Effects of mixed reality-based instruction on visual attention and stroke performance in novice badminton players.

Effects of mixed reality-based instruction on visual attention and stroke performance in novice badminton players - PMC Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock Locked padlock icon ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Search Log in Dashboard Publications Account settings Log out Search… Search NCBI Primary site navigation Search Logged in as: Dashboard Publications Account settings Log in Search PMC Full-Text Archive Search in PMC Journal List User Guide PERMALINK Copy As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice J Exerc Sci Fit . 2026 Mar 30;24(3):200465. doi: 10.1016/j.jesf.2026.200465 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Effects of mixed reality-based instruction on visual attention and stroke performance in novice badminton players Tsai-Chiao Wang Tsai-Chiao Wang a General Research Service Center, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Taiwan Find articles by Tsai-Chiao Wang a , Tzu-Yi Liu Tzu-Yi Liu b Institute of Physical Education, Health & Leisure Studies, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan Find articles by Tzu-Yi Liu b , Chien-Yu Pan Chien-Yu Pan c Department of Physical Education, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Taiwan Find articles by Chien-Yu Pan c , Yu-Ting Tseng Yu-Ting Tseng d Department of Kinesiology, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan Find articles by Yu-Ting Tseng d , Ta-Wei Tang Ta-Wei Tang e Department of Business Administration, Asia University, Taiwan Find articles by Ta-Wei Tang e, ⁎ , Chia-Liang Tsai Chia-Liang Tsai b Institute of Physical Education, Health & Leisure Studies, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan f Department of Psychology, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan Find articles by Chia-Liang Tsai b, f, ⁎⁎ Author information Article notes Copyright and License information a General Research Service Center, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Taiwan b Institute of Physical Education, Health & Leisure Studies, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan c Department of Physical Education, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Taiwan d Department of Kinesiology, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan e Department of Business Administration, Asia University, Taiwan f Department of Psychology, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan ⁎ Corresponding author. [email protected] ⁎⁎ Corresponding author. Lab of Cognitive Neurophysiology, Institute of Physical Education, Health & Leisure Studies, NO. 1, University Road, Tainan City 701, Taiwan. [email protected] Received 2025 Oct 29; Revised 2026 Mar 23; Accepted 2026 Mar 30; Issue date 2026 Jul. © 2026 The Society of Chinese Scholars on Exercise Physiology and Fitness. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC13092046  PMID: 42011379 Abstract Objective This study examined the effects of a mixed reality (MR)-based auxiliary training system on visual–motor skill acquisition, with a focus on hitting accuracy and oculomotor performance in novice badminton players. Methods Forty-seven college students without prior badminton experience were randomly assigned to either a Mixed Reality Training (MRT) group or a coach-led Traditional Teaching (TT) group. Both groups received instruction in the forehand long shot over an eight-week intervention period. Pre- and post-intervention assessments evaluated hitting accuracy (successful shots and shots failing to cross the net) and oculomotor parameters, including pupil diameter, saccade velocity, fixation duration, fixation count, and visual attention toward areas of interest. Results After the intervention, the MRT group exhibited a significant increase in successful shots, whereas the TT group showed no notable improvement in hitting accuracy. Furthermore, the MRT group demonstrated enhanced fixation count and saccade velocity, reflecting greater visual efficiency and attentional control. In contrast, the TT group showed reductions in fixation-related metrics and slower saccades, accompanied by an increase in pupil diameter. Conclusion These findings indicate that mixed reality (MR) based instructional strategies can effectively enhance attentional engagement and visual–motor coordination in novices, thereby serving as an innovative pedagogical approach for early-stage motor skill acquisition and sports training. Moreover, the immersive virtual coaching system may contribute to more equal opportunities for learning and help reduce educational gaps. Keywords: Mixed reality (MR), Oculomotor performance, Hitting accuracy, Motor skill learning, Visual attention 1. Introduction The ability to strike an object at high speed with accuracy is a unique human skill and has become a key element in many competitive racket sports. 1 Similar to other racket sports, badminton requires specific offensive skills. The most fundamental and commonly used techniques, such as the forehand smash and net shot, request that players possess both speed and precision in their shots. 2 , 3 These skills require a high degree of accuracy to deliver the shuttlecock precisely to the optimal location on the court. 1 , 2 , 3 Thus, the accuracy of a shot is typically quantified by the proportion of successful target hits. 4 Deficiencies in stroke technique, inaccurate judgment of the opponent's shot placement, and difficulties in controlling shot power are factors that can prevent badminton players from hitting the shuttle to the target area or successfully clearing the net. Therefore, this study utilized two independent variables as evaluation indicators of shot accuracy in badminton hitting skills: the number of successful shots and the number of shots that did not cross the net. 5 , 6 Badminton typically requires rapid movements in a limited space and quick reactions within a short time, 7 resulting in complex movement shifts. 8 , 9 Consequently, during the skill development phase of badminton, students considerably rely on comprehensive practice and valuable coaching feedback. 8 , 10 , 11 However, considering the constrained time that physical education teachers can dedicate to students in standard traditional badminton instruction, 12 students often engage in extended self-guided practice sessions. These prolonged self-practice durations might lead to suboptimal learning outcomes due to a lack of familiarity with correct badminton techniques and to movement-associated injuries. Studies have confirmed that technology can assist in badminton instruction. For example, a video-based motion-tracking system was used to analyze the movement trajectories of badminton players during games 13 and to offer valuable feedback for motor skill enhancement. 