to keep out small animals, insects and the like.
Equip both inlet and overflow pipe with a fine strainer to exclude insects and vermin.
Water Pipes. — To avoid friction and loss of power in pumping lay all water pipes in straight lines and free from elbows and sharjj turns. Also increase the size of the pipe in proportion to the distance the water must flow in a horizontal line. This lessens friction.
To prevent the freezing of water pipes in winter, when leaving a house unoccupied in which there is a regu- lar water supply, always turn off' the water from the house by turning the stopcock leading to the street main. Open all faucets and allow pipes to drain thoroughly. Always empty the kitchen boiler. If this is not done the boiler may collapse. To empty the boiler attach a garden or other hose to the top and let the water run into the sink. Do this every spring and fall to clean the tank.
To prevent freezing in pumps, lift the trap in the valve and allow the water to run back into the well.
Do not put kitchen sinks against the outer wall of a house. If this has been done and the sink cannot be changed, purchase circular tubes of asbestos and fit over the pipes, or line the wall with asbestos. But on cold nights it is safer to turn the water off.
Frozen Water Pipes. — While the pipes are frozen take care not to build a fire in furnace or range. Di- rect heat from the pipes will gen- erate steam and severe explosions may follow. At the very least pipes
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
will burst and the plumbers' bills for repairs will be heavy. Pipes that are slightly stuck may be thawed by wrapping around them flannel or oth- er cloth and pouring on hot water. Plumbers use gasoline or kerosene gas in lamps which blow around the frozen pipe. They move the lamp back and forth so as not to apply too much heat at any one spot.
To Soften Water. — Boiling hard water from twenty to thirty minutes is the best way to soften it for drink- ing purposes. This also has the effect of killing all germs of disease it may contain. Carbonic-acid gas passes off" with the steam, and carbonate of lime is left as a sediment. A clean oyster shell put in the tea kettle will attract this and other sediments that are de- posited from boiling water and will thus prevent an unpleasant crust from gathering on the inside of the tea kettle.
Or baking soda (bicarbonate of soda) in small quantities will soften hard water by removing the excess of lime.
Or, for the laundry, hard water may be softened by the addition of a little borax.
Or quicklime is also recommended. Disstflve I ounce in 10 quarts of water, and pour this solution into a barrel of hard water. The whole will be softened.
To Make Boiled Water More Pal- atable.— The flat taste of boiled water is objectionable to many. This may be obviated by pouring the water rapidly from one pitcher to an- other, holding the two pitchers some distance apart. This process aerates the water, renders it sparkling, and restores its natural flavor. A few drops of lemon juice contribute to this effect.
To Keep Water Cool Without Ice. — In summer or in warm climates drinking water may be kept in un- glazed earthenware pitchers. Place the pitcher on a board lying across a tub or pail containing water. Wrap several folds of cheese cloth around the outside of the pitcher and let the
ends hang down into the water. Place this contrivance in a draught. The evaporation of the moisture from the cheese cloth tends to cool the contents of the pitcher.
To Test Water. — Fill a number of tumblers half full of the suspected water, and employ the following- tests:
To test for lime, use a small quan- tity of oxalic acid. The lime will be revealed in a white precipitate.
To test for carbonate of iron, use a tincture of galls. This will yield a black precipitate.
To test for vegetable and animal matter, use a small quantity of sul- phuric acid. The water will become black.
To test for copper, dip a penknife in the water. The copper will be de- posited in a yellow coating.
To Purify Water. — When water in wells or other receptacles smells bad, suspend in it lumps of charcoal in a basket or net, so that they can be re- moved and replaced at intervals.
To Clarify Water. — Water in springs, wells and streams often be- comes muddy after heavy rains, and the water of some streams always holds a large amount of liquid mud and other impurities in solution. In such cases it becomes important to clarify the water. This not only makes it more palatable and attrac- tive. It is imperative when filters are used. Otherwise the filter soon clogs up and becomes useless.
Alum is the universal agent for precipitating impurities in suspen- sion or even in solution. It is very commonly employed along the Mis- souri and Mississippi Rivers and other muddy streams.
To quickly clarify a pitcher of drinking water, tie a lump of alum to a string and swing it about in the water. The sediment will settle.
Or, for larger quantities, use 1 tea- spoonful of pulverized alum to 4 gal- lons of drinking water. Stir the water before putting in the alum. After the water has settled draw it off in such a way as not to disturb
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the sediment. A tablespoon fill of alum will settle the contents of a hogshead of water. The alum itself, if too much is not used, will settle and be carried off in the sediment.
