Borophene: Crucial Challenges and the Way Forward.

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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Adv Sci (Weinh) . 2026 Mar 15;13(21):e17082. doi: 10.1002/advs.202517082 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Borophene: Crucial Challenges and the Way Forward Zhixuan Li Zhixuan Li 1 Global Innovative Centre For Advanced Nanomaterials, School of Engineering, College of Engineering, Science and Environment, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia Find articles by Zhixuan Li 1 , Jeyaraman Sankar Jeyaraman Sankar 2 Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Bhopal, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India Find articles by Jeyaraman Sankar 2 , Prashant Kumar Prashant Kumar 1 Global Innovative Centre For Advanced Nanomaterials, School of Engineering, College of Engineering, Science and Environment, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia 3 Department of Applied Sciences, School of Advanced Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Energy Acres, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India Find articles by Prashant Kumar 1, 3, ✉ , Ajayan Vinu Ajayan Vinu 1 Global Innovative Centre For Advanced Nanomaterials, School of Engineering, College of Engineering, Science and Environment, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia Find articles by Ajayan Vinu 1, ✉ Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Global Innovative Centre For Advanced Nanomaterials, School of Engineering, College of Engineering, Science and Environment, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia 2 Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Bhopal, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India 3 Department of Applied Sciences, School of Advanced Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Energy Acres, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India ✉ Corresponding author. Revised 2026 Mar 3; Received 2025 Sep 2; Accepted 2026 Mar 3; Collection date 2026 Apr. © 2026 The Author(s). Advanced Science published by Wiley‐VCH GmbH This is an open access article under the terms of the http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC13073251  PMID: 41833012 ABSTRACT Borophene, a monolayer of boron atoms, exhibits anisotropy in crystallographic structure and hence anisotropic physical and chemical behavior. It has emerged as a disruptive two‐dimensional (2D) quantum material due to its exceptional electronic mobility, Young's moduli with half‐auxetic nature of crystals and due to its chemical reactivity. Borophene exhibits polymorphism with structure dependent electronic nature. While metallic β 12 & X 3 phases and semiconducting α phase have already been explored, several new crystallographic phases are presently being explored. However, its cumbersome synthesis protocols remain a major challenge, hindering large‐scale production of defect free borophene. Despite its advantages, borophene faces limitations such as oxidation sensitivity, phase instability, and the absence of a band gap. Strategies like defect engineering, surface functionalization, and 2D‐2D hybridization offer potential solutions for band gap tuning and carrier injection. Device integration issues include imperfect interfaces, work function mismatch, interfacial charging etc. If these challenges can be overcome, borophene can then find applications in spintronics, photonics, flexible batteries, and quantum computing, paving the way for commercialization. This review highlights the current state‐of‐the‐art of borophene research and outlines strategies for overcoming existing barriers, positioning borophene as a functional atom‐thin layer in next‐generation devices and sensors. Keywords: borophene, electronic properties, energy storage, quantum 2D materials, synthesis techniques This review explores the challenges and progress in borophene research, focusing on synthesis strategies, structural properties, and potential applications. It highlights key experimental breakthroughs, discusses theoretical insights into borophene's unique features, and addresses pathways for overcoming stability and scalability issues. Future perspectives are also presented to advance borophene's integration into emerging technologies. 1. Introduction Quantum confinement in low‐dimensional materials gives them unique physical and chemical properties, enabling their use in niche and frontier applications. Superior electronic mobility, exceptional thermal conductivity, high Young's modulus, and enhanced chemical reactivity make these quantum materials invaluable for next‐generation technologies [ 1 , 2 ]. Among quantum materials, 2D materials, which exhibit flat atomic sheets with electrons confined to two‐dimensional movement, have revolutionized material science and prompted recent advancements in technological applications [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. The evolution of 2D materials over the past two decades, as summarized in Figure 1 , highlights key milestones from the discovery of graphene in 2004 to the emergence of materials like borophene and tellurene in recent years, showcasing the diversity of 2D materials. FIGURE 1. Open in a new tab Timeline of key discoveries in two‐dimensional (2D) materials. The discovery of graphene, a sp 2 ‐hybridized hexagonal atomic lattice of carbon, by Geim and Novoselov in 2004 [ 15 ], was a path breaking moment in materials science and engineering. Graphene's superlative attributes, including extremely high electronic mobility, record Young's modulus, and high thermal conductivity, positions it as the “miracle material” of the 21 st century [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. Its success inspired the development of family of materials termed as “Xenes” which are mono‐elemental atom‐thin 2D sheets, including phosphorene [ 21 , 22 ], silicene [ 23 ], germanene [ 24 ], stannene [ 25 ], arsenene, antimonene, bismuthene [ 26 ], and borophene [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ]. In parallel, metallic 2D materials have emerged, such as gallenene (p‐block) [ 33 ], beryllene (s‐block) [ 34 ], and d‐block metallenes like goldene [ 35 ], molybdenene [ 36 ] and several others [ 37 , 38 ]. Beyond Xenes and metallenes, various 2D compounds like transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs), [ 39 ] MXenes [ 40 ], 2D transition metal oxides (2DTMOs) [ 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ], boron nitride (BN) [ 50 ], carbon nitride [ 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 ], gallium nitride (GaN) [ 55 ], 2D metal phosphides [ 56 ], 2D metal borides (MBenes) [ 57 ], etc., have expanded the landscape of 2D materials. Besides the discovery of several classes of 2D materials systems, novel approaches of 3D straining [ 58 ], substitutional doping [ 59 , 60 , 61 ], and orbital hybridization in 2D‐2D heterostacks [ 62 , 63 ] have been developed which have resulted in designer materials with desirable physical and chemical properties eventually advancing their frontier applications in various domain. The discovery of anisotropic crystals of borophene has been a significant milestone in the context of advancements of 2D materials due to its distinct physical and chemical properties. Quantum mechanical behavior of borophene positions it in special category and a lot more needs to be done to accomplish full‐fledged quantum devices [ 64 ]. Nanoarchitectonics protocols for borophene such as doping [ 65 ] and hybridization [ 66 ] have been discovered. Further, fabrication strategies for functional devices and sensors have been developed [ 67 ]. The single‐crystal nature of borophene at monolayer thickness minimizes electronic scattering, enabling ballistic carrier transport with superior mobility [ 68 ]. Distinctly, borophene's Dirac nature and anisotropic metallic behavior enhance electronic mobility, particularly along the ridgelines of its β 12 and χ 3 phases [ 69 ]. These attributes position borophene as a strong candidate for low power electronic chips, useful for ultra‐fast sensing of toxic gaseous molecules, and for portable health diagnostics via bio sensing such as for diabetic and cancer. Beyond its electronic advantages, borophene demonstrates exceptional optical transparency, high thermal conductivity, and superior elastic moduli, making it versatile for various applications [ 70 ]. Its unique ability to exhibit multi‐center electron bonding (2e‐nc, where n = 2–7), topological and superconducting properties [ 71 ], metallic conductivity [ 72 ], and chemical/electrochemical reactivity [ 73 ] further strengthens its potential for applications in niche devices and sensors. These properties make borophene one of the most promising 2D materials for applications such as superconducting devices [ 74 ], thermoelectric generators [ 75 ], quantum computers [ 64 ], bioimaging and biosensing [ 76 ], hybrid ion supercapacitors [ 77 ], high‐capacity and high‐rate batteries [ 78 ], and fuel cells for green hydrogen production [ 79 ]. Despite its extraordinary properties, borophene faces several challenges that limit its practical deployment. Apart from synthetic challenges to produce high quality defect‐free borophene in a scalable manner, surface oxidation is a critical issue that hinders its stability and applicability across devices [ 80 ]. Additionally, the lack of a band gap in borophene restricts its ON/OFF ratio in electronic chips, posing challenges for electronic and optoelectronic applications [ 81 ]. Its limited electron availability (number of electron per atom) in the lattice constrains its catalytic performance [ 82 ]. While out‐of‐plane protrusions and periodic vacancies results in relatively stronger inter‐layer coupling, which renders exfoliation challenging, in‐plane chemical bonds in lattice poses challenges in nanoarchitectonics such as defect generation or doping. However, if these challenges are overcome, borophene can then be ready to be utilized in its dream applications. Furthermore, due to inefficient compatibility (i.e., work function mismatch) with transition metal electrodes limits its integration into devices and sensors [ 83 ]. Moreover, lack of protocols for fabricating borophene based hetero‐layers free from air bubble/voids is yet another issue. Although significant theoretical progress has been made in understanding borophene's lattice structures and nanoarchitectonics, developing practical devices and sensors remains mostly unrealized. The present article illustrates how the discovery of borophene is highly desirable and very timely for targeted electronic, electrochemical, and catalytic applications where other existing nanomaterials, as well as 2D materials, lacked the qualities needed for superior performances, especially under high power operation, under extreme thermal conditions, under cycling, etc. The present review digs deeper into the issues concerning borophene. Various alternative synthetic approaches to replace the existing ones have been dealt with which possibly will help in large scale production of high quality borophene. The issues regarding its chemical phase purity (mainly surface oxidation), scalability, and reproducibility, have been detailed in brief. The review glances over the borophene's limitations vis‐à‐vis other competitive materials systems and outlines strategies to overcome them. To amend them to suit various prospective applications, approaches to nanoarchitectonics of borophene are suggested. Further, device‐related strategies have been dealt with, including surface passivation, work function engineering, interface engineering, and band alignment. A holistic summary of the rise of borophene and related materials as a new class of materials system has been presented and a futuristic outlook is provided to advance the journey forward. 