8 However, the absence of interactive and genuine experiences can make it arduous to address the skill enhancement needs of players. With advancements in wearable sensing technology, physical activities can be automatically documented with the support of various sensors. 9 , 10 , 14 Virtual-reality (VR) technology has evolved beyond simply being a recreational tool. Individuals have been increasingly employing this technology for augmenting perceptual-motor skills. 15 Perceptual-motor skills enable athletes to selectively extract task-relevant information from the environment and adapt their actions accordingly, thereby supporting skilled performance. 16 Physical education teachers and coaches have continually sought innovative methods to train these athletic abilities, aiming for heightened training effectiveness. 17 Conventionally, coaches have predominantly utilized images and videos as teaching supplements. However, studies have increasingly indicated that images, being two-dimensional, might obscure certain views and mask pivotal information, 18 thus hindering students from attaining optimal learning outcomes. Moreover, videos inherently have a unidirectional transmission nature, thereby curtailing teacher–student interaction and lacking authenticity. 18 Through VR, students can fine-tune their movements by consistently observing a virtual coach's actions, which facilitates a higher volume of practice repetitions within the same duration and thereby boosts skill acquisition. Virtual reality provides enriched visual feedback and immersive sensory cues that enhance visual perception and facilitate the processing of movement cues from a virtual coach, thereby improving visual–motor coordination. 19 , 20 Moreover, unlike human coaches who provide movement guidance only within limited training sessions, a virtual coach can offer real-time visual and motor feedback anytime and anywhere. Consequently, VR instructional approaches are deemed superior to conventional physical teaching techniques. 21 Mixed reality (MR) is an emerging technology that has the potential to mitigate the typical adverse effects commonly associated with VR, including dizziness, nausea, and spatial disorientation. 22 MR has found practical applications in sports teaching 23 , 24 , 25 and has been demonstrated to improve practice effectiveness. 25 MR virtual coaching enables players to hone their badminton skills by observing the racket techniques and dynamic stances of a virtual coach during self-practice sessions. 10 , 14 Virtual reality has this capability because it not only simulates an environment for users but also facilitates the learning of specific skills interactively. 26 , 27 , 28 . Compared with non-immersive virtual reality, immersive MR may enhance novices’ intrinsic motivation and engagement during the learning of striking skills, 28 thereby encouraging deeper involvement in the badminton skill acquisition process. Such increased engagement may enable learners not only to execute movements more efficiently but also to produce a greater volume of skill repetitions within fixed time constraints, which in turn increases the amount of effective practice or practice density 29 , 30 and ultimately facilitates improved badminton skill learning outcomes. Eye movements, including fixation location, fixation duration, and saccadic trajectories, are widely used to infer how individuals distribute visual attention during task performance. 31 , 32 , 33 Eye-movement measures therefore provide an objective index of visual attention. Previous research has commonly used visual indicators including fixation duration, fixation count, fixation location, areas of interest (AOIs), saccade velocity, and pupil diameter as key metrics for assessing visual behavior during physical activities. 32 , 34 These factors are also critical determinants influencing athletic performance. 35 , 36 In badminton, the shuttlecock can reach velocities exceeding 400 km/h during a smash, and its flight speed is therefore higher than that of balls used in other racket sports. 37 Consequently, athletes in this sport must possess exceptional reaction speed. For athletes participating in racket sports, the ability to collect relevant visual information within extremely short reaction times is a primary factor influencing athletic performance. 38 Therefore, research on athletes’ eye movement patterns before striking the ball has garnered increased attention in sports research. Fixation behavior holds considerable implications for the quality of badminton shots. Positive relationships exist between successful shots, fixation duration, and fixation count. 36 , 39 For seasoned athletes, their extensive knowledge and experience enable them to allocate more preparatory time to ascertain the shuttlecock's position. 40 This ability not only enhances their predictive capabilities but also affords them additional preparation time for the shot. 36 , 40 Studies have yet to explore the influence of MR training systems on the visual behavior of novice badminton players, despite the growing integration of virtual coaching systems in self-training routines of athletes. Recognizing the visual behavior discrepancies between novices using MR training systems and those undergoing traditional coach-led training during shuttlecock interactions can enhance the learning and application of badminton skills for novices. MR training offers learners the opportunity to observe instructional actions repeatedly. Moreover, when errors occur, the virtual coach promptly offers corrections and redemonstrates the accurate striking technique. Consequently, trainees using MR might concentrate more on their striking stance and motions, directing their visual focus to the upper torso of the virtual coach and the striking movement. 36 , 40 These variations in visual gaze patterns are pivotal for the effective learning of hitting techniques. Furthermore, these nuanced changes in eye movement can profoundly influence learners’ striking precision and error frequencies. Studies on eye movement behavior in badminton have primarily been conducted in controlled laboratory settings. However, with the introduction of portable eye-tracking devices, researchers have gained a deeper insight into eye movement patterns exhibited in real-world situations. These portable eye-tracking devices can precisely capture eye movement data and are viewed as noninvasive tools. Participants do not experience discomfort when using these tools, which facilitate the acquisition of visual data in real-world settings. 