Or lime is recommended, used in the form of certain salts of lime, either chloride, nitrate, or bicarbonate of lime, or caustic lime. Use 1 pai't of any of these salts of lime to 1,000 parts of water.
Or sulphate of alumina is recom- mended for clarifying water contain- ing vegetable or animal matter. The formula is as follows: Bisulphate of alumina (neutral solution), 1 ounce; water, 435 gallons.
Or dissolve 2 ounces of saltpeter in 1 quart of warm water and throw the solution into the cistern or well.
Or, to purify putrid water: Water, 1 pound; sulphuric acid, 8 drops. Mix and filter through charcoal.
Or water, 8 gallons; powdered alum, 1 ounce. Dissolve with agita- tion, then allow it to rest for twenty- four hours, decant into another ves- sel, and add a solution of carbonate of soda until it ceases to produce a precipitate.
Or instead of alum add 7 or 8 grains of red sulphate of iron, then proceed as before.
Or add a little aqueous chlorine to the foul water.
Or arrange a suitable pipe at the end of a pair of bellows (double bel- lows are best), and force the air through the water for a time, then allow it to settle for use.
Water Filters. — The ordinary household appliances for filtering water are rarely preventives of dis- ease. Such filters are not ordinarily cleansed often enough. Hence they become receptacles for disease germs instead of means of prevention.
The better practice is to boil drink- ing water from twenty minutes to half an hour when there is danger of contamination. The following are a number of devices that may be rec- ommended to make muddy or other- wise contaminated water clear for appearance sake. It must be borne
in mind, however, that these processes and all other filters merely strain the water in a mechanical way. They do not remove or destroy the germs of contagious diseases. These cannot be destroyed without boiling the water, as just recommended.
Homemade Water Filters. — Rain- water collected in barrels from a roof or otherwise is a necessity in some localities, and is often more wholesome for drinking purposes than hard water. The following is a cheap and easy way to make a filter just as good as a patent filter costing ten times as much:
Take a new vinegar barrel or an oak tub that has never been used, either a full cask or half size.
"A Cheap and Easy Way to Make a Filter."
Stand it on end raised on brick or stone from the ground. Insert a faucet near the bottom. Make a tight false bottom three or four inches from the bottom of the cask.
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
Pci'forate this with small gimlet holes, and cover it with a piece of clean white canvas. Place on tliis false bottom a layer of clean pebbles three or four inches in thickness; next, a layer of clean washed sand and gravel; then coarsely granulated chai'coal about the size of small peas. Charcoal made from hard maple is the best. After putting in a half bushel or so, pound it down firmly. Then put in more until the tub is filled within one foot of the top. Add a three-inch layer of pebbles, and throw over the top a piece of canvas as a strainer. This canvas strainer can be removed and washed occasionally and the cask can be dumped out, pebbles cleansed, and charcoal renewed every spi'ing and fall, or once a j'^ear may be sufficient.
This filter may be set in the cellar and used only for drinking water. Or it may be used in time of drouth for filtering stagnant water, which would otherwise be unpalatable, for the use of stock. This also makes a good cider filter for the purpose of making vinegar. The cider should first be passed through cheese cloth to remove all coarser particles.
Or a small cheap filter may be made*^' from a flower pot. A fine sponge may be inserted in the hole and the pot filled about as directed for the above filter. It may be placed in the top of a jar, which will receive the filtered water.
Or a valuable substitute for char- coal in the above filters is sponge iron obtained by burning finely di- vided iron ore with charcoal. This can be obtained in the locality of iron mines or smelting furnaces. This is much more powerful than charcoal, and is said to completely purify con- taminated water.
DISPOSAL OF WASTES
The sanitary disposal of household wastes presents three distinct prob- lems: The removal (1) of solid ex- creta; ('2) of slops; and (3) of gar- bage. If an adequate water supply
is available from an elevated or pneu- matic storage tank, the first two jDroblems can be jointly solved by a house drainage system equipped witli water closets, bath tubs and sinks. Such a system can be installed with somewhat less trouble and expense when the house is first built. Yet it can be put into any house at mod- erate cost. From a sanitai-y stand- point it is perhaps the most desirable of all permanent improvements. All pipes and drains should be exposed to full view. Hence there need be no interference with walls or parti- tions. The only carpentry necessary will be openings through the floors. These with the necessary repairs to ceilings and the like will not add greatly to the expense.