2. Discovery of Borophene Boron atoms, with their electron‐deficient nature, were long thought incapable of forming stable 2D sheets. Theoretical frameworks predicting stable phases of boron sheets existed, but challenges, including the toxicity and high cost of diborane precursors, hindered such structures' experimental realization. The fullerene‐like icosahedral structure of diborane posed additional complexity, as assembling it into a planar 2D lattice seemed not feasible. In the 1990s, physicist I. Boustani carried out computational simulations to investigate the stability of boron clusters across various sizes and geometries [ 84 ]. His groundbreaking studies revealed that boron sheets may have preferably quasi‐planar configurations over the expected icosahedral arrangements. These discoveries are graphically summarized in Figure 2 , illustrating the minimum‐energy structures of size‐selected boron clusters [ 85 ]. The figure highlights boron clusters' dominant planar or quasi‐planar nature across various sizes, where hexagonal vacancies and triangular motifs are key structural elements. FIGURE 2. Open in a new tab Boron clusters with a gradually increased number of atoms, eventually forming borophene. Reproduced with permission. [ 85 ] Copyright 2017, Macmillan Publishers Limited. Further theoretical advancements came in 2007 when Lau et al. used density functional theory (DFT) to calculate the free energy of various boron layer structures [ 86 ]. Building on this, Piaza et al. predicted planar borophene structures, emphasizing that vacancies were essential for achieving stable borophene lattices [ 87 ]. Figure 3 provides a detailed depiction of various borophene phases, highlighting the intricate role of vacancies in stabilizing these structures [ 88 ]. These studies underscored the role of vacancies in stabilizing borophene's unique crystallographic phases, although the relationship between vacancy concentration and phase stability required further exploration. FIGURE 3. Open in a new tab Crystallographic phases of borophene.Reproduced with permission [ 88 ]. Copyright 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The borophene with higher electron deficiency can have improved stability on the metal surface as it would help to transfer the electrons from the metal support to the borophene sheet. Unlike graphene and hexagonal boron nitride (BN), which exhibit a single stable 2D phase (sp 2 hybridized hexagonal lattices), boron lacks the requisite electrons for such bonding and relies on unique 2e‐nc bonding mechanisms. This enables borophene to exist in multiple crystallographic phases, each with distinct properties. However, understanding the mechanisms of crystal growth of borophene is essential for unlocking its potential. Since then, several theoretical studies have been devoted to understanding the structural elucidation of various borophene phases, as illustrated in Figure 3 [ 88 ]. Borophene differs from other Xenes because it exhibits multiple stable polymorphic structures with intrinsic vacancy patterns, arising from boron's electron‐deficient, multi‐center bonding, whereas most Xenes have a single dominant lattice with simple two‐center covalent bonds. Its structure can be planar or highly buckled depending on the phase, shows strong in‐plane anisotropy, and is intrinsically metallic, while other Xenes typically have uniform lattices, limited buckling, fewer structural variations, and are semi‐metallic or semiconducting. Subsequent experimental work revealed the temperature‐pressure phase diagram of boron, demonstrating that specific thermodynamic conditions could selectively yield distinct crystallographic phases (Figure 4a ) [ 89 ]. Hugoniot profiling of β 12 and α‐B phases further illustrated possible phase transitions (Figure 4b ) [ 90 ]. It was also shown that the formation energy and vacancy concentration are critical parameters that significantly influence the phase evolution of the borophene (Figure 4c,d ) [ 91 ]. The experimental conditions, such as pressure or gate voltage applied to the substrate, can also significantly alter the crystallographic structure of the borophene. The experimental synthesis of borophene in 2015 marked a significant breakthrough in materials science. The research group of M Hersam at Northwestern University achieved the first successful growth of borophene with different structures via atomic layer deposition (ALD) on Ag(111) substrates using high‐purity boron powder (99.9999%) under ultrahigh vacuum conditions [ 27 ]. The phase purity of the borophene was controlled by the simple adjustment of the growth temperature, the rate of deposition of boron atoms, and most importantly, the template surface. Although different structures of borophene were proposed in this discovery, this landmark achievement confirmed theoretical predictions about the existence of borophene and introduced a new 2D material with distinct properties. FIGURE 4. Open in a new tab (a) Phase diagram of boron Reproduced from Ref. [ 89 ], under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution‐NonCommercial‐NoDerivatives 3.0 License. (b) Hugoniot profiling of boron showcasing possible phase transitions [ 90 ]. Copyright 2020 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved. (c) Formation energy vs hole concentration in borophene, (d) phase evolution at various temperatures and vacancy concentrations. Reproduced by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry [ 91 ]. The structure of borophene is notably different from graphene. While graphene forms a hexagonal honeycomb lattice, the electron‐deficient nature of borophene allows it to form various crystallographic structures and hence borophene is polymorphic. Crystallographic phases of borophene include triangular, hexagonal, and chain‐like arrangements of boron atoms. These polymorphs arise from the unique bonding flexibility of boron atoms via two‐electron multi‐center (2e‐nc) bonds, with “n” ranging between 2 and 7, enabling partially filled atomic lattices. In particular, the planar triangular form of borophene has one excess electron in each unit cell of three boron atoms. The excess electron density can be balanced by removing one‐third of the boron atoms per unit cell, which will make the electron density of this form similar to graphene. Additional borophene polymorphs such as β 12 , χ 3 , and hexagonal phases were synthesized after this discovery. Each polymorph features unique atomic arrangements that influence its physical and chemical properties. For example, the ridgeline topology of the β 12 phase enhances its electronic mobility along specific crystallographic directions i.e., along the ridgelines. In contrast, the χ 3 phase offers a higher density of states near the Fermi level, making it suitable for electronic and catalytic applications. The discovery of borophene, as part of the mono‐elemental “Xenes” family, represents a critical milestone in the evolution of 2D materials. Various polymorphs possess unique physical and chemical properties and offer the feasibility of material manipulation via vacancy engineering, substitutional doping, surface functionalization and 2D‐2D hybridization (out‐of‐plane orbital hybridization at the interface). These recent advances in the study of borophene provide opportunities for its applications in various domains such as in electronics, energy storage, and catalysis. The unique combination of physical properties of borophene such as high melting point, metallicity, structural anisotropy, and chemical reactivity, apart from its crystallinity, excellent electronic mobility, high thermal conductivity, strechability, optical transparency, and adaptability to material manipulation strategies such as surface functionalization or substitutional doping leading to changes in its band gap and carrier injection, sets it apart from other 2D materials. These set of extra‐ordinary behavior strengthen its role in addressing challenges where conventional nanomaterials fall short of. 3. Explored Approaches for the Synthesis of Borophene Unlike graphene which has parent crystal graphite which exists in nature, borophene does not have a naturally occurring layered bulk phase from which monolayers can be easily exfoliated. Even BN or TMDCs, which are synthesized in laboratories; have their parent layered materials. Boron crystals were earlier not known to be naturally occurring in layered forms. Some theory suggests bilayers to be more stable than monolayers. Due to this background information, the synthesis of borophene has primarily focused on bottom‐up growth methods. The following section details various synthesis techniques, including substrate‐supported bottom‐up growth, top‐down exfoliation, and liquid‐phase crystal growth, each offering unique advantages and limitations. A schematic diagram depicting various methods of synthesis is shown in Figure 5 . Bottom‐up molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and ultra‐high vacuum (UHV) epitaxial crystal growth are substrate‐supported growth, which result in a low yield of materials and cannot be employed for applications where large amounts of materials are needed. Top‐down methods of exfoliation include micromechanical exfoliation, sonochemical exfoliation, modified Hummer's method, etc. High surface energy solvents (mixed solvents, viscous organic fluids) having high Hansen parameters are suitable to exfoliate the layers of borophene from its crystalline powder. FIGURE 5. Open in a new tab Schematic diagram depicting various explored routes for the synthesis of borophene. The synthesis of borophene remains a formidable challenge due to its substrate‐controlled growth, metastable phases, and post‐growth rapid environmental degradation. While numerous methods—ranging from ultrahigh‐vacuum epitaxy to solution‐phase exfoliation—have been explored, each technique carries inherent crystallinity, scalability, and defect density trade‐offs. Table 1 systematically compares borophene synthesis approaches, evaluating key parameters such as temperature, yield, defect density, and scalability. This analysis highlights the strengths and limitations of current methodologies, underscoring the need for innovative strategies to bridge the gap between laboratory‐scale synthesis and industrial deployment. TABLE 1. Comparative Analysis of Borophene Synthesis Methods. Method Temperature Defect Density Yield Uniformity Scalability Cost Key Advantages Key Limitations Reference MBE 500–800°C Very Low Low High Low Very High Atomic‐level control, high crystallinity Ultra‐high vacuum, slow, substrate‐dependent [ 92 , 93 ] CVD 800–1000°C Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate High Large‐area growth, tunable phases High precursor cost, limited defect control [ 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 ] UHV epitaxial 200–400°C Low Low High Low High Uniform thickness, conformal coatings Slow deposition rate, low throughput [ 27 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 ] Liquid‐Phase Synthesis 25–150°C High High Low High Low Scalable, ambient conditions Defect‐rich, requires post‐processing [ 103 ] Micromechanical Exfoliation RT–200°C Variable Very Low Poor Low Very Low Simple, no specialized equipment Uncontrolled thickness, small flake size [ 30 ] Sonochemical Exfoliation RT–80°C High Moderate Low Moderate Low Rapid, solvent‐assisted Oxidized edges, low crystallinity [ 28 , 104 , 105 ] Modified Hummer's Method RT–50°C Very High High Poor High Low High‐yield, solution‐processable Severe oxidation, amorphous structures [ 28 ] Open in a new tab 3.1. Bottom‐Up Growth Bottom‐up growth methods involve atomization of molecular precursors (e.g. diborane gas) followed by borophene crystal growth on solid substrates. Techniques such as ALD, MBE, and CVD rely on precise control of deposition conditions, including substrate type, temperature, and atmosphere, to achieve specific crystal structures and polymorphs of borophene. Liquid‐phase reaction of boron containing compounds such as boric acid can also yield borophene, under a suitable set of reaction conditions. Emerging liquid‐phase growth methods further expand the scope of bottom‐up approaches, offering the potential for uniform and large‐area synthesis under controlled conditions. 