36 The high mobility and precision of these devices facilitate the effective acquisition of dynamic visual data during gameplay. Accordingly, the present study used a portable eye-tracking device to collect visual information from players during self-training and the shuttlecock-hitting process. Currently, research examining the effects of incorporating MR into physical education lessons on students’ visual behavior and learning performance is scant. Therefore, this study employed MR as an intervention tool to investigate the influences of an 8-week virtual coaching intervention on the visual behavior and learning performance of novice badminton learners. The objectives of this study were (1) to investigate the effect of MR teaching (MRT) on hitting accuracy (i.e., number of successful shots and number of shots not crossing the net) among novice badminton players when they execute a forehand long shot and (2) to analyze differences in eye movement parameters (i.e., fixation duration, fixation count, pupil diameter, saccade velocity, and AOIs) among novice badminton players during an 8-week in-person traditional teaching (TT) or MRT intervention. We hypothesized (1) that the MRT intervention would yield superior learning outcomes to the TT intervention in terms of badminton motor skills and (2) that the MRT intervention would result in effects different from those of the TT intervention on eye movement patterns of novice players during shots. 2. Research methods 2.1. Research participants This study recruited 50 college students who had not undergone formal badminton training. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) participants were aged between 16 and 24 years. (2) participants had a normal body mass index (BMI; 18.5 ≤ BMI <24.9 kg/m 2 ), as defined by the Taiwan Ministry of Health and Welfare based on disease incidence and mortality risk in Asian populations. 32 , 34 (3) participants had no sports-related injuries within the six weeks preceding the study. (4) participants had no history of major surgical procedures or serious illnesses and were not pregnant. (5) participants had corrected visual acuity of 0.8 or above, were able to wear contact lenses if vision correction was required, and did not wear pupil-enlarging or color-changing lenses. The inclusion criteria were verified using a combination of self-reported questionnaires and researcher verification procedures. All criteria were assessed through self-report, except for criteria (2) and (5), which were verified by the researchers. This verification approach is consistent with standard practices in sports science and human performance research involving healthy participants. All participants volunteered for the study and provided informed consent approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of National Cheng Kung University. Each participant received monetary compensation for their involvement. 2.2. Experimental procedure Before initiating the experiment, the research team explained to the participants this study's objectives, procedures, and requirements for participants as well as other pertinent information. Upon ensuring that the participants understood the experimental procedures, they were asked to provide their basic information and sign an informed consent form. Subsequently, the 50 students were evenly divided into two groups: a coach-led TT group and an MRT group. The TT group was taught by a coach during their regular badminton classes. By contrast, the MRT group arranged their training sessions according to their convenience and the coach's availability because of the limited availability of MR equipment. All participants participated in weekly 100-min training sessions, with the session duration determined based on previous studies. 5 , 6 , 11 In the initial week, the MRT and TT groups were subjected to evaluations for badminton skills and eye movement performance. The preintervention procedure began with a 10-min warm-up session, after which a research assistant equipped participants with an eye-tracking device. This device's positioning was adjusted to maximize comfort, thereby ensuring optimal conditions for the oculomotor evaluation while minimizing potential distractions. During the assessment, participants hit 15 baseline shots consecutively, with metrics such as hitting accuracy (e.g., number of successful shots and shots not crossing the net) being noted. Simultaneously, the eye-tracking device recorded eye movement performance. Following the 8-week MRT or TT intervention, the same measures for hitting accuracy and oculomotor performance were re-evaluated. To address potential biases in badminton evaluations, a coach certified by the Chinese Taipei Badminton Association was enlisted to curate the curriculum for the TT and MRT groups. Both the TT and MRT experimental groups were conducted in the same indoor badminton court, which was appropriately illuminated and suitable for badminton instruction and practice. 2.3. Instruments for MRT During the 8-week training intervention, both the TT and MRT groups were trained at the same venue and during the same time periods. Participants in the TT group received badminton skill instruction from a human coach. In contrast, participants in the MRT group received badminton instruction from a virtual badminton coach. The AI-based hitting techniques and return-response decision mechanisms of the virtual badminton coach were developed and calibrated based on the actual badminton skills and movement patterns of the same human coach. This study used augmented-reality smart glasses developed by Jorjin Technologies (J-Reality J7EF, Jorjin company, Ksohsiung city, Taiwan). These glasses were paired with a Samsung Galaxy S10 smartphone to develop a virtual badminton training application ( Fig. 1 ). The application was integrated with a Logitech Stream Cam lens. This lens could conduct a skeletal analysis of the user's movements and utilize the resultant data to animate the actions of the virtual badminton coach. When a movement was deemed incorrect, the system provided appropriate feedback to guide the students to make the correct hitting activities ( Fig. 1 ). Fig. 1. Open in a new tab Virtual badminton training coach. 2.4. Badminton performance assessment The “forehand clear” (also known as the “forehand long shot”) is a foundational badminton shot. In this shot, the player uses a swinging motion with their dominant hand to strike the shuttlecock, thereby producing a curved trajectory with considerable height. This shot is aimed at confining the opponent's movement to the backcourt. For a shot to qualify as a long shot, it should achieve a minimum height of 3 m and ideally approach the baseline. 