House Drains and Soil Pipes. — The main feature of a house drain- age system is a 4-inch cast iron pipe calked with lead at all joints so as to be completely water-tight. Start this soil pipe at least 5 feet outside the house and support it from being crushed where it passes through the foundation wall by means of a suit- able arch. Just inside the cellar, in- sert a running trap to exclude sewer gas and supply this trap with an in- spection hole closed with a tight cover but easily accessible. Just beyond this trap insert a fresh air inlet pipe of the same size and ma- terial as the soil pipe. Extend this outward through the foundation wall, by means of a suitable arch, and bring it above the surface of the ground, but not near any doors or windows. Now carry the soil pipe upward by as straight a course as possible to a point 4 or 5 feet above the roof. Cover it only with a wire screen to exclude twigs, leaves and the like. The warmth of the house will cause a current of air to be drawn through the soil pipe from the fresh air inlet. This will help to destroy and carry away the organic matter that clings to its inner sur- face. In cold climates increase the diameter of the soil pipe to about 6 inches from a point just beneath the
i
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roof to the top. This prevents the upper end from being closed with hoarfrost. If the soil pipe opens into a sewer, or if there is provision for drainage below the level of the cellar bottom, it may be carried along the cellar wall or rest upon the cellar floor exposed to view in an open
Plan of soil pipe for house sewage dis- posal si/.stem. Courtesy State Board of Health of Maine.
trench. Or, if there are no plumb- ing fixtures in the cellar and the ouL- let of the drainage system is at a higher point, the soil pipe may be carried under the cellar floor and fastened to the rafters by wire or other supports at suitable intervals.
Arrangement of Fixtures. — The bath room, sinks, and other fixtures should be located as nearly as pos- sible over one another and in close proximity to the soil pipe. The cost of plumbing will be much less and the system will work better. Both the bath room fixtures and kitchen or pantry sink should be adjacent to an outer wall and near windows to in- sure abundant light and ventilation. But the soil pipe must be sufficiently far from tlie outer wall to avoid dan- ger of freezing. When iiracUcable it should he jUaced on the east, south or southeast side of tlie house. The soil pipe and all other plumbing fixtures
should be entirely open. They will not be objectionable in appearance if painted to correspond with the wood- work in the different rooms. It is a fixed rule of modern sanitation to ad- mit sunlight freely to every part.
Sinks. — The sink should be of slate, enameled iron or porcelain. It should not be boarded up. An open sink is not only more sanitary but more convenient for use. There is an open space beneath it for the toes when standing and for the knees when sitting. Thus great relief may be had while doing certain work by using a stool of proper height. Equip the sink spout with a brass strainer screwed in place and provide a trap to exclude sewer gas.
Water Closets. — The choice of water closets should be confined to those which have the bowl and trap in one piece, are simple in construc- tion, self cleansing and provided with a safe water seal. None should be considered except the short hopper, the washout, the washdown, the sy- I^honic and tlie syphonic jet styles. The last of these is the best, and they are to be preferred in reverse order. The washout closet has too shallow a pool of water to receive the soil. Nor do the trap below and portion above the trap receive a sufficient scouring from the flush. The wash- down closet is an improvement over the former. It has a deeper basin and water seal, a smaller surface un- covered by water and a more eflScient scouring action.
The syphonic closet difl'ers from the washdown style chiefly in having a more contracted outlet. The filling
Types of sanitary water-closets; (a) washout, (&) tvashdoicn, (c) syphonic, (d) syphonic jet.
of this outlet when the closet is flushed forms a syphon. The result- ing pressure of air upon the surface
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
of water in the basin drives the water into the soil pipe with much force. When the syiDhon is broken enough water remains in the trap to preserve the seal. In the syphonic jet closet there is an additional jet of water which helps drive the water in the bowl more rapidly into the outlet. The last mentioned styles are also more nearly noiseless than others and should be preferred. The flush tanks should be well built, ample in size and connected with the closet by means of pipes large enough to insure thorough and eflicient flushing.
Sewer Connections. — The connec- tion between the end of the soil pipe and the public sewer or other point of disposal should be made with a good vitrified sewer pipe of the same dimension as the soil pipe, or an inch larger in diameter, laid as shown in the illustration. Or, if a sewer pipe must be carried near a well, use cast iron pipe and take care that the joints are absolutely water-tight. In any case the joints of the sewer pipe should be carefully cemented so that there may be no leakage into the ground near the house. Otherwise sewer gas will find its way through the soil into the cellar and thence to all parts of the house. It is also im- portant to exclude the ground water from the sewage in certain systems of local sewage disposal, since it in- creases the bulk of the waste to be disposed of.