3.1.1. UHV Epitaxial Crystal Growth The first experimental realization of borophene using UHV Epitaxial Crystal Growth , reported by Mannix et al. [ 27 ] marked a milestone in borophene research. Characterization methods such as scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), and Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) confirmed the crystalline structure of borophene synthesized on silver (111) substrates (Figure 6a ). While the role of Ag (111) substrates in determining the crystal structure of borophene has interestingly been said to be necessary, its quantification was done later by other research groups [ 99 , 100 , 101 ]. With the detailed experimental investigations, Hersam's group determined that the crystal phase belonged to the pmmn group. Moreover, electronic density of states (DOS) observed in the differential current (dI/dV) observed in scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) were found to be gapless (metallic) and corroborated sufficiently with boron sheets overlapping on the silver surface. Two distinct phases, namely homogenous and striped phases, were observed. While the homogeneous phase having atomic chains exhibited periodic buckling (0.30 nm period), the striped phase was observed with lattice parameters 0.51 and 0.29 nm, respectively, in two perpendicular directions. Even though silver has been employed as a favorable substrate, the use of gold (111) surface for borophene growth was demonstrated [ 102 ]. Unlike Ag (111), Au (111) allows the diffusion of boron atoms through its lattice and anchors the growth of the boron layer on its surface. In addition, the higher temperature (∼550°C) helps enhance the diffusion of boron atoms on the Au substrate, resulting in crystalline borophene layer formation. It should be noted that crystalline ordering of grown borophene is determined by underlying substrate crystalline order. However, atomic scale anchoring/templating breaks down and the formation of borophene islands become vivid at boron concentrations higher than a certain threshold. FIGURE 6. Open in a new tab STM/TEM images of borophene synthesized via various methods: (a) UHV Epitaxial Crystal Growth on Ag(111) surfaces. Reproduced with permission [ 27 ] Copyright 2015, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. (b) CVD. Reproduced with permission [ 94 ]. Copyright 2015, WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, (c) MBE on Ag(111) surfaces. Reproduced with permission [ 92 ].Copyright 2016, Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved. (d) MBE on Cu(111) surfaces. Reproduced with permission [ 93 ]. Copyright 2015, WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. 3.1.2. MBE Crystal Growth MBE is the most widely used technique for synthesizing high‐quality borophene. In this approach, boron precursors are atomized, and those atoms are condensed under ultrahigh vacuum conditions onto a metal substrate (e.g., Ag, Au, or Cu), which acts as a template for boron atoms to form crystalline monolayers. Again, the choice of substrate is critical because the interaction between the boron atoms and the metal surface influences the crystallinity of resulting borophene structure. For example, borophene grown on Ag (111) surfaces tends to form β 12 and χ 3 polymorphs, while other substrates may promote the formation of different structures (Figure 6c ) [ 92 ]. While the β 12 phase grew at a lower temperature of ∼570 K, a higher temperature of ∼650 K led to the formation of the X 3 phase. Thus, lower growth temperatures give rise to the anisotropy in grown crystal, however; there is a minimum threshold temperature above which crystallization takes place. STM and first principle calculations were employed to establish the crystallographic phases of grown borophene sheets. The stacked bilayer of borophene was first grown by Chen et al. via MBE (Figure 6d ) [ 93 ]. Charge transfer at the interface with Cu (111) substrate played a crucial role in bilayer growth. MBE offers advantages such as atomic‐level control over growth conditions and the ability to produce large‐area monolayers with distinct polymorphs. However, the process requires sophisticated equipment and ultrahigh vacuum conditions, apart from precise temperature control, which can limit scalability. Like UHV Epitaxial Crystal Growth technique, crystalline order of MBE grown borophene is primarily dictated by the substrate crystal structure. Therefore, different crystal surface would lead to different crystallographic structures of grown borophene. Apart from the substrates, growth temperature and precursor dose would determine crystalline order of borophene. 3.1.3. CVD Growth of Borophene on Various Substrates CVD involves decomposing a boron‐containing precursor gas (e.g., diborane) onto a heated substrate under a controlled atmosphere. The choice of substrate, reaction temperature, and carrier gas flow rates can be suitably tailored to promote the growth of borophene crystalline sheets with specific crystal structures. Tai et al. first used CVD to grow γ‐B 28 monolayer borophene on copper foil (Figure 6b ) [ 94 ]. The reaction of B 2 O 3 and B at 1000°C reduced B 2 O 3 to boron atoms, which grew as layers on the molten copper surface in the presence of hydrogen gas. Grown borophene was semiconducting in nature and exhibited a band gap of 2.25 eV. Characteristic Raman peak was observed at 618 cm −1 , whereas the B 1s XPS peak was recorded at 187.6 eV. These observations, along with theoretical calculations, established the growth of γ‐borophene. Further, the thermal decomposition of diborane has been reported to form borophene on the Al (111) surface [ 95 ]. GaAs, quartz, mica, and several other substrates have been employed to grow borophene [ 96 , 97 , 98 ]. Borophene with different properties can be fabricated depending on the substrate. For example, when grown on GaAs substrate, multilayered borophene with higher carrier mobility than monolayer borophene was observed. On the other hand, the growth of the borophene on the insulating surface, quartz, offered the borophene glass with a bandgap of 2.48 eV, which showed high photosensitivity (0.31mA∙W −1 ) and fast response (117 ms) for the photodetector [ 96 ]. In contrast to UHV Epitaxial Crystal Growth and MBE, CVD offers a cost‐effective and scalable method for borophene synthesis. 3.1.4. Liquid‐Phase Bottom‐Up Crystal Growth Liquid‐phase synthesis involves growing borophene from a boron‐containing precursor in a liquid medium, often with a metal catalyst that promotes nucleation and growth. This bottom‐up approach can be advantageous for producing borophene with a high degree of crystallinity over large areas, as the liquid medium can facilitate uniform distribution of boron atoms during the crystal growth process. Sharma et al. have reported using H 3 BO 3 and CTAB surfactant to grow borophene which exhibits a high band gap of 2.32 eV, high piezoelectric charge coefficient (d 33 ) of 86 pm V − 1 , high dielectric constant (125) at low frequency, and blue light emission under UV light illumination [ 103 ]. However, the bottom‐up methods for the synthesis of borophene in the liquid phase are at a nascent stage. The use of various transition metal catalysts, the effect of solvents, surfactants, thermodynamic (T+P) conditions, etc., need to be systematically explored in detail. Optimized sets of parameters are expected to yield highly crystalline borophene monolayers. However, much research and development are required before this new synthesis method is scaled up for targeted applications. 3.2. Top‐Down Exfoliation Source of energy with sufficient energy to overcome inter‐layer interaction between boron layers in parent boron crystals, can lead to efficient exfoliation of layers. While physical exfoliation strategies include micromechanical, and sonochemical methods, modified Hummer's method of exfoliation involves suitable chemical reaction of solid mixture of boron powder with KMnO 4 in mixed acid media containing sulfuric as well as phosphoric acids. These approaches provide alternative pathways for synthesizing borophene, opening up opportunity for large scale commercial production. 3.2.1. Micromechanical Exfoliation Micromechanical exfoliation, also known as the “Scotch tape” method, has been used for fabrication of borophene. The process involves applying strong adhesive forces to peel off thin layers of material, which can be challenging given that boron does not naturally exist in a layered form i.e. there is not a graphite analogue found in nature. Therefore, this process relies on crystalline order and inter‐layer coupling in boron crystals used for exfoliation. Growth conditions of such parent crystal often determine their exfoliability. Structural and morphological modulations are however, feasible. The first demonstration of micromechanical exfoliation to achieve mono, as well as a few layered borophene, was reported by Chahal et al. in 2021 [ 30 ]. Crystalline quality was very high, and oxidation was minimal compared to that from other earlier reports (Figure 7a ). Detailed investigations were carried out on transferred borophene layers employing HRTEM, XPS, Raman, and other characterization tools. Molecular dynamics was used to understand the transfer process. The transferred layer follows the parent crystal nature, primarily the β 12 phase. However, strain‐mediated corrugations and atomistic ripple formation were reported. Interestingly, when the number of layers was cut down to monolayers, the number of Raman peaks gradually reduced. The AFM line profile at the monolayer revealed ∼0.4 nm thickness at the edge. This thickness includes atomic diameter and boron atoms’ distance from the substrate surface. Borophene‐based hetero‐layered excitonic devices were also fabricated using MoS 2 and phosphorene as companion layers. Excitonic light energy matching with the band gap of the companion layers was observed. In such heterolayered excitonic devices, borophene, a high electronic mobility material, assumes significance in ultrafast sensing of toxic gases, diabetic and early‐stage cancer diagnosis etc. Although this method can produce high‐quality, single‐layer borophene, it is unsuitable for large‐scale production due to its labor‐intensive nature and low yield. FIGURE 7. Open in a new tab TEM images of (a) micromechanical exfoliation. Reproduced with permission [ 30 ] Copyright 2021 Wiley‐VCH GmbH. (b) sonochemical exfoliation. Reproduced with permission. [ 28 ] Copyright 2019 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.(c) ion‐exchange method resulting in hydrogenated borophene. Reproduced under the terms of the CC‐BY Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0). [ 108 ] (d) electrochemical exfoliation. Reproduced under the terms of the CC‐BY Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0) [ 109 ]. (e) ball‐milling and sonication‐assisted liquid exfoliation. Reproduced with permission. [ 110 ]Copyright 2023 Elsevier B.V. (f) molten‐salt method. Reproduced with permission. [ 111 ]. 3.2.2. Sonochemical Exfoliation The ultrasonic waves generate cavitation bubbles that produce localized high‐pressure and high‐temperature conditions, promoting the exfoliation of atom‐thin borophene sheets. This method offers the advantage of being relatively simple and scalable. Sonochemical exfoliation of borophene was demonstrated by Ranjan et al. [ 28 ] (Figure 7b ) and Li et al. [ 104 ]. Various solvents, such as DI water, isopropyl alcohol, acetone, dimethylformamide (DMF), etc., were employed for exfoliating boron layers. Hansen parameters of solvents determining surface energy are crucial and held responsible for exfoliation efficiency [ 105 ]. For example, dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), N‐methyl‐2‐pyrrolidone (NMP), etc., have higher Hansen parameters. While DMF, IPA, and acetone have medium Hansen parameter values, and water has the lowest one. On the other hand, low boiling point solvents generate more cavities. Another crucial consideration when selecting solvents is that they should be a reducing solvent so that formed borophene does not oxidize during synthesis. In that regard, DMF and NMP are better. Vacuum drying is prescribed for DMF solvents. While it takes several days to achieve monolayers in IPA solvent, it takes ∼24 h in NMP to obtain effective exfoliation in an ultrasonic bath. Sonic power and sonic frequency are also vital parameters apart from the choice of solvents. A high‐power sonicator can fragment borophene sheets rather than exfoliate them. Higher frequency used, on the other hand, can give rise to improved cavitation effects. Borophene‐based hetero‐layered devices with companion layer MoS 2 and BN were fabricated, and digital electronic signatures were obtained [ 32 ]. However, controlling the size and thickness of the exfoliated borophene sheets remains challenging, and the quality of the borophene produced through sonochemical methods may be lower than that obtained through bottom‐up UHV Epitaxial Crystal Growth and MBE approaches. 