5 Mastering the “forehand clear,” which is recognized as an essential basic technique in badminton, is pivotal for success in this game. Therefore, the present study emphasized the forehand long shot among foundational badminton skills and used a Drivex 9X racket (Victor, Taipei, Taiwan). The method for evaluating badminton performance was adapted from the badminton performance assessment technique employed by Edwards et al. 5 A square target area of 1 square meter was marked at the backcourt line, where the shuttle must land to be counted as a successful score. If the shuttle does not hit the target area, the shot is considered unsuccessful ( Fig. 2 ). Additionally, since some participants could send the shuttle over the net without accurately landing it in the target area, while others could not clear the net at all, calculating only the success rate would yield identical scores for both cases. To more precisely distinguish participants' hitting skills, this study referenced Liu et al. 6 on racket sports performance evaluation methods, also recording the number of shots that did not cross the net. Therefore, this study used two independent variables as evaluation indicators of badminton hitting accuracy: the number of successful shots and the number of shots not crossing the net. 5 , 6 Fig. 2. Open in a new tab A schematic illustration of the badminton court showing the 1-m 2 target box, along with the positions of the serve and participant. 2.5. Collection and processing of eye movement data This study used the Tobii Pro Glasses 2 eye-tracking device (Tobii, Stockholm, Sweden) to record the participants' eye movement behavior at a sampling rate of 100 Hz. The collected data were wirelessly relayed to the Tobii Pro Glasses Controller software program on a computer and subsequently analyzed using the Tobii Pro Lab software program. The adopted portable eye-tracking device weighs only 45 g, which makes it highly convenient and lightweight. The device's presence did not hinder the participants' shot performance. The instrument was securely attached to the participants' waist to ensure that it did not disrupt their shuttlecock-hitting actions. This study also assessed the participants’ fixation duration, fixation count, and saccade velocity for comparison. Fixations are typically regarded as static actions in eyeball functioning. During fixations, the eyes remain largely stationary, which facilitates visual perception. 31 By contrast, saccade velocity refers to the speed of rapid eye movements that shift gaze between targets. 41 In sports that necessitate rapid fixation shifts, such as badminton, table tennis, and other racket-based games, scanning is an essential eye movement. 42 To record eye movements during the dynamic motor task, a mobile eye-tracking system (head-mounted Tobii Pro Glasses 2) was used. This system is based on the pupil center corneal reflection (PCCR) technique and enables accurate gaze tracking during natural head movements and dynamic motor activities. This system has been shown to provide stable and reliable gaze measurements in studies of physical activity and sports performance. 43 Eye movement performance was analyzed following procedures similar to those used in a previous study by Popowczak and Zwierko. 43 Prior to data collection, eye-tracking accuracy was established through a standardized calibration and validation procedure. Participants were instructed to hold a bullseye calibration card at arm's length and fixate on its center, after which calibration quality was automatically evaluated by system. A subsequent validation procedure requiring fixation across multiple gaze directions was conducted to ensure calibration robustness. Both calibration and validation were completed before each experimental trial. Gaze data were sampled at 100 Hz, while the integrated forward-facing scene camera recorded the visual environment at 25 frames per second with a resolution of 1920 × 1080 pixels. Upon completion of the experiment, raw eye-tracking data were exported as individual. xlsx files, and the corresponding. mp4 scene recordings were retrieved for reference. For analysis, pixel-based gaze coordinates (“Gaze Point X″ and “Gaze Point Y″), representing the averaged horizontal and vertical gaze positions from both eyes, were extracted. Before fixation classification, the eye-tracking data underwent preprocessing procedures that included eye selection, noise reduction, and treatment of short segments of missing data caused by brief tracking interruptions or blinks. Short gaps were corrected using standard gap fill-in interpolation to avoid artificial increases in angular velocity, whereas longer signal losses that prevented reliable velocity estimation were excluded from further analysis. Visual events were classified using the velocity-threshold identification (I-VT) algorithm implemented in Tobii Pro Lab, which differentiates fixations and saccades based on sample-wise angular velocity. 44 , 45 Prior to filtering, eye images were inspected to verify the availability of valid binocular data at each sampling point. Samples with unreliable or incomplete data were excluded from fixation detection, although interpolation was applied for visualization purposes to generate smooth gaze trajectories. In the raw dataset, each timestamp contained horizontal (X-axis) and vertical (Y-axis) gaze coordinates for both eyes. When gaze samples were classified as fixations or saccades, the mean coordinates from the left and right eyes were used to represent gaze position. Pupil diameter was also derived from eye images and was available whenever valid eye data were detected. Following gaze classification, pupil measurements were retained only during fixation periods to ensure that pupillary responses reflected stable visual processing, whereas pupil data during saccades were excluded from analysis. 