Sewage Disposal. — Since the dan- ger to health of soil pollution from cess-pools has been clearly recognized, sanitary engineers have given a great deal of attention to the problem of sewage disposal for farmhouses, sum- mer cottages and other isolated dwellings. Various plans have been devised whereby liquid household wastes may be disposed of either on or beneath the surface of ordinary soil, or upon artificially prepared fil- tration beds. All of these methods are in practical operation and either may be chosen according to local conditions. The working principle is the same in all cases. The upper
layer of the earth's surface teems with millions of bacteria which have the power to convert organic matter into earth again. The eff"ect of these changes is to improve the soil both from the agricultural and hygienic standpoint. It becomes more porous, the oxygen of the air penetrates it m.ore freely, and its capacity for holding moisture is improved. These bacteria are active only in the presence of the oxygen of the air. They cannot work if the air is jier- manently excluded, as when the soil is saturated with water. Hence it is necessary to dispose of sewage near the surface of the ground by what is known as the "intermittent" system. That is, the household wastes must be collected in some suitable receptacle and emptied upon the soil only at in- tervals sufficiently far apart to per- mit the liquids to leach away and al- low the soil to become dry enough so that the bacteria can perform their function. These facts empha- size the danger from leaking sewer pipes, deep vaults, or cess-pools, lo- cated so far below the surface of the ground that the air is excluded. Here the bacteria which purify the soil are unable to live and work.
Septic Tanks. — If the liquid house- hold wastes consist only of kitchen slops they may be discharged directly upon the soil, provided they are first collected in a suitable tank so ar- ranged as to release them at regular intervals. But if solid excreta are present it is better to provide what is known as a sejitic tank. Here the sewage is liquefied and to some extent purified before being discharged. The work of purifying organic mat- ter is done in two distinct stages by two diflferent kinds of organisms. One of these is called anaerobic bac- teria. They work in the dark and do not require the presence of oxygen. They break down the particles of in- soluble organic matter or sludge in the sewage and convert them into a form such that the second set of bac- teria may complete the process of purification. The latter are called
HOME SANITATION AND HYGIENE
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aerobic bacteria. These must have an abundance of oxygen supplied by the air. A septic tank interposed be- tween the house and the patch of ground which is to do the work of filtration greatly assists the process, especially for a system of sub-sur- face irrigation, by eliminating the grease and dissolving the solid mat- ter which tends to clog the pipes.
Section of septic tank. Courtesy State Board of Health of Maine.
A septic tank consists of two cham- bers. One receives the sewage and retains it while the anaerobic bacteria are doing their work. The second re- ceives the overflow from the first chamber (when the process ©f lique- faction has been completed) and thence discharges it at suitable inter- vals upon the filtration beds. This may be accomplished either by hand — by means of a gate valve as shown in the illustration — or better by means of a syphonic device of which there are several styles upon the mar- ket.
To build a septic tank such as that shown in the illustration, first deter- mine the size which would be re- quired. The volume of sewage is practically equal to the water con- sumption. The solids, exclusive of garbage and kitchen refuse, which should, of course, be otherwise dis- posed of, will amount to not over 1 pound to 120 gallons of water. An average family will consume from 60 to 100 gallons a day for each person. Hence a flush tank for a family of six, to empty every twenty-four hours, must contain at least 360 gallons of liquid matter, or have a capacity of 48 cubic feet. In the style of tank
here illustrated, this applies only to the second chamber. The first cham- ber must be sufficiently large to re- tain the total sewage for a number of days — say a week — which would require a capacity of 336 cubic feet. Thus, a tank having the first cham- ber 6 feet wide, 6 -feet deep and 10 feet in length, and the second cham- ber of equal width and depth but only 3 feet in length, would accom- modate the sewage of a family of 6 persons and would require to be emp- tied only every forty-eight hours.
To make such a tank build the walls and partition between the two tanks of concrete or brick set in Portland cement mortar. Carefully cement the inside to prevent leakage. Admit the sewage into the first chamber through the 6-inch vitrified inlet pipe (g). Extend this at least 3 feet below the water level fixed by the top of the partition between the two chambers. Extend the two baffle boards (dd) to about two-thirds the depth of the tank. The first is de- signed to break the force of the in- rush of water through the inlet pipe. The second keeps the scum on the surface of the first chamber from flowing over the partition.