3.2.3. Modified Hummer's Approach The modified Hummer's approach, commonly used for the oxygenation of graphite to produce graphene oxide, has also been adapted to exfoliate boron layers from crystalline boron powder [ 28 ]. This method involves intercalation of solvents and oxidizing agents and surface functionalization (=O, ‐O‐, ‐OH) of boron layers underneath to weaken the interlayer coupling between boron layers within the bulk crystal, followed by sonication to produce borophene sheets. Since boron oxidation is an exothermic chemical process, cooling down both acid mixtures (H 2 SO 4 and H 3 PO 4 ) and solid mixture (boron powder and KMnO 4 ) in a fridge for a few hours helps in controlling the otherwise vigorous reaction. Interestingly, thick smoke comes from the solution containing borophene sheets. Collecting the thick smoke suffices, as the material is already dried and can instantly be used for further characterizations. This method is highly scalable compared to other top‐down methods. Introducing chemical functional groups during the oxidation process can also provide a means for further functionalizing the borophene, potentially enhancing its stability and reactivity. Borophene oxide can be employed to achieve doped borophene samples as well. However, controlling the oxidation process to avoid excessive damage to the borophene lattice structure is a significant challenge one needs to address [ 106 , 107 ]. 3.2.4. Other Methods The synthesis of borophene using alternative top‐down methods showcases the versatility of these approaches in achieving diverse structural outcomes. For example, the ion exchange method for hydrogenated borophene emphasizes using proton exchange with magnesium cations in MgB 2 , forming boron sheets bridged by hydrogen atoms. This method facilitates the production of ultrathin borophene, which exhibits a unique lamellar morphology and strong catalytic properties due to its high surface area and structural integrity (Figure 7c ) [ 108 ]. (h) Electrochemical exfoliation involves embedding bulk boron powder into metal meshes (e.g., copper or nickel) and applying a specific current in different electrolytes, resulting in few‐layered borophene with well‐defined crystalline structures and varying thicknesses, as validated by TEM (Figure 7d ) [ 109 ]. This scalable method allows for the production of high‐quality borophene with controlled properties. The combined ball‐milling and sonication technique highlights high‐energy mechanical grinding followed by ultrasonic treatment in a liquid medium to exfoliate bulk boron into few‐layer nanosheets. The resultant borophene demonstrates uniform atomic arrangements and distinct crystalline phases, as evidenced by the high‐resolution TEM images showcasing its well‐preserved atomic structure (Figure 7e ) [ 110 ]. The molten‐salt method represents another innovative approach, where AlB 2 and CuCl 2 are mixed and calcined under nitrogen atmosphere in a two‐stage process (300°C for 2 h, then 700°C for 4 h). Subsequent washing with deionized water and ammonium persulfate removes impurities and copper particles, yielding high‐quality borophene with an average thickness of 3.5 nm. TEM analysis confirms the borophene's accordion‐like morphology and crystalline β 12 phase with an interplanar distance of 0.504 nm (Figure 7f ) [ 111 ]. These methods collectively offer promising pathways for the large‐scale synthesis of borophene tailored for specific applications. However, the structural analysis and applications of these materials are a huge issue because they get easily oxidized. 4. Properties of Borophene Borophene stands out among 2D materials due to its extraordinary combination of electronic, optical, thermal, elastic, and chemical properties. The number of electron per boron atom being less than that of carbon, giving rise to 2e‐nc bonds with various ways to bond, both in‐plane and out‐of‐plane. Such freedom of bond formation results in a unique capability to form a set of versatile crystallographic structural phases, offering exceptional opportunities for diverse technological applications. Table 2 provides a comparative overview of borophene's properties alongside other 2D materials, illustrating its distinctive position among quantum materials. To illustrate the diverse properties of borophene mentioned in this section, Figure 8 provides a comprehensive overview of its key characteristics. TABLE 2. Comparison of Properties of Borophene and Other 2D Materials. Material Electrical conductivity (S/m) Thermal conductivity (W/mK) Mechanical strength (GPa) Chemical reactivity Band gap (eV) Reference Graphene ∼10 7 –10 8 ∼5000 ∼130 Low (chemically inert) ∼0 (semimetal) [ 16 , 112 ] Phosphorene ∼10 4 ∼12–30 (anisotropic) ∼0.5–1 Moderate (reactive in air) ∼0.3–2 (tunable) [ 113 , 114 ] Boron Nitride (BN), GaN ∼10 −12 (BN), ∼10 3 (GaN) ∼200–400 (BN) ∼33–45 (BN) Low (BN is stable) ∼5.5 (BN), ∼3.4 (GaN) [ 115 , 116 ] TMDCs (e.g., MoS 2 ) ∼10–10 4 ∼30–110 ∼20–30 Moderate (depends on composition) ∼1.2–2.5 (direct in monolayers) [ 117 , 118 ] MXenes ∼10 5 –10 6 ∼5–50 ∼25–30 High (surface terminations active) ∼0.1–2.0 (tunable) [ 119 , 120 , 121 ] 2D Metal Oxides (2DTMOs) ∼10 −5 –10 2 ∼1–50 ∼10–30 Moderate to High ∼1.0–3.5 [ 122 , 123 ] 2D MBenes ∼10 4 –10 5 ∼5–30 ∼20–25 High ∼0.5–1.5 [ 124 , 125 ] Perovskite Nanosheets ∼10 −1 –10 3 ∼0.5–1.5 ∼0.01 ‐ 0.1 High (degrades in moisture) ∼1.5–2.3 [ 126 , 127 ] Silicene, Germanene, Stanene ∼10–10 3 ∼10–40 (anisotropic) ∼0.05–1 (Silicene), ∼0.1–0.5 (Germanene), ∼0.05–0.2 (Stanene) Moderate ∼0.1–1.0 (tunable) [ 128 , 129 , 130 ] Antimonene, Tellurene ∼10–10 3 ∼2–50 (anisotropic, Tellurene) ∼0.1–4 High (depends on phase) ∼0.4–1.2 (tunable) [ 131 , 132 , 133 ] Borophene ∼10 6 –10 7 ∼200–400 ∼150 (superior to graphene) High (high surface reactivity) ∼0 (metallic phases), ∼1 (engineered) [ 27 , 73 , 134 ] Open in a new tab FIGURE 8. Open in a new tab Illustration of the key properties of borophene. 4.1. Electronic Properties The electronic properties of borophene have been a focal point of research due to its intrinsic metallic nature and exceptionally high electrionic mobility. Bilayer borophene has been theoretically predicted to have semiconducting behaviour [ 135 ]. Stacking sequences AA and AB are supposed to exhibit distinct characteristics. Unlike many other 2D materials, borophene exhibits anisotropic metallic behavior. The electronic characteristics, such as resistivity, are susceptible to carrier concentration in borophene [ 136 ]. Thus, various means of nanoarchitectonics, such as doping, 2D‐2D/2D‐3D/2D‐1D/2D‐0D hybridization, surface functionalization, defect generation, etc., can lead to desirable electronic behavior. Its electronic mobility can vary depending on the crystallographic direction, which is associated with the unique arrangement of boron atoms in different polymorphs [ 137 ]. This anisotropy results from the local electron density distribution, which can be modified by changing the polymorph or introducing lattice defects. The structural transition in borophene from one phase to the other is exciting. For example, the β 12 and χ 3 polymorphs demonstrate variations in the density of states at the Fermi level, which can influence electronic transport properties. The low electron effective mass in borophene suggests its potential for applications in ultra‐fast electronic devices where rapid electron mobility is crucial. Hydrogenation is one of the possible ways to stabilize the structure of the formed borophene, and this has been realized on various substrates with stabilized borophene structures, which offer tunable electronic properties [ 138 , 139 ] Moreover, the electronic band structure of borophene can be tailored through doping, strain engineering, or functionalization [ 140 ], enabling the development of electronic components such as field‐effect transistors [ 141 ], sensors [ 142 ], and other nanoscale devices. 4.2. Optical Properties The optical properties of borophene are equally remarkable, characterized by anisotropic absorption and significant optical activity in the electromagnetic spectrum's UV–vis region [ 143 , 144 , 145 ]. Its absorption spectra reveal directional dependence due to its anisotropic electronic structure, which uniquely allows borophene to interact with polarized light. This characteristic makes borophene highly suitable for applications in photonic and optoelectronic devices [ 146 ], such as photodetectors [ 147 ], modulators, and components for integrated optical circuits. Tuning the optical response of borophene by altering its polymorphic structure, introducing defects, or applying strain provides additional degrees of freedom in designing advanced optical materials [ 148 ]. 4.3. Thermal Properties Borophene also exhibits outstanding thermal properties, with a thermal conductivity comparable to or exceeding that of graphene [ 75 , 149 ] This high thermal conductivity, which is anisotropic in nature, arises from the efficient phonon transport across the 2D lattice, makes borophene an excellent material for heat dissipation in electronic devices, especially in high‐performance computing and thermal management systems. Its ability to maintain structural integrity under elevated temperatures and high thermal diffusivity further supports its use in thermal interface materials and flexible heat spreaders. Furthermore, the thermal conductivity of borophene can be modulated by selecting different polymorphs, introducing specific defects, or their hybridization [ 150 ], offering a versatile approach to optimizing thermal management in nanodevices. Metal intercalation can also result in superior thermal conductance [ 151 ]. 4.4. Elastic Properties The mechanical properties of borophene are extraordinary, combining high flexibility and tensile strength that surpass those of graphene [ 152 ]. Its auxetic and ferroelastic nature and strain‐tunable electronic transitions enable diverse applications in flexible electronics and soft robotics [ 153 , 154 ] This combination of mechanical strength and flexibility is a consequence of its unique structural design in its lattices, where different polymorphs exhibit variations in bonding that can accommodate significant deformation without structural failure [ 152 ]. For instance, the β 12 polymorph demonstrates enhanced tensile strength due to the arrangement of hexagonal and triangular boron motifs, which can redistribute mechanical stress. The ability of borophene to sustain high strain levels makes it an ideal candidate for flexible and stretchable electronic applications, including wearable technology, foldable displays, and soft robotics. Moreover, its mechanical properties can be further tuned through defect generation [ 155 ], doping with other elements, surface functionalization, or the formation of heterostructures (hybridization), broadening the potential for borophene‐based mechanical devices [ 156 ]. 