2.6. Statistical analysis This study used the SPSS 17.0 statistical software program (IBM SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) for analysis. An independent-samples t -test was conducted to examine differences in demographic characteristics between the MRT and TT groups. A two-factor mixed-design repeated-measures analysis of variation (RM-ANOVA) was conducted to assess all dependent variables. The main effects were examined using Time (before vs. after intervention) as the within-subjects factor and Group (MRT vs. TT) as the between-subjects factor, and hitting accuracy (e.g. number of successful shots and number of shots not crossing the net) and oculomotor performance (e.g., fixation duration, fixation count, saccade velocity, and pupil diameter) were used as dependent variables. If the sphericity assumption was not met, the Geisser–Greenhouse correction was applied. In cases where significant main effects and interactions between factors were observed, Bonferroni post-hoc tests were conducted for further comparisons. Homogeneity and normality of variance assumptions were confirmed by Levene's and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests, respectively. The significance threshold for all analyses was set at p < .05. Effect sizes were calculated using Cohen's d, with values of 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 indicating a small effect, medium effect, and large effect, respectively. 3. Results During the experiment, three participants from the TT group withdrew from the study because of personal reasons. Therefore, the subsequent data processing and statistical analyses were conducted using data collected from the remaining 47 participants. As presented in Table 1 , we observed a significant difference in age between the MRT and TT groups ( p < .001). However, no significant differences were observed between these groups in terms of sex. Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the mixed-reality teaching (MRT) group and traditional teaching (TT) group. MRT (n = 25) TT (n = 22) p Sex (Male/Female) 12/13 12/10 0.663 Age (years) 21.76 ± 1.64 19.09 ± 1.72 <0.001∗ Open in a new tab ∗p < .05. 3.1. Hitting accuracy 3.1.1. Number of successful shots As illustrated in Fig. 3 , the RM-ANOVA results regarding the number of successful shots revealed significant Group [ F (1,45) = 4.82, p = .033, partial η 2 = 0.10] and Time [ F (1,45) = 35.51, p < .001, partial η 2 = 0.44] effects. Notably, the MRT group consistently had a higher number of successful shots than did the TT group before and after the intervention. Moreover, in both groups, the numbers of successful shots increased after the intervention. We also observed a significant interaction between the Group and Time factors [ F (1,45) = 25.20, p < .001, partial η 2 = 0.36]. Our post-hoc analysis results indicated that only the MRT group exhibited a significantly higher number of successful shots after the intervention (4.44 ± 0.49) than before the intervention (0.72 ± 0.30, p < .001). Fig. 3. Open in a new tab Badminton hitting accuracy (i.e., number of successful shots and number of shots not crossing the net) before and after the intervention among the MRT and TT groups (∗ p < .05). 3.1.2. Number of shots not crossing the net The RM-ANOVA results regarding the number of shots not crossing the net revealed a significant main effect of Time [ F (1,45) = 7.98, p = .007, partial η 2 = 0.15]. Specifically, the MRT and TT groups had lower numbers of shots not crossing the net after the intervention. 3.2. Oculomotor performance 3.2.1. Pupil diameter As illustrated in Fig. 4 , the RM-ANOVA results regarding pupil diameter revealed a significant main effect of Group [ F (1,45) = 17.31, p < .001, partial η 2 = 0.28]. Specifically, the MRT group had a significantly smaller pupil diameter than did the TT group across the two time points. We also observed a significant interaction between the Group and Time [ F (1,45) = 8.21, p = .006, partial η 2 = 0.15]. Our post-hoc analysis results showed that only the TT group exhibited a significantly larger pupil diameter after the intervention (5.21 ± 0.13 mm) than before the intervention (4.89 ± 0.15 mm, p = .031). Fig. 4. Open in a new tab Oculomotor performance (i.e., pupil diameter, saccade velocity, fixation duration, and fixation count) before and after the intervention among the MRT and TT groups (∗ p < .05). 3.2.2. Saccade velocity The RM-ANOVA results regarding saccade velocity demonstrated a significant interaction between Group and Time [ F (1,45) = 24.92, p < .001, partial η 2 = 0.36]. Our post-hoc analysis results revealed that the MRT group exhibited a significant increase in saccade velocity after the intervention (90.52 ± 3.23°/s) compared with that before the intervention (79.84 ± 3.28°/s, p = .005). By contrast, the TT group exhibited a decrease in saccade velocity after the intervention (73.14 ± 3.44°/s) compared with that before the intervention (92.36 ± 3.49°/s, p < .001). 3.2.3. Fixation duration The RM-ANOVA results regarding fixation duration showed a significant main effect of Group [ F (1,45) = 7.66, p = .008, partial η 2 = 0.15]. Specifically, the MRT group had a longer fixation duration than did the TT group across the two time points. We also observed a significant interaction between Group and Time [ F (1,45) = 8.31, p = .006, partial η 2 = 0.16]. Our post-hoc analysis results indicated that only the TT group exhibited a significantly shorter fixation duration after the intervention (287.32 ± 17.09 ms) than before the intervention (326.73 ± 16.47 ms, p = .006). 3.2.4. Fixation count The RM-ANOVA results regarding fixation count revealed a significant interaction between Group and Time [ F (1,45) = 20.43, p < .001, partial η 2 = 0.31]. The post-hoc analysis results showed that the MRT group exhibited fewer fixation count after the intervention (59.76 ± 1.72) than before the intervention (53.40 ± 1.52, p = .001). By contrast, the TT group exhibited higher fixation count after the intervention (56.41 ± 1.83) compared with before the intervention (61.85 ± 1.62, p < .001). 3.2.5. Heat maps Heat maps were generated to visualize the participants' AOIs. As illustrated in Fig. 5 , before the intervention, the MRT and TT groups primarily focused their gaze on the entire right side of the server's body during serves. However, after the 8-week MRT or TT intervention, the two groups exhibited a more concentrated gaze that specifically targeted the opponent's racket and the shuttlecock's position. Fig. 5. Open in a new tab Heat maps of the areas of interest obtained before and after the intervention among the MRT group and TT group. 4. Discussion This study compared the instructional effectiveness of MRT and TT. We observed significant postintervention improvements in the number of successful shots for the MRT group. However, no such intervention effect on the number of shots not crossing the net was evident in either group. Regarding oculomotor performance, the MRT group exhibited significant improvements in fixation count and saccade velocity after the intervention. However, the TT group exhibited reductions in fixation duration, fixation count, and saccade velocity and a notable increase in pupil diameter after the intervention. Concerning the AOIs, heat maps indicated that the MRT and TT groups initially directed their gaze predominantly to the right half of the server, covering the entire right side of the server's body, the racket, and the shuttlecock's position. After the 8-week intervention, both groups shifted to a more focused gaze on the server's racket and the shuttlecock. 