As soon as the sewage is brought into the first chamber the anaerobic bacteria attack the sludge at the bottom of the tank. At the same time a scum begins to form on the surface of the sewage. This soon mats into a tough mass a foot or more in thickness. It excludes the light and air and provides the conditions required by the anaerobic bacteria for their work. Under tliese condi- tions so much of the sludge at the bottom of the tank will be liquefied and will escape between the second baffle board and the partition into the second chamber that the removal of the sludge by other means will be re- quired only at long intervals of time.
The stand pipe (h) of 6-inch vitri- fied tile with its tee and connecting bend of 4-inch pipe at (k) serves as an overflow, and at (i) and the dis- charge pipe (j) there is an arrange-
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ment which permits the discharge of the whole contents of the second chamber, when intermittent irrigation is desired, by drawing the jjlug (m) above the opening (i). This can be done by pulling upward the handle (1). The top of the stand pipe at (1) serves as an exit for the gases formed in the second chamber and also as an inlet for air into the sub-soil or irri- gation pipes. A series of holes should be bored in the upper part of the two baffle boards above the water level. These afford an inter-com- munication of gases between the sep- arate chambers of the tank. Also provide an opening into the stand pipe at (o) to serve as a means of escape for the accumulated gas, oth- erwise an explosion might occur. The whole tank is covered tightly with the plank (p). All the materials re- quired for this tank may be had in any locality. The construction is simple and the expense is chiefly for labor. A better plan, however, is to provide an automatic syphon of which there are several styles on the market, so that the sewage may be discharged at required intervals without constant attention.
Syphon Tanks. — The principle of the automatic syphon is well known. It consists simply of a section of pipe so curved that one leg is longer than the other. The long leg is erected vertically to a proper height in the second chamber of the tank and cov- ered at the top by a suitable bell. It is connected by means of the short leg with the outlet pipe. When the liquid sewage enters the second cham- ber it rises under the bell, flows into the long leg of the syphon and seals the trap at the bottom of the bend. As the depth of sewage increases, it compresses the air in the long leg of the syphon until, at the proper level, the pressure becomes great enough to force the water in the bottom of the trap out through the short leg and the outlet pipe and thereby creates sufficient suction to empty the second chamber. Once the level of the fluid descends below the mouth of the bell.
air is admitted, the syphon is broken and no further discharge can occur imtil the tank is again refilled.
Flush Tank. — The two-chamber septic tank above described may be deemed necessary for proper sub-sur- face irrigation, and is desirable in all cases. But for surface irrigation a simple flush tank having a single chamber and operated by hand by means of a check valve, or by an au- tomatic syphon, may be sufficient. The accompanying illustration shows a simple form of flush tank designed
Simple flush tank. {E. T. Wilson.)
to be constructed of concrete. The sewage from the house-drain is first screened by means of a wire basket so arranged as to be remova- ble through a convenient manhole with a cast iron or other solid cover — a second basket being substituted while the first is emptied and cleaned. The small residue caught by the bas- ket should be promptly spaded into the ground.
The object of this flush tank is merely to collect the household wastes for a period of from 13 to 24 hours to admit of their intermittent dis- charge at fixed intervals. Hence the tank, if equipped with an automatic syphon as shown in the illustration, need be only large enough to hold the household wastes for the desired period between the automatic dis- charges. A capacity of 48 cubic feet is sufficient for a family of 6 using 60 gallons of water a day for each person. The depth of the tank may he determined by the syphon, the other two dimensions to give the re- quired cubic capacity being a matter of convenience. Tlie necessary con- crete "forms" for this flush tank or
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the sejitic tank previously illustrated can be built by any cai'penter or per- son handy with tools from the accom- panying drawings. The concrete for the walls can be mixed and laid by any householder who will follow the instructions elsewhere given. The av- erage cost for material in most local- ities for this flush tank will be about $35. For the septic tank previously shown about $150.
Tilting- Tank. — In houses where a sewerage system is not available and
C<J5kiron.TOoti?a3te-fviafiaei5 oovat?
OuHef ptp^.
Tilting tank. {E. T. Wilson.)
the liquid waste consists only of kitchen slops, these may be accumu- lated by means of a tilting tank as shown in the illustration. Install this in a suitable concrete trough with a convenient manhole and equip it with an outlet pipe of 4-inch vitrified tile. Furnish the sinks and laundry tubs emptying into this tank with brass strainers to prevent the entrance of anything which might clog the kitchen waste pipe or outlet pipe. The tilt- ing tank collects the irregular flow and discharges only when full. This provides for the necessary intermit- tent discharge.
Or provide a concrete or other suit- able tank of sufficient capacity to hold the sink drainage and domestic slops for 24 hours or more and equip it with a check valve to be operated by hand. Furnish a tell-tale to show when this tank is sufficiently full to require attention.