4.5. Chemical Properties The high chemical reactivity of borophene arises from its large surface area and the presence of numerous active sites, particularly at atomic vacancies or edges, which can participate in chemical reactions [ 73 , 157 ] Metallic nature, extraordinary chemical binding through 2e‐nc bonds, and surface activity via π‐π interactions are the major advantages of borophene. The polymorphic nature of borophene allows for different configurations of reactive sites, making it a versatile catalyst. For example, borophene has demonstrated superior performance in some catalytic processes compared to conventional metal‐based catalysts due to its higher density of active sites and more efficient charge transfer capabilities. The high reactivity of borophene can also be advantageous for applications in chemical sensing, where the adsorption of target molecules on the surface alters its electrical properties, providing a means for detection. However, high reactivity challenges stability under ambient conditions, requiring protective coating or encapsulation strategies to prevent oxidation and degradation. Borophene exhibits polyphasic features, with most phases having different vacancy concentrations. Incidentally, the vacancy superlattice and their distribution decide individual borophene layers' physical and chemical properties. Structure‐property relations are, therefore, very crucial in determining the way borophene behaves, as the number of edge atoms (acting as electrochemically active sites) depends on the number and arrangement of vacancies in the borophene lattice. Interestingly, anisotropic phases exhibit superior electronic/thermal transport and mechanical behavior along the ridgelines compared to those in the transverse directions. In summary, borophene differs from most other 2D materials in its properties because of its unique electron‐deficient bonding and polymorphic structure. It is intrinsically metallic, whereas many 2D materials are semiconducting or semi‐metallic. Borophene shows strong in‐plane anisotropy, so its electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties depend strongly on direction, unlike isotropic materials such as graphene. It also exhibits exceptionally high mechanical strength and flexibility along certain directions, high electrical conductivity, and enhanced chemical reactivity due to its vacancy‐rich structure. In contrast, most other 2D materials have more uniform lattices, weaker anisotropy, and less tunable metallic behavior. 5. Applications of borophene Borophene, with its distinctive electronic, mechanical, and chemical properties, has shown great potential for various applications beyond the capabilities of traditional materials. The unique combination of high electronic mobility, mechanical flexibility, and surface reactivity enables borophene to perform exceptionally well in fields such as electronics, energy storage, and catalysis, where existing materials face limitations. The following sections discuss the most promising applications of borophene that have already been explored in experimental and theoretical studies. 5.1. Electronics Borophene has exceptional properties, including high electronic mobility, mechanical flexibility, and anisotropic behavior, which makes it a promising candidate for various electronic applications. This table evaluates 2D materials for electronic applications, focusing on electron mobility, band gap, and thermal conductivity (Table 3 ). TABLE 3. 2D Materials for Electronics. Material Electron mobility (cm 2 /V·s) Young's modulus (GPa) Band gap (eV) Flexibility Thermal conductivity (W/mK) Reference Graphene ∼15 000–200 000 ∼130 ∼0 High ∼5000 [ 158 , 159 ] Silicene ∼1000–10 000 ∼0.05–1 ∼0.1–1.0 Moderate ∼10–40 [ 128 ] Phosphorene ∼1000 ∼0.5–1 ∼0.3–2.0 Low ∼12–30 [ 160 ] Stanene ∼2000–5000 ∼0.1–0.5 ∼0.1–0.3 Moderate ∼10–20 [ 161 , 162 ] Germanene ∼10 000–20 000 ∼0.1–0.5 ∼0.1–0.5 Moderate ∼10–30 [ 163 ] InSe ∼1000–2000 ∼10–20 ∼1.2–1.4 Moderate ∼10–20 [ 164 , 165 ] ReS 2 ∼10–100 ∼20–30 ∼1.5–1.6 Low ∼5–10 [ 166 ] Borophene ∼10 000–20 000 ∼150 ∼0 (metallic), ∼1 (engineered) High ∼200–400 [ 167 ] Open in a new tab 5.1.1. Borophene‐Based Nanogenerators The high charge density, mechanical flexibility, and anisotropic properties of borophene promise its huge potential in energy harvesting applications. Researchers have achieved significant advancements in energy conversion efficiency and application versatility by integrating borophene into triboelectric and piezoelectric nanogenerators (TENGs and PENGs) [ 103 , 168 , 169 ]. Borophene‐based composites have demonstrated remarkable performance enhancements in triboelectric nanogenerators. For instance, borophene/polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) hybrid nanofibers fabricated using electrospinning achieved an open‐circuit voltage of 102.5 V and a short‐circuit current of 0.8 µA, with a power density of 0.08 W/m 2 . This configuration effectively powers small electronics, such as LEDs and calculators. Furthermore, a single‐electrode TENG utilizing these nanofibers could harvest energy from raindrops, generating 13 V, showcasing its versatility for environmental energy harvesting [ 169 ]. Similarly, borophene/ecoflex composites were used to create durable fabric‐based TENGs (B‐TENGs) for healthcare applications. These devices demonstrated resilience under deformation and washing, powering systems like medical assistive interfaces and wound healing therapies [ 168 ]. The non‐centrosymmetric lattice structure of borophene has unlocked its potential for flexible piezoelectric nanogenerators in piezoelectric applications. Few‐layered borophene nanosheets embedded in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) exhibited a high piezoelectric charge coefficient (d33) of 86 pm/V, producing an output voltage of 8 V under mechanical stress. The device remained functional after over 1250 cycles, emphasizing its reliability for long‐term applications. Especially, the blue light emission of borophene under UV illumination enhanced the performance of device, opening avenues for piezophototronic applications [ 103 ]. Despite these advancements, challenges remain in scaling borophene synthesis and addressing its environmental sensitivity. Therefore, continued efforts in functionalization and large‐scale manufacturing are essential to overcome these hurdles. Further, integrating borophene into nanogenerators represents a significant step forward, offering sustainable solutions for powering wearable electronics, healthcare technologies, and environmental sensors, highlighting its transformative potential in energy harvesting systems. 5.1.2. Sensors and Detectors As borophene has extraordinary surface area, high conductivity, and tunable electronic properties, it emerged as a promising material for advanced sensor and detector applications. In gas sensing, the high sensitivity and selectivity of borophene have enabled the detection of toxic gases such as NO X and SO X at trace levels. Recent studies have developed dual‐mode gas sensors using borophene, which combine chemoresistance and electrochemical capabilities to enhance sensitivity and response times. These advancements highlight the potential of borophene for environmental monitoring and industrial applications [ 170 , 171 ]. In wearable pressure sensing, hydrogenated borophene has been utilized to fabricate flexible sensors with broad detection ranges (0–120 kPa), high sensitivity (2.16 kPa − 1 ), low power consumption (∼0.6 µW), and excellent reproducibility over 1000 cycles. These sensors have demonstrated applications in health monitoring, electronic skin, human‐machine interfaces, and robotics, paving the way for the integration of borophene into advanced multifunctional wearable systems (Figure 9 ) [ 172 ]. FIGURE 9. Open in a new tab Applications of borophene‐based pressure sensors: (a) health monitoring for disease diagnosis, (b) phonation detection for speech recognition, (c) human motion tracking, (d) soft electronic skin for tactile sensing, and (e) human‐machine interfaces enabling robotic control. Reproduced with permission. [ 172 ].Copyright 2022 Elsevier Ltd. In electrochemical sensors, borophene has been successfully integrated with materials like nickel phthalocyanine (NiPc) to enhance performance in electrochemical glucose sensing. The resulting NiPc‐borophene nanocomposites achieved sensitivity levels as high as 10.31 µA mM − 1 cm − 2 with a meager detection limit of 0.15 µM, demonstrating the role of borophene in overcoming the limitations of traditional materials like NiPc alone [ 173 ]. Similarly, the incorporation of borophene with copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) has enhanced the sensitivity of urea biosensors, reaching detection limits of 0.05 µM in complex biological matrices [ 174 , 175 , 176 ]. In dopamine detection, PANI‐borophene nanocomposites outperformed traditional PANI‐based sensors by achieving a sensitivity of 385.05 µA µM − 1 cm − 2 and an impressive detection limit of 0.017 µM. This improvement is attributed to the ability of borophene to enhance the redox interactions at the electrode surface, making it an excellent candidate for biomedical applications [ 177 ]. The unique hydrophilic and electronic properties of borophene have also enabled high‐performance humidity sensors. These devices demonstrated rapid response (28.8 s) and recovery times (2.6 s) across a wide detection range (11%–97% RH). Applications include advanced human‐centric systems like respiratory monitoring and speech recognition, paving the way for integration into wearable electronics and healthcare devices [ 178 ]. Furthermore, the integration of borophene into paper‐based electrodes for protein biomarker detection has yielded highly flexible, durable sensors and eco‐friendly disposal methods, making them ideal for point‐of‐care diagnostics [ 179 ]. In optoelectronics, borophene grown on mica substrates via van der Waals epitaxy has enabled the development of high‐performance photodetectors. These devices achieved superior photoresponsivity (1.04 AW − 1 ) and detectivity (1.27 × 10 1 1 Jones), outperforming conventional 2D materials in photodetection applications [ 98 ]. Despite its promising properties, the practical application of borophene in electronic chips faces challenges such as environmental instability, lack of protocols for large‐scale synthesis, and integration with existing semiconductor processing technologies. These limitations can be addressed through functionalization and innovative manufacturing techniques, which will unlock the potential of borophene in sensor technologies. Recently, much research is focused on developing protective coatings, optimizing synthesis methods, and exploring borophene‐based heterostructures. Advancements in these areas, with the continued experimental research and technological development, are expected to facilitate the incorporation of borophene into next‐generation electronic devices. 5.2. Information Storage The remarkable physical and electronic properties, including unique anisotropic electronic structure, high electron mobility, and exceptional stability under optimized conditions of borophene, have also opened new avenues for its application in advanced information storage technologies and next‐generation memory devices. This table compares borophene with other 2D materials based on properties relevant to information storage applications (Table 4 ). TABLE 4. 2D Materials for Information Storage Applications. Material Electrical conductivity Mechanical flexibility Structural uniqueness Anisotropic properties Potential memory mechanism Reference Borophene High High Vacancy‐mediated configurations Yes Resistive switching (speculative) [ 167 ] Graphene Very High High Hexagonal lattice No Various (e.g., flash, RRAM) [ 180 ] MoS 2 Moderate (semiconductor) Low Layered structure Yes Charge trapping, floating gate [ 181 ] hBN Insulator Moderate Hexagonal lattice No Dielectric, resistive switching [ 182 ] Black Phosphorus Moderate (semiconductor) Low Puckered structure Yes Charge trapping, floating gate [ 183 ] MXenes High High Layered carbides/nitrides Yes Resistive switching, electrodes [ 40 ] α‐In 2 Se 3 Moderate (semiconductor) Moderate Layered ferroelectric Yes Ferroelectric polarization [ 184 ] WSe 2 Moderate (semiconductor) Low Layered structure Yes Charge trapping [ 185 ] Stanene High (topological) High Buckled honeycomb Yes Resistive switching [ 186 ] Silicene Moderate (semiconductor) High Buckled honeycomb Yes Resistive switching [ 187 ] Open in a new tab 5.2.1. Memory Device Architectures and Performance Borophene‐based memory devices have demonstrated promising results in volatile and non‐volatile data storage applications. For instance, the synthesis of hydrogenated borophene was shown to enhance its stability and electronic properties significantly, enabling its use in memory devices with a high ON/OFF current ratio of 3×10 3 and low operating voltage of less than 0.35 V (Figure 10 ) [ 188 ]. Such devices exhibit excellent cycling stability and long retention times, which are crucial for practical data storage applications. In addition, the anisotropic memristive behavior of multilayer borophene nanosheets has been explored, revealing distinct volatile and non‐volatile memory functionalities depending on the orientation. This dual behavior simplifies circuit design by allowing dynamic resistive switching under different conditions [ 82 ]. FIGURE 10. Open in a new tab (a) Schematic representation of the in‐situ stepwise thermal decomposition process of NaBH 4 to synthesize α'‐4H‐borophene through self‐catalysis. (b) Illustration of the Au/borophene–PVP/Ag/glass resistive switching memory device structure. (c) Current‐voltage (I–V) characteristics demonstrate the device's SET and RESET processes. (d) Retention performance of the device in ON and OFF states at a reading voltage of 0.2 V, showcasing stable operation. (e) Negative sweep I–V characteristics highlight distinct conduction regions. Reproduced with permission [ 188 ]. Copyright 2020 Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. 