4.1. Hitting accuracy Our results revealed a significant postintervention improvement in the number of successful shots for the MRT group. Such an improvement was not evident for the TT group, which suggested that MRT can effectively boost badminton hitting performance. Students in the MRT group, having learned the techniques for executing long shots from a virtual coach, successfully transitioned the skills and experiences acquired in the virtual environment to real-world settings. This finding indicates that effective skill transfer can be achieved through mixed reality training for badminton novices, thereby extending and reinforcing the evidence reported in previous research on the transfer of motor learning from virtual reality to real-world sport performance. 28 These findings are consistent with prior research that utilized virtual reality to enhance instructional approaches for badminton forehand serves, demonstrating that diversified, technology-assisted instruction facilitates a more comprehensive understanding of learning concepts and leads to superior learning outcomes. 21 The effectiveness of the MR virtual coach likely stems from enhanced interactivity and feedback mechanisms. First, interactive environments can facilitate more effective learning. The MRT system supports novice badminton players by allowing them to practice with a real racket in actual settings while receiving real-time feedback from the virtual platform. 19 Second, feedback is vital for bolstering the learning efficacy of novice athletes. For effective sports skill acquisition, novices must not only engage in intensive practice but also receive timely feedback to adjust and refine their techniques. 46 In TT, the time coaches can dedicate to providing feedback is often limited. 47 By contrast, the MRT system promptly generates corrective feedback whenever it detects an error in a student's movement, thereby optimizing the student's learning experience. This immediate feedback capability might explain why MRT has a distinct advantage over TT. The TT group did not achieve significant improvements in the number of successful shots or the number of shots not crossing the net after the intervention. These results are consistent with those reported by Lin et al. 12 who argued that TT education predominantly depends on the instructor's verbal explanations and physical demonstrations. However, this approach might leave learners uncertain about the correctness of their movements and positions. Furthermore, a standard badminton class often comprises approximately 50 students, thereby imposing a substantial teaching burden on an instructor. Thus, the TT group was unable to engage effectively in self-training to learn badminton skills. 4.2. Oculomotor performance The MRT group exhibited an increasing trend in fixation duration after the intervention, whereas the TT group exhibited a significant decreasing trend. To explain the finding for the MRT group, the findings of previous similar studies were reviewed. 38 , 48 A previous study used a large-screen projection system to allow players of different professional levels to view badminton videos and assess their opponents' shot trajectories. 38 They observed that individuals with more advanced sports proficiency or expertise tended to exhibit longer fixation durations than did novices. 48 Accordingly, in the present study, the MRT approach might have facilitated students in acquiring deeper badminton-specific knowledge. The accumulated experience over the 8-week MRT intervention could have led to extended fixation durations. Such distinct eye movement patterns might have subsequently enhanced the hitting accuracy performance in the MRT group. The finding obtained for the TT group can be explained from the perspective of anticipatory abilities. Anticipatory skills are often regarded as paramount perceptual skills during sports execution and are associated with an individual's fixation behavior. 49 A previous study explored the enhancement of anticipatory skills in tennis players by using realistic video simulations. 50 They found that video observation training could improve athletes' skills in predicting tennis ball trajectories in real-world settings. However, the traditional instructional control group in this study did not exhibit similar improvements. They suggested that traditional instructional approaches, in contrast to video-based training, tend to be excessively prescriptive and might constrain students to rely on less efficient sources of perceptual information. These perceptual cues play a pivotal role in influencing performance. Studies that have investigated differences in perceptual cognitive skills between experts and novices have shown that experts process diverse environmental information more adeptly, assimilating it with their established knowledge and skills to execute tasks effectively. 51 Although proficiency in striking techniques can increase the frequency of successful hits, failing to enhance perceptual skills can culminate in performance stagnation. In the present study, as the number of practice sessions completed by the MRT group increased, their striking success rates improved. Their anticipatory skills in discerning opponents' strikes also improved, which is attributed to the virtual coach's instructional strategy. Thus, with an increase in practice frequency and the corresponding improvement in anticipatory skills, the MRT group exhibited a significant increase in successful hits. By contrast, the TT group, despite refining their badminton striking skills, did not achieve parallel growth in their perceptual capabilities. Consequently, their fixation durations reduced, and only statistically nonsignificant advancements occurred in their striking performance. Regarding fixation count, this study revealed that after the 8-week intervention, the MRT group exhibited a significant increase in fixation count, whereas the TT group exhibited a notable decline. In racket sports, increased fixation count suggests the assimilation of crucial visual information. A previous study indicated that experts tend to exhibit more frequent fixations than novices do. 40 Because of experts' accumulated experience in racket sports, they often have more time to track the ball during shots, which leads to increased fixation count. Their expertise allows them not only to track the ball during the striking process but also to anticipate its trajectory strategically. Such anticipation results in a higher number of fixations. 