Or provide a simple wire pan into
which the slops may be poured from pails. All these devices require an out- let of vitrified drain pipe with tight joints long enough to carry waste water without leakage to a point where it may be finally disposed of.
Or to make a cheap temporary drain for waste water from the kitchen sink use 4-inch vitrified tile costing about 7 cents a foot. Run a drain about 25 feet in the opposite direction from the well, and convey the waste to a tub or barrel. Thence run it off to the garden by a small pipe or carry it away in pails. If a barrel can be provided with two wheels, and a tongue like a cart, it can be easily drawn away from time to time and emptied. The expense of such a drain is nominal: 26 feet of vitrified tile, $1.75; sink, $1.35; pipe and trap, $1. Total, $4.
Irrigation Beds. — Whether the liquid household wastes are collected in a septic tank, a simple flush tank, tilting tank or otherwise, provision must be made for their final recep- tion and purification by contact with
Details of a typical surface irrigation plant in plan and section. Courtesy titate Board of Health of North Carolina.
the ordinary surface soil, or by spe- cially prepared filtration beds.
Surface Irrigation. — The final dis- posal of household sewage — prefera- bly after it has passed through a sep- tic tank to remove grease and dissolve solid substances — may be on the sur- face of the ground. But in such case it must be carried not less than 300 feet — and the farther the better — from buildings, and with due care not to contaminate any source of water supply. Select for this pur-
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pose preferably a sloping tract of grass land, where the soil is a porous sandy or gravelly loam. If the soil is of clay, a much larger tract will be required. If wet. It must be un- der-drained. Carry the drain pipe along the side of the ridge and let it discharge at intervals upon the sur- face. Or receive the sewage into a transverse drain pipe across the head of the irrigation field and provide a series of outlets closed by suitable check valves or gates to admit of irri- gating different portions of the field at intervals. Mark off the field into plats by means of low dykes and broad shallow ditches, or by means of furrows made with a plow.
Or, if the land is flat, with proper grading the sewage may be disposed broadly over the surface. The amount of solids in household sewage is so small that, if discharged inter- mittently at rather frequent intervals and in such a way as to give the different portions of the field enough rest to prevent them from becoming saturated, this system will prove by far the best and cheapest for isolated dwellings. If a suitable piece of land is available it can be operated without the slightest offense.
Filtication Beds. — This plan con- sists in receiving the sewage upon a specially prepared bed of sand. It may be preferred where the amount of land available is small, or the soil is of clay and poorly drained. Make
Section of filter bed.
Wilaon.)
an excavation from 3 to 5 feet deep and under-drain with 3-inch red un- glazed land drainage tiles. A filter bed from 15 to 30 feet square having an area of from 336 to 400 square feet should be sufficiently large for a family of five persons. Discharge
the sewage intermittently from a sep- tic or flush tank and distribute evenly over the surface by means of wooden troughs, 4-inch red drain tile, or a 6-inch galvanized roof gutter pierced with small holes at frequent inter- vals. The efficiency of the filtration bed increases with the lapse of time, especially if the surface is raked over to the depth of an inch or more each week. The capacity of the septic or flush tank may be reduced at least one-half if a filter bed is used instead of sub-surface irrigation.
Sub-Surface Irrigation. — The ad- vantage of this system, when prop- erly installed, is that household sew- age may be disposed of without of- fense beneath the lawn or garden and within a very limited distance of the house. The first cost is greater than that of surface irrigation or a filtra- tion bed, but such a system may be regarded as the best and most sani- tary method of sewage disposal. A well-made septic or flush tank if properly covered is free from odor. It may be located as near the house as may be desired, provided the tank and outlet pipe are made water- tight up to the point of sewage dis- posal. This admits of convenient ac- cess, especially if no automatic sy- phon is provided and the sewage must be discharged by means of a check valve by hand.
To provide for a system of sub- surface irrigation it is first necessary to under-drain the land provided it is hard or clayey and not naturally dry. Lay the drain tiles for this purpose 3 or 4 feet below the surface and carry off the ground water by means of a suitable outfall. But this will not be necessary if the soil is a porous, sandj"^, or gravelly loam. Now open a system of trenches from 8 to 13 inches deep, distinct from the trenches for under-drainage, if any, and in these lay red unglazed land drainage tiles to receive the sewage. Select tile 3 inches in diameter and 1 foot in length. Lay them end to end with the joints open for a space of ^ to i of an inch between the tiles
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and with a very slight grade of about 3 inches to 100 feet. If the grade is much gi-eater the lower end of the system will be flooded.