5.2.2. Integration with Hybrid Systems Borophene‐ZnO heterostructures represent another innovative approach to enhancing memory performance [ 189 ]. These hybrid devices exhibited a broad photonic response from ultraviolet to near‐infrared wavelengths, with a switching ratio of 5×10 3 and long‐term stability over 3600 s. This integration leverages the synergistic effects of borophene and ZnO quantum dots, enabling low‐power, high‐density data storage with additional photosensitive functionalities. 5.2.3. Quantum Confinement and Charge Storage The quantum confinement effects of borophene further enhance its suitability for information storage. Nonvolatile memory devices fabricated using borophene nanosheets mixed with polyvinylpyrrolidone exhibited stable, rewritable memory characteristics. Due to strong quantum confinement effects, these devices showed an increased bandgap to 2.52 eV, ensuring reliable charge trapping and de‐trapping behavior [ 190 ]. 5.2.4. Comparison with Other 2D Materials Compared to other 2D materials like graphene and MoS 2 , borophene offers superior performance in specific aspects. For example, while MoS 2 ‐based devices demonstrated excellent bistable switching behavior due to charge trapping in polymer matrices [ 191 ], the higher electron mobility and structural anisotropy of borophene enhanceed flexibility for multi‐level storage and neuromorphic computing [ 82 ]. Moreover, borophene‐based devices can operate at lower voltages, making them more energy‐efficient than traditional resistive memory systems [ 192 , 193 ]. 5.2.5. Challenges and Future Prospects in Information Storage Despite its potential, the practical deployment of borophene in information storage faces several challenges. These include its sensitivity to oxidation, scalability of high‐quality synthesis, and integration with existing electronic platforms. To overcome these limitations, future efforts should focus on surface functionalization and hybridization strategies. Advancements in synthesis techniques, such as chemical vapor deposition and liquid‐phase exfoliation, and other emerging techniques are expected to play a pivotal role in achieving large‐scale production. In summary, borophene stands out as a revolutionary material for information storage, offering unique capabilities that outperform many existing 2D materials. Its successful integration into memory architectures could redefine the landscape of data storage technologies, bridging the gap between high performance and energy efficiency. 5.3. Energy Storage Two‐dimensional borophene has emerged as a groundbreaking material in energy storage due to its unique properties, such as high electronic conductivity, large surface area, and structural versatility. Its ability to form stable composites and heterostructures has enabled significant advancements in applications like supercapacitors and batteries, addressing the growing global demand for efficient and scalable energy storage solutions. This table compares 2D materials based on properties critical for energy storage applications, such as theoretical capacity, charge/discharge rates, and durability (Table 5 ). TABLE 5. 2D Materials for Energy Storage. Material Theoretical capacity (mAh/g) Charge/discharge rate Electron mobility (cm 2 /V·s) Mechanical Ss(GPa) Durability (cycles) Reference Graphene ∼372 High ∼15 000 ∼130 >1000 [ 194 , 195 ] MXenes (Ti 3 C 2 ) ∼447 High ∼10 000 ∼25–30 >500 [ 196 ] MoS 2 (TMDC) ∼900 Moderate ∼100–200 ∼20–30 ∼500 [ 197 ] Black Phosphorus ∼2596 High ∼1000 ∼0.5–1 <100 [ 198 , 199 ] Borophene ∼1000–2000 Very High ∼10 000–20 000 ∼150 >1000 (predicted) [ 200 , 201 ] Open in a new tab Borophene‐based materials exhibit exceptional performance across various energy storage platforms. Flexible MXene/borophene heterostructures achieved a gravimetric capacitance of 626.7 F/g at 1 A/g and an energy density of 75.6 Wh/kg in aqueous electrolytes, demonstrating superior electrochemical behavior (Figure 11 ) [ 202 ]. Integration with nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and fluorine‐doped carbon nanotubes resulted in a specific capacitance of 837 F/g and an energy density of 78.28 Wh/kg, with remarkable cycling stability of 92.72% retention over 10 000 cycles [ 203 ]. Sulfur and iron doping of β 12 ‐borophene via a microwave‐assisted method enhanced specific capacitances to 202 F/g and 120 F/g, respectively, at 0.25 A/g, showcasing the potential of elemental doping [ 61 ]. Stacked borophene‐based electric double‐layer supercapacitors demonstrated an areal capacitance of 417.3 mF/cm 2 and retained 89.3% of their performance after 5000 cycles [ 204 ]. Few‐layer boron sheets produced via scalable liquid‐phase exfoliation exhibited an energy density of 46.1 Wh/kg and retained 88.7% of their initial capacitance after 6000 cycles [ 104 ]. Borophene‐graphene composite hydrogels, synthesized through microwave‐assisted methods, achieved a specific capacitance of 455.1 F/g and energy density of 36.77 Wh/kg, with excellent flexibility and 80.8% capacitance retention over 20 000 cycles [ 205 ]. FIGURE 11. Open in a new tab (a) The schematic illustration of the MXene/borophene hybrid structure with expanded interlayer spacing facilitates ion diffusion for supercapacitor applications. (b) CV profiles of the symmetric cell over a potential range of 0–1.2 V at various scan rates. (c) GCD curves at different current densities. (d) Specific and areal capacitance as functions of current density. (e) Cycling stability of the cell at 10 A·g − 1 , demonstrating 93.6% capacitance retention after 9000 cycles. (f) Ragone plot comparing energy and power densities of the symmetric/asymmetric cell with other reported configurations. (g) Two MxB 50:50//MxB 50:50 cells in series powering a red LED. Reproduced with permission [ 202 ]. Copyright 2023 Published by Elsevier B.V. Borophene has addressed critical challenges in lithium‐sulfur batteries, such as the polysulfide shuttle effect and poor redox kinetics. Few‐layer β 12 ‐borophene synthesized via liquid‐phase exfoliation showed remarkable promise, achieving an areal capacity of 5.2 mAh cm − 2 at a high sulfur loading of 7.8 mg cm − 2 . With an ultralow capacity fading rate of 0.039% over 1000 cycles, borophene outperformed many existing materials thanks to its high lithium‐ion mobility and strong polysulfide binding energy [ 206 ]. Hydrogenated borophene nanosheets integrated into quasi‐solid‐state electrolytes for lithium‐metal batteries reduced interface impedance, and enhanced ionic conductivity, improved cyclic performance and power density was witnessed [ 207 ]. Moreover, borophene nanosheets obtained through the CVD approach achieved a specific capacitance of 350 F/g, surpassing other 2D materials like graphene [ 77 ]. In conclusion, borophene‐based materials represent a new frontier in energy storage technologies. Their unique structural, electronic, and mechanical properties and scalable production techniques offer tremendous potential for next‐generation supercapacitors, batteries, and other energy storage devices. Continued innovation in material synthesis and composite design will further bolster its role in advancing global energy solutions. 5.4. Catalysis Borophene with exceptional electronic conductivity and a high density of active sites, has emerged as a revolutionary platform for catalytic applications. Its unique properties, including strong metal‐support interactions and a large surface area, enable significant advancements in hydrogen evolution reactions (HER), oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), oxygen evolution reactions (OER), ethanol oxidation, and noble metal catalyst stabilization. This table focuses on electrocatalytic properties like hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) overpotentials, key for catalysis applications (Table 6 ). TABLE 6. 2D Materials for Catalysis. Material HER overpotential (mV) OER overpotential (mV) Active sites per cm 2 Surface area‐to‐mass ratio (m 2 /g) Tunability Reference Graphene ∼200–300 ∼350–450 Moderate ∼2600 Low [ 208 ] TMDCs (MoS 2 ) ∼100–200 ∼300–400 High ∼100–500 Moderate [ 209 ] h‐BN ∼500–600 ∼400–500 Low ∼200–300 Low [ 210 , 211 ] PtSe 2 ∼50–100 ∼250–300 High ∼100–200 High [ 212 ] PdTe 2 ∼70–120 ∼270–320 High ∼100–200 High [ 213 ] Borophene ∼50–100 (predicted) ∼200–300 (predicted) Very High ∼2000–3000 High [ 214 , 215 ] Open in a new tab In HER, borophene‐supported catalysts have demonstrated outstanding performance. When paired with Rh nanoparticles, borophene nanosheets achieved an overpotential as low as 66 mV in acidic media and 101 mV in alkaline media at a current density of 10 mA/cm 2 . These results are comparable to platinum‐based catalysts, which are the industry benchmark but have enhanced durability across different pH conditions. In addition, borophene nanosheets grown via CVD showed a Tafel slope of 69 mV/dec, highlighting their efficient charge transfer capabilities during HER [ 216 , 217 ]. For OER, the synergy of borophene with transition metal oxides has delivered remarkable results. A borophene/nickel oxide (NiO) composite achieved an exceptionally low overpotential of 191 mV at 10 mA/cm 2 and a Tafel slope of 44 mV/dec, outperforming many traditional catalysts like IrO 2 and RuO 2 (Figure 12 ) [ 218 ]. Similarly, borophene integrated with cobalt oxide (Co 3 O 4 ) reduced the overpotential to 270 mV with a Tafel slope of 62 mV/dec, showcasing its potential for efficient water splitting and clean energy applications [ 219 ]. FIGURE 12. Open in a new tab (a) Schematic illustration of borophene functionalization with NiO for enhanced water oxidation. (b) Polarization curves, (c) overpotential comparison, (d) electrochemical impedance spectra, (e) Tafel plots, (f) stability tests with inset showing 100‐h durability, and (g) capacitive current measurements demonstrating electrochemical active surface areas for RuO 2 , NiO, borophene, and B@NiO_x composites. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons CC‐BY license [ 218 ]. Copyright 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. In ethanol oxidation reactions (EOR), borophene has demonstrated significant potential as a catalyst support. A PdNiO nanoflower (PdNiONF)‐borophene composite showed superior catalytic activity, achieving a current density of 0.12 mA in alkaline conditions. This catalyst also displayed remarkable resistance to poisoning by intermediate oxidation species, making it ideal for fuel cell applications. The role of borophene in enhancing the interaction between Pd and ethanol molecules contributes to its outstanding performance compared to conventional Pd/C catalysts [ 79 , 220 ]. Furthermore, hydrogenated borophene has enabled the synthesis of advanced noble metal catalysts with ultrafine particle sizes and high dispersion. For example, Pt nanoparticles (∼2.5 nm) supported on hydrogenated borophene demonstrated superior stability and activity in ORR, with a high loading of 80 wt.