36 We speculate that the MRT group, through lessons from the virtual coach, not only gained badminton-specific knowledge but also honed their anticipatory skills, which they applied successfully in real-world scenarios. Consequently, these novice students exhibited eye movement patterns similar to those of experts. A possible explanation for the TT group's decline in fixation count is that traditional physical education instruction typically involves teachers demonstrating correct movements and requiring repetitive skill practice, while rarely providing guidance related to visual cues. Consequently, when attempting to complete the hitting task, students may rely on habitual strategies, such as body motion memory, rather than utilizing task-relevant visual cues. 50 This study also revealed that the MRT group exhibited a significant improvement in saccade velocity after the 8-week intervention, whereas the TT group displayed a significant decline. Research has suggested that professional athletes use saccades to direct their gaze, which allows them to collect information rapidly on the sports field, thereby enhancing their performance. A heightened saccade velocity indicates the capability to assimilate vital information swiftly. Eye tracking, combined with past experiences, aids in building motor memory. 52 Through this memory, individuals can cultivate enhanced visual predictive abilities. 53 The speed of saccades or eye movements is intrinsically linked with predictive abilities because honed predictive skills can directly influence saccadic performance. 54 Therefore, the experiences acquired from learning fixed virtual shuttlecock trajectories in MR training might have contributed to the increased saccade velocity observed in the MRT group. This argument is supported by the findings of a previous study, 35 in which participants with limited experience wore VR devices during a racquetball task while their eye movements were monitored. The results of this study suggested that as the virtual environment varied shuttlecock trajectories, participants adeptly adjusted their predictive abilities regarding the shuttlecock's bounce prior to it touching the ground. This finding affirms the potential for enhancing predictive abilities through experiential learning. 35 Notably, the TT group exhibited a significant reduction in saccade velocity after the intervention. This phenomenon might be attributable to potential changes in their learning or strategic approaches. 42 A decrease in saccade velocity does not necessarily indicate a negative outcome. 42 Therefore, the significant decline in saccade velocity in the TT group might have stemmed from alterations in their learning strategies. Moreover, lower saccadic speeds might be beneficial for achieving greater accuracy. 55 The observed reduction in saccade velocity in the TT group might be a reaction to the unpredictability of shuttlecock trajectories, which might have prompted a slower saccadic response to enhance accuracy. This study found no significant change in the MRT group's pupil diameter during badminton strikes after the 8-week intervention. Conversely, the TT group showed a notable increase in pupil diameter. A previous study also demonstrated that when individuals concentrate on a task, their pupils tend to dilate. 56 The significant pupil dilation observed in the TT group after the 8-week instructional period might have been influenced by the teacher-to-student ratio. In a badminton skills learning environment, following movement demonstrations, instructors typically organize students into pairs for practice matches. However, novice students often face difficulties in controlling the shuttlecock, which results in erratic shuttlecock trajectories. Such trajectories lead to a more disordered visual search process as novices strive to trace the shuttlecock's path. Influenced by such learning experiences, the TT group had to exert greater effort and concentrate harder to track the shuttlecock after the intervention, which led to an enlarged pupil diameter when they focused on the target. Prior to training, the MRT group's gaze was predominantly centered on the right side of the server's body, including the head, shoulder, elbow, and wrist, as well as the racket and the shuttlecock. After the 8-week intervention, the MRT group's gaze, as shown by heat maps, became more focused below the elbow and on the racket and shuttlecock. The TT group exhibited similar results, with an intensified focus on the racket. In practical instruction, coaches often stress the importance of students centering their gaze on the opponent's racket and the shuttlecock because novices can be easily deceived by the opponent's body movements. Therefore, directing attention to the opponent's racket and the shuttlecock can enhance the strategic ball-tracking capability of novices. After the 8-week training intervention, both groups exhibited congruent outcomes, which suggested that the coaches, whether in the traditional or MRT format, effectively guided learners' attention toward the opponent's racket and the shuttlecock. Specific regions of a badminton opponent's body provide valuable information. 36 In a previous study, 39 participants wore portable eye-tracking devices during actual badminton matches on a physical court, which enabled the recording of the players' eye movements during their matches. The fundings of this study revealed a significant relationship between successful shots and fixation on the opponent's racket and the shuttlecock. This finding is consistent with the results of the present study. Therefore, badminton athletes can harness the cues provided by their opponents to anticipate shot placements and respond aptly to their adversaries' moves. The findings from the AOI analysis further support this perspective. A previous study showed that badminton players with different skill levels tend to filter out less relevant AOIs to more effectively focus on task-relevant information. 