After laying the tile, fill in the trench so as to cover them 2 or 3 inches deep with small pebbles, gravel or very coarse sand. This will as- sist in distributing the sewage through the soil. Lay down the tract to grass or cultivate it as a kitchen garden, taking care to work the ground when necessary with a spade or fork and not deep enough to dis- turb the tiles. The total capacity of these tiles should equal that of the
LAUNDf{Y\
may be as broad as it is long. A header or central pipe may be used to throw the sewage into long branches. Or laterals may be thrown off from the main drain at intervals of 4 or 5 feet at any angle or to any desired distance. Or preferably the drains may be so laid as to constitute two or more distinct systems. Thus the sewage may be diverted from one to another so as to allow the land inter- vals of rest. The accompanying illus- trations show a number of the vari- ous schemes that may be devised. The importance of the intermittent dis- charge of sewage is greatest hi sub-
— -iiirrrrrrmi -^
Rectangular tanks close to Jiouse. Separate settling tank for laundry building. Underdrains in disposal area to drain out underlying ground toater and ivater from purified sewage in naturally loet or dense soil. Courtesy State Board of Health of North Carolina.
discharge tank from which the sew- age comes. Hence the total length of irrigation tiles needed for the family consuming 360 gallons of water a day would be not to exceed 1,000 feet. And probably in porous well drained soil, 35 per cent less or 800 feet would be sufficient. To ascertain the number of tiles required divide the total number of gallons reckoned as 60 for each member of the family, by the capacity of each tile. This may be estimated roughly as one-third of a gallon.
The system of tile may be laid out in any form best suited to the size, shape and contour of the available land, provided that the lines should be laid at least from 3 to 5 feet apart. The plot of ground occupied
surface irrigation. A septic tank must be provided large enough to hold at least a 34 hours' supply with an automatic syphon that will flush the tank properly at 34-hour inter- vals. Or the tank must be flushed by hand if necessary each day at a regular time.
Cess-pools. — The ordinary cess-pool is not a solution of the problem of sewage disposal. It is merely a method of getting the sewage out of sight. It is now regarded as abso- lutely unsanitary and highly objec- tionable. The necessary depth of a cess-pool is such as to contaminate the soil beyond the reach of the puri- fying bacteria which require the presence of oxygen. The ground sur- rounding the cess-pool becomes con-
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HOUSEHOLD DISCOVERIES
taminated for a constantly increasing radius and eventually the resulting poisonous liquids and gases find their way to strata of the soil through which they reach and pollute the air of cellars or sources of water sup- ply. If, however, a cess-pool is deemed necessary, it may be convert- ed into a rude form of septic tank by turning down the inlet pipe to a point below the water level and pro- viding an outlet pipe similarly turned clown so that the inward and outward flow of sewage will not disturb the processes which are going on in the surface scum and in the sludge at the bo om. Such a cess-pool should preferauly be made water-tight by lining it with concrete or stone set in Portland cement mortar. The ef- flTient from the outlet must then be carried to a considerable distance from the house and disposed of by surface irrigation, or by means -of a small filtration bed as above sug- gested.
Where water sewage is not availa- ble, proper sanitation demands a strictly separate method of disposal of the three kinds of waste matters, namely, solid excreta, slops and gar- bage. The garbage should be fed to pigs or'* chicken, burned or buried in a trench at a suitable distance from dwellings and sources of water sup- lily. Kitchen drainage and domestic slops should invariably be disposed of by one of the methods above rec- ommended. They should never be tlirown on the surface of the ground near the house or well, allowed to ac- cumulate in an open drain or pool, or deposited in an open privy vault. The cost of a simple system of dis- posal of these liquid wastes is slight and the danger to health requires that this, at least, be done at any sacrifice.
The Sanitary Privy. — A recent in- vestigation of the subject of soil pol- lution from open vaults of the ordi- nary type has been made by Charles Warden Stiles in connection with his study of the spread of the hookworm disease, especially in the southern
states. The following suggestions are condensed and adapted from his re- port to the Surgeon-General. This plan if generally adopted throughout the United States would eliminate a nuisance which is practically univer- sal and which is perhaps the greatest menace to health now existing in the vicinity of most rural dwellings.
HOW TO BUILD A PRIVY
The following are the essential features: There is a closed portion (box) under the seat for the recep- tion (in a receptacle) and safeguard-
The average style of privy found in the South. It is knoicn as a surface privy, open in bacR. Notice how the soil pollution is being spread, and how flies can carry the filth to the house and thus infect the food..
ing of the excreta; a roor^ for the occupant; and, proper ventilation.