% Pt. This strong metal‐support interaction significantly enhances the durability of these catalysts under harsh operating conditions, making them more viable for industrial applications [ 108 , 221 ]. The versatility and transformative properties of borophene make it a leading material for next‐generation catalysts. By enabling efficient, stable, and cost‐effective energy conversion and storage solutions, borophene catalysis is set to drive advancements in hydrogen production, fuel cells, and beyond. Therefore, extensive research on introducing more functionalization on borophene and its composites with other 2D or porous nanostructures is highly necessary as it will further unlock its potential across various catalytic domains. In summary, borophene is intrinsically metallic, exhibiting no bandgap, very high electrical conductivity, and strong directional (anisotropic) charge transport. Its properties are highly dependent on atomic structure due to the existence of multiple polymorphs. Consequently, borophene is well suited for applications such as nanoscale interconnects, transparent conductive electrodes, metallic contacts in 2D heterostructures, and plasmonic devices. In contrast, some other Xenes are metallic but largely isotropic, making their electronic properties harder to tune. Transition metal dichalcogenides (MoS 2 , WS 2 ) are semiconducting and therefore preferred for transistor applications, while hBN is insulating and commonly used as a dielectric layer. Borophene exhibits a strong, tunable plasmonic response in the infrared range with direction‐dependent optical behavior, supporting broadband anisotropic plasmons. This makes it attractive for plasmonic waveguides, sensors, and nano‐antennas, with better plasmon tunability than graphene. Unlike borophene, TMDCs primarily show excitonic optics rather than plasmonics. Mechanically, borophene is stronger than graphene along certain directions and displays extreme flexibility, stretchability, and even auxetic behavior in some phases. These anisotropic mechanical properties enable applications in flexible electronics, lightweight composites, and NEMS. Furthermore, borophene has a highly reactive, buckled surface with abundant active sites, strong metal‐ion binding, and high theoretical battery capacity. It is promising for energy storage, hydrogen storage, electrocatalysis, and gas sensing. Overall, borophene uniquely combines metallicity with high chemical activity, a rare characteristic among 2D materials. 6. Challenges of Borophene and the Way Forward 6.1. Limitations of Borophene Despite its promising properties, borophene faces several challenges that must be addressed before it can be widely adopted for commercial applications. These limitations pertain primarily to the non‐scalability of production, environmental instability, unsuitable electronic properties, and device integration issues, specially work function mismatch and lack of interaction between boron and metals. It is highly crucial to address these certain issues in order to unlocking the potential of borophene in various fields including electronics, energy storage, and catalysis. This section discusses the key challenges and barriers to the commercialization of borophene. 6.1.1. Scalability of Production One of the primary obstacles to the commercialization of borophene is the difficulty in achieving large‐scale and uniform production with phase purity. The current synthesis methods, including MBE, CVD, and ALD, often require high‐vacuum conditions, specialized substrates, and sophisticated equipment, which limit the scalability of borophene production [ 73 , 222 ]. In addition, the growth of borophene is typically substrate‐dependent, with substrates such as silver and gold necessary to stabilize borophene lattice on the substrate, as their FCC lattice can support metal‐induced crystallization at relatively low crystallization temperature [ 223 ]. Moreover, post‐deposition crystallization by laser or an electric field can be employed [ 224 ]. This requirement significantly increases the cost of production for crystalline borophene and complicates its transfer onto other substrates for device fabrication. Therefore, developing scalable and cost‐effective synthesis methods, such as bottom‐up solution‐based growth techniques using metal for growth catalysts and surfactants (such as CTAB) [ 103 ] or modified CVD processes such as microwave plasma CVD [ 225 ] will be crucial for enabling the widespread use of borophene. Protocols must be developed for extracting boron, its purification, and crystallization to achieve crystalline powder, which can then be used for the top‐down synthesis of borophene. Further, novel bottom‐up synthetic approaches must be developed for mass‐scale production from lab reagents such as boric acid, sodium borohydride, etc. 6.1.2. Oxidation Woes Borophene is highly reactive and prone to oxidation when exposed to ambient conditions, significantly affecting its electronic, optical, and mechanical properties. Atomistically controlled studies have been carried out to investigate experimental surface oxidation of borophene [ 226 ]. First principles studies have been carried out to understand the oxidation of borophene [ 227 ]. Oxidation rate as per TERS line profile was found to be 0.15–0.2 nm/min. It should be noted that borophene oxide has band gap of >3.3 eV and marginal electron concentration, showing significantly large electronic scattering which results in lowered electronic mobility for thicker oxide layer. Also, in ambient air (humid), hydroxide formation is imminent. The hydroxide layer can transform to oxide upon heating. Diffusion of oxygen atoms in the interiors degrades electronic character of borophene. Moreover, hydroxyl group attachment can weaken the crystal mechanically. Thus, structural fidelity and chemical character would drastically change upon oxidation/hydroxidation. Therefore, it is crucial to prevent the borophene layers in device from chemical degrading. This instability presents a significant challenge for practical applications, as maintaining the properties of borophene in real‐world environments is challenging. Various strategies have been proposed to address this issue, including encapsulation with protective layers (e.g., alumina, [ 228 , 229 ] hexagonal boron nitride or graphene), surface functionalization [ 230 ], non‐covalent functionalization [ 231 ] or passivation of the reactive sites through functionalization. However, these methods can complicate fabrication and alter the intrinsic properties of borophene. Therefore, it is highly crucial to develop effective oxidation‐resistant strategies while preserving the unique characteristics of borophene because it is essential for its commercial viability, particularly for applications in electronics and catalysis, where stability is critical. 6.1.3. Lack of Band Gap Unlike semiconducting 2D materials such as transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs), borophene exhibits metallic behavior, which limits applications in field‐effect transistors (FETs) and other electronic devices that require a band gap. The absence of an intrinsic band gap restricts the application of borophene in digital electronics, where on‐off switching is necessary for device operation. It should be noted that the ON/OFF ratio is proportional to the band gap. Various efforts have been made to introduce a band gap in borophene through doping [ 61 ], surface functionalization [ 230 ], 2D‐2D hybridization [ 28 ], heterostructure formation [ 32 ], or strain engineering methods. While some success has been achieved in tuning the electronic properties, these approaches often result in trade‐offs with other properties, such as carrier mobility or mechanical flexibility. For example, edge doping and vacancies/defects generated during doping reactions enhance electronic scattering. Moreover, hydrogenation of borophene can alter electronic, thermal, optical, and mechanical properties. Borophene, borophene, borides and other boron containing materials exhibit remarkable structure‐stoichiometry‐properties relationship as shown in the following table (Table 7 ). TABLE 7. Comparison of structures, stoichiometry and key properties of borophene with borophane and borides. Material Structure Stoichiometry Key Properties Borophene • 2D atom‐thin sheet of boron • Polymorphic: various lattice geometries (β12, χ3, etc.) • Anisotropic, corrugated or planar depending on phase • Elemental boron • Stoichiometry varies with vacancy pattern rather than chemical composition • High electrical conductivity (metallic) • High mechanical strength and flexibility • Anisotropic thermal and electronic behavior • High surface reactivity; useful for sensors, batteries, catalysis Borophane • Fully or partially hydrogenated borophene • Hydrogen atoms bonded to boron sheet, stabilizing it • More planar and chemically stable than borophene • B–H composition • Common representation: B:H ≈ 1:1 for fully hydrogenated forms • Increased stability vs. borophene • Can be semiconducting or metallic depending on hydrogenation pattern • Lower surface reactivity • Potential uses in flexible electronics, hydrogen storage Borides • Crystalline compounds of boron + metals (e.g., TiB 2 , MgB 2 , ZrB 2 ) • Structures include hexagonal, tetragonal, orthorhombic depending on metal and phase • Metal–boron compounds • Stoichiometries include MB, MB 2 , MB 4 , M 2 B, etc. • Highly variable depending on metal • Extremely high hardness (often superhard) • High melting points and chemical resistance • Some are excellent conductors (e.g., MgB 2 is superconducting) • Used in armor, cutting tools, coatings, and high‐temperature materials Open in a new tab Therefore, extensive research and development on modulating the electronic properties of the borophene without compromising its other advantageous characteristics is highly needed. 6.1.4. Insufficient Carrier Concentration To ensure efficient charge transport, materials must possess a high carrier concentration for many electronic and optoelectronic applications. Although borophene exhibits high electronic mobility, its carrier concentration may not be sufficient for specific applications, such as high‐frequency transistors or infrared photodetectors. This limitation arises from its inherent electronic structure, which can be challenging to modify without compromising other properties. Techniques such as defect engineering [ 232 ], doping with transition metals [ 61 ], and hybridization [ 28 ] have been explored to increase carrier concentration. However, balancing high carrier density and maintaining other desirable properties remains a significant challenge. Moreover, doping above a specific limit gives rise to lattice distortion or amorphization. Strong reagents/solvents can rupture or fragment borophene sheets. Enhancing carrier concentration in the borophene without adversely affecting stability, conductivity, or mechanical strength will be crucial for its use in advanced electronic devices. 6.1.5. Phase Selection Issues Borophene exists in polymorphs, such as β 12 , χ 3 , α and hexagonal structures. For example, β 12 and χ 3 phases are metallic whereas α phase is semiconducting. Their physical (electronic, optical, thermal, thermoelectric, magnetic, etc.) and chemical properties (chemical reactivity with oxygen, acids, bases, and catalytic character) are distinct [ 73 , 233 , 234 ] While this polymorphism provides opportunities for tuning the properties of borophene for specific applications, it also introduces a significant challenge in controlling the phase selection during synthesis. Achieving uniform phase distribution across large‐scale samples is complex, and mixed‐phase borophene can exhibit unpredictable or suboptimal properties. Addressing this issue requires improved understanding and control of the growth conditions that govern phase formation, such as substrate choice, temperature, and deposition rate. Liquid phase top‐down synthesized borophene phase can be filtered using different centrifugation speeds. Further, appropriate catalysts can be used during bottom‐up synthesis approaches to grow the specific borophene phase preferentially. Advances in phase engineering techniques could enable the targeted synthesis of specific borophene polymorphs, optimizing their properties for applications ranging from energy storage to quantum devices. 