36 Furthermore, compared with novices, experienced athletes are better able to process and integrate the information they perceive. In the present study, after the 8-week training intervention, both MRT and TT groups appeared to draw on their accumulated experience to identify and integrate task-relevant information, resulting in shifts in their AOIs. Finally, potential confounding effects related to the amount of effective practice or practice density were minimized by conducting training for both the TT and MRT groups under tightly controlled conditions. Specifically, participants in both groups trained at the same venue, during the same time periods, and over an identical 8-week intervention schedule, ensuring equivalent total training time and environmental exposure. Moreover, the instructional content and skill demands were closely matched between groups. The virtual badminton coach used in the MRT group was developed and calibrated based on the technical skills and movement patterns of the same human coach who instructed the TT group, resulting in comparable instructional pacing, feedback timing, and task difficulty. Therefore, the observed differences between groups are unlikely to be explained solely by disparities in practice density, but rather reflect differences in instructional modality and in the delivery of perceptual and cognitive information during training. 4.3. Limitations and future research directions This study has several limitations. First, the evaluation of training outcomes was conducted immediately after the 8-week intervention. We did not investigate the sustainability of the improvements, including those in shot performance and eye movement behavior, achieved through the 8-week MRT intervention. Furthermore, eye movement performance is considered to directly influence motor performance. 57 Therefore, elite athletes should undergo regular assessment to ensure that they can optimally utilize visual information to improve their competitive performance. Future research should consider long-term observations and document correlations between athletes' visual behavior and athletic performance. In addition, exploring the maintenance period of MR self-training outcomes is worthwhile. Second, this study evaluated the potential of MR technology for application in a virtual coaching system for the forehand long shot. However, we did not examine other hitting techniques (e.g., smashing). Therefore, future research can compare the use of MR in various hitting techniques to enhance the broader applicability of MR in physical education. Third, the TT group did not exhibit any significant improvements in the number of successful shots or missed shots after the intervention. This result is attributable to the relatively short intervention period. Accordingly, future research should adopt longer intervention durations to determine the effect of intervention duration on the effectiveness of traditional badminton teaching. Furthermore, future research can compare MR and traditional instruction approaches in terms of the time required to achieve the same number of successful shots and net-clearing shots. This would allow researchers to examine the effect of instructional intervention duration on performance. Finally, performance is not the only metric for evaluating the effectiveness of a sports coaching approach. The emotional and psychological states of students during the instructional process are also pivotal metrics. Thus, we recommend that future studies explore different teaching methods and evaluate these methods from diverse perspectives. For example, future research can use qualitative methods to evaluate the feelings of research participants 21 , 25 or evaluate performance based on participants’ posture. 11 5. Conclusions The key conclusions drawn from this study are outlined as follows. First, our findings regarding hitting accuracy and eye movement performance confirm that the skills and experience acquired in MR learning are transferable to actual badminton matches. Moreover, the educational outcomes achieved through MR training exceed those attained through coach-led traditional teaching. This finding supports the suitability of MR technology for enhancing the quality of physical education. The MR-based badminton coaching system allows novices to engage in self-directed practice, transferring the learned eye movement techniques and accurate shot skills acquired through the virtual coach to real-life badminton play. Second, the use of analogous VR technologies can enhance an individual's perception and cognitive performance, which are crucial attributes for athletes. Notably, the present study is the first to examine changes in eye movement performance through MR technology. Traditionally, physical education has emphasized skill acquisition, but cognitive and perceptual abilities are also critical components of athletic performance. Accordingly, coaches may benefit from innovative instructional approaches and virtual technologies to support the development of athletes' perceptual and anticipatory skills. The integration of physical equipment with virtual technologies represents a promising direction for the future of physical education. Overall, the immersive virtual coaching system demonstrates potential for supporting more equal learning opportunities and addressing educational gaps. Availability of data and material Data will be made available on reasonable request. Author statement Tsai-Chiao Wang & Tzu-Yi Liu & Ta-Wei Tang: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Conceptualization. Tzu-Yi Liu: Project administration, Formal analysis, Data curation. Chia-Liang Tsai: Funding acquisition, Methodology; Yu-Ting Tseng & Chien-Yu Pan & Chia-Liang Tsai: Validation, Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Declaration of competing interest The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:Chia-Liang Tsai reports financial support was provided by National Science and Technology Council. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Acknowledgments The authors deeply appreciate the participants who contributed their precious time to participate in this research and facilitate the work reported here. This research was supported by a grant from the National Science and Technology Council in Taiwan (MOST 111-2622-H-006-003). Contributor Information Tsai-Chiao Wang, Email: [email protected]. Tzu-Yi Liu, Email: [email protected]. Chien-Yu Pan, Email: [email protected]. Yu-Ting Tseng, Email: [email protected]. Ta-Wei Tang, Email: [email protected]. Chia-Liang Tsai, Email: [email protected]. References 1. Vial S., Croft J.L., Schroeder R.T., Blazevich A.J., Wilkie J.C. Does the presence of an opponent affect object projection accuracy in elite athletes? A study of the landing location of the short serve in elite badminton players. Int J Sports Sci Coach. 2020;15(3):412–417. [ Google Scholar ] 2. El-Gizawy H.H. Effect of visual training on accuracy of attack shots performance in badminton. J Appl Sports Sci. 2015;5(4):36–45. [ Google Scholar ] 3. Paup C.D., Fernhall B. Holcomb Hathaway Publishers; Arizona: 2000. Skills, Drills and Strategies for Badminton. [ Google Scholar ] 4. 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