The receptacle consists practically of a box, with a top represented by the seat, with a floor which is a con- tinuation of the floor of the room, with a front extending from the seat to the floor, with a hinged back which should close tightly, and with two sides continuous with the sides of the room and provided with wire screened ventilators, the upper mar- gin of which is just under the level of the seat. The seat should have one or more holes accoi'ding to the size of the privy desired, and each
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nole should have a hinged lid which .lifts up toward the back of the room; there should be a piece of wood nailed across the back, on the inside of the room, so as to prevent the lids from being lifted suflBiciently to fall back- ward and so as to make them fall forward of their own accord as soon as the person rises. In this box there should be one or more water-tight tubs, half barrels, pails, or galvanized cans, corresponding to the number of holes in the seat. This receptacle should be high enough to reach nearly to the seat, or, better still, so as to fit snugly against the seat, in order
A sanitary privy shoioing firmly closed door, thus preventing flies, atiimals, etc., from having access to the fecal material.
to protect the floor against soiling, and sufficiently deep to prevent splashing the person on the seat; it should be held in place by cleats nailed to the floor in such a way that the tub will always be properly cen- tered. The back should be kept closed, as shown in the illustration.
The room should be water-tight and should be provided in front with a good, tightly fitting door. The darker this room can be made the fewer flies will enter. The roof may have a single slant, or a double slant.
but M'hile the double slant is some- what more sightly, the single slant is less expensive in first cost. The room should be provided with two or three v/ire-screei ed ventilators, as near the roof as possible.
The ventilators are very important additions to the privy, as they per- mit a free circulation of air and thus not only reduce the odor but make the outhouse cooler. These ventilators should be copper wire screened in order to keep out flies and other in- sects. There should be at least 4 (better 5) ventilators, arranged as follows: One each side of the box; one each side the room near the roof; and a fifth ventilator, over the door, in front, is advisable.
latticework, Flowers and Vines. — At best, the privy is not an attractive addition to the yard. It is possible, however, to reduce its unattractive- ness by surrounding it with a lattice- work on which are trained vines or flowers. This plan, which adds but little to the expense, renders the building much less unsightly and much more private.
Disinfectant. — It is only in com- paratively recent years that the privy has been thought worthy of scientific study, and not unnaturally there is some difference of opinion at present as to the best plan to follow in re- gard to disinfectants.
Top Soil. — Some persons prefer to keep a box or a barrel of top soil, sand, or ashes in the room and to recommend that each time the privy is used the excreta be covered with a shovelful of the dirt. While this has the advantage of simplicity, it has the disadvantage of favoring careless- ness, as people so commonly (in fact, as a rule) fail to cover the excreta; further, in order to have the best re- sults, it is necessary to cover the dis- charges very completely; finally, at best, our knowledge as to how long certain germs and spores will live un- der these conditions is very unsatis- factory.
lime. — Some persons prefer to have a box of lime in the room and
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to cover the excreta with this ma- terial. Against this system there is the objection that the li ne is not used with sufficient f requc .\cy or lib- erality to keep insects a*vay, as is shown by the fact that flies carry the lime to the house and deposit it on the food.
Water and Oil. — A very cheap and simple method is to pour into the tub about 3 or 3 inches of water; this plan gives the excreta a chance to ferment and liquefy so th;it the disease germs may be more easily de- stroyed. If this plan is followed a cup of oil (kerosene will answer) should be poured on the water in order to repel insects.
Cresol. — Some persons favor the use of a 5 per cent crude carbolic acid in the tub. but probably the com- pound solution of cresol (U. S. P.) will be found equally or more satis- factory if used in a strength of 1 part of this sclution to 19 parts of water.
If a disinfectant is used the family shoidd be warned to keep the reserve supply in a place that is not accessi- ble to the chilJren, otherwise acci- dents may result.
Cleaning the Eeceptacle. — Tlie fre- quency 'of .leaning the receptacle de- pends upon (a) the size of the tub, (6) the number of persons using the privy, and (c) t' e weather. In gen- eral, it is best lo clean it about once a week in winter and twice a week in summer.
An excellent ])ian is to have a dou- ble set of pails or tubs for each privy. Suppose the outhouse is to be cleaned every Saturday: Then pail No. 1 is taken out (say January I), covered, and set aside until the fol- lowing Saturday; pail No. 3 is placed in the box for