6.1.6. Device Integration Issues Integrating borophene into existing device architectures poses challenges due to the requirements for stability. The reactivity and environmental instability of borophene necessitate encapsulation or passivation to maintain performance, which adds complexity to the fabrication process. Moreover, the lack of well‐established protocols for borophene transfer, patterning, and deposition makes incorporating the material into conventional semiconductor processing workflows challenging. Unlike graphene or TMDCs, which have undergone significant development in device fabrication techniques, borophene‐based device integration is still in its early stages. As borophene has high electronic mobility and thermal conductivity, it can be employed as a component layer in hetero‐layered stacks for functional devices in electronics, optoelectronics, thermoelectric, and several others. However, complications in stacking several layers remain a challenge. For example, achieving a particular sequence of layers and retaining the flatness of sheets (without crumpling/tearing, etc.) is difficult. There are presently two potential ways to achieve stacking. One via physical epitaxy or CVD and another via mechanically assembled stacks (Figure 13a ) [ 235 ]. The physical epitaxy/CVD method can grow desirable 2D materials on a selected substrate area sequentially and then go for lithography steps to constitute devices, followed by wire bonding to achieve devices [ 98 , 236 , 237 ] Chemically exfoliated borophene can be stacked using mechanical assembly under dilute concentration conditions. Such methods are widely used for 2D materials [ 63 ]. Layer‐by‐layer transfer of borophene with companion layers can be achieved similar to those reported for graphene and boron nitride [ 62 ]. Integration of borophene with 0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D quantum materials can result in various devices and sensors, including highly functional electronic chips (FETs), spintronic chips with giant magnetoresistance (GMR), excitonic devices such as photodiodes, etc. (Figure 13b ) [ 238 ]. Efficient transfer/stacking, atomistic vertical integration, and electrode fabrication can be helpful in various borophene‐based devices (Figure 13c ) [ 239 ]. Strategies developed and implemented for graphene can be beneficial for borophene as well. For example, layer‐by‐layer transfer employing a dry transfer technique using PDMS or sequential wet chemical transfer using aqueous FeCl 3 solutions for dissolving copper substrate, followed by laser shock integration, can be used [ 62 ]. Moreover, work function mismatch and non‐interacting component layers in the device are the problems that need immediate attention. Epitaxial growth of borophene can help to address such issues. In addition, the fabrication of sandwich layers to enhance integration can assist. In particular, the lack of low‐temperature direct borophene growth protocols is a barrier to the direct imprinting of borophene circuits on flexible substrates. Laser‐based 3D printing using computer‐controlled methods can be helpful in this regard. Further, laser shock printing can be developed for borophene. FIGURE 13. Open in a new tab (a) Fabrication of van der Waal heterolayer. Reproduced with permission [ 235 ]. Copyright 2016, American Association for the Advancement of Science. (b) various hybrid structures. Reproduced with permission [ 238 ].Reproduced under the terms of the CC‐BY Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0).[217] Copyright 2019, Springer Nature Limited. and (c) potential device applications. [ 239 ]. Copyright 2022, The Author(s). 6.1.7. Reactivity Problem in Catalysis While the high surface reactivity of borophene is advantageous for catalytic applications, it also poses challenges in maintaining stability during catalytic reactions. The active sites of borophene can become passivated or degraded over time, reducing catalytic efficiency. The high reactivity can also lead to side reactions that negatively impact selectivity in specific catalytic processes. Strategies such as defect generation [ 157 ], doping [ 61 ], surface functionalization [ 230 ], hybridization with other materials [ 28 ], and functionalization with stabilizing agents can enhance the catalytic performance of borophene while mitigating reactivity issues. However, since it is reactive under acidic and alkaline environments, these modifications must be carefully optimized to avoid compromising the intrinsic catalytic properties or increasing fabrication complexity. Since doping can alter reactivity towards chemical reagents, choosing a dopant metal to equip borophene for a particular catalysis reaction will be crucial. Similarly, compatible companion layers can be selected for hybridizing borophene for specific catalytic pursuits. 6.2. Future Synthetic Approaches Innovative synthesis techniques are being explored to overcome the challenges of borophene production and enable its commercialization. These future synthetic approaches aim to improve scalability, control over phase selection, and the stability of borophene. The following strategies, including novel exfoliation methods and bottom‐up growth techniques, could offer solutions to existing limitations by providing greater control over the structure and properties of borophene. 6.2.1. Intercalation Exfoliation Intercalation exfoliation involves inserting foreign atoms or molecules between the layers of boron in a boron crystal to weaken interlayer interactions and facilitate the exfoliation of monolayer borophene. This method has been widely used to produce other 2D materials, such as graphene and TMDCs [ 240 , 241 , 242 , 243 ]. In the case of borophene, intercalation agents such as alkali metals or organic molecules can disrupt the interatomic forces within layered boron compounds, leading to the delamination of borophene sheets. This technique offers the potential for scalable production of borophene with controlled thickness. However, selecting appropriate intercalation agents is crucial to avoid excessive reactivity or degradation of borophene during exfoliation. Advances in intercalation chemistry and a better understanding of the interaction between boron layers and intercalants are essential to optimize this approach for large‐scale borophene production. 6.2.2. Cryo‐Exfoliation Cryo‐exfoliation is a novel method that involves freezing layered boron compounds and then mechanically or chemically breaking them apart at cryogenic temperatures [ 244 , 245 , 246 , 247 ]. Low temperatures can help preserve the structural integrity of borophene by minimizing thermal degradation or oxidation during exfoliation. In addition, cryo‐exfoliation can produce defect‐free borophene sheets with minimal contamination, making it suitable for high‐quality applications, such as electronic devices and quantum materials. Recent cryogenic techniques and equipment advancements have made cryo‐exfoliation more accessible, providing a promising route for the scalable synthesis of high‐purity borophene. Further research is needed to optimize cryogenic conditions, such as temperature and freezing time, to enhance the exfoliation efficiency and control the morphology of the resulting borophene sheets. 6.2.3. Photo Exfoliation Photo exfoliation has recently been utilized to give rise to light‐induced chemical reactions to peel off layers of van der Waal materials, allowing for the formation of atomic sheets. In this approach, laser‐induced heating expands bulk crystals out‐of‐plane, giving rise to the intercalation of solvents. The interaction of intercalants with atom sheets in the interior of bulk crystals weaken inter‐layer coupling, giving rise to exfoliation [ 19 ]. The advantage of photo exfoliation is that it can be a controllable and non‐destructive method for producing borophene, as the light exposure can be precisely regulated to achieve uniform thickness and phase purity. One of the major advantages of this technique is that different wavelengths of light can be employed to selectively target specific atomic bonds, providing extra control over the exfoliation process. However, finding the optimal light sources, intensities, and reaction environments is a critical challenge that must be addressed to maximize efficiency and prevent damage to the material. Ongoing research into photochemical reactions and photon‐material interactions will likely advance the development of photo exfoliation techniques for borophene. 6.2.4. Bottom‐Up Liquid‐Phase Metal‐Catalyzed Crystal Growth Bottom‐up liquid‐phase synthesis is an emerging method for producing borophene. Boron precursors are used in liquid phase processing and give rise to 2D layer growth surfactants (such as CTAB) have been utilized [ 103 ]. Metal atoms such as copper or silver can act as nucleation sites, promoting the formation of borophene on their surfaces. This approach can yield high‐quality borophene with well‐defined structures and minimal defects, as the growth would occur in a controlled liquid environment. Also, liquid‐phase synthesis can be scaled up by optimizing the reaction parameters, such as temperature, concentration, and stirring rate. Metal‐catalyzed crystal growth will also allow the possibility of producing borophene with specific polymorphs by carefully choosing the metal catalysts and liquid solvents. Challenges associated with this method include the removal of residual metal contaminants and the stabilization of borophene during transfer to other substrates. Further work refining the synthesis conditions and understanding the mechanisms of liquid‐phase growth will be essential to advance this approach. 6.2.5. Topotactic Transformation Topotactic transformation involves converting a precursor material into borophene through a solid‐state reaction, wherein the original crystal structure is partially retained and transformed into the desired borophene structure. This method relies on the selective removal or insertion of atoms within a parent compound to form borophene without entirely disrupting the crystalline framework. For instance, boron‐rich ceramics or layered borides could be subjected to chemical treatments that extract certain atoms, allowing borophene layers to form in situ [ 248 , 249 ]. Topotactic transformation offers a promising pathway for synthesizing borophene with tunable properties, as different precursor materials and reaction conditions can be employed to control the final structure. Additionally, this approach may enable the production of borophene directly on device‐compatible substrates, simplifying the integration process for practical applications. The main challenge in topotactic transformation is the precise control over the reaction to ensure uniform and high‐quality borophene formation, which requires further research into reaction kinetics and precursor material selection. These advanced futuristic approaches (Figure 14 ) for borophene synthesis can be employed to achieve a scalable synthesis of borophene with chemical phase purity, which will catapult it toward commercialization and frontline applications. FIGURE 14. Open in a new tab Emerging approaches of synthesis of borophene. In summary, while addressing synthetic challenges of scalability in synthesis via adopting synthetic strategies (such as cryoexfoliation, intercalation exfoliation and topotactic transformation etc) can yield large scale production of borophene, novel bottom up liquid‐phase synthesis will take it to next level, surface oxidation issues can be addressed by lamination of borophene with graphene, BN and alumina, or sandwitching it in heterolayered ddevices (Figure 15 ). Further, nanoarchitectonics by doping, surface functionalization, hybridization and defect engineering can not only enhance local electron density, generated catalytic sites can help enhance catalytic or electrochemical performances (Figure 15 ). Similarly, device integration challenges can be resolved by layer‐by‐layer self‐assembly of borophene, and by annealing the device or by laser shock integration (Figure 15 ). FIGURE 15. Open in a new tab Key challenges borophene is facing and plausible solutions. 6.3. Future Applications of Borophene Borophene, with its exceptional properties and versatile characteristics, holds great promise for advancing a variety of next‐generation technologies. The unique combination of high electrical conductivity, flexibility, reactivity, and tunable electronic properties suggests that borophene could play a key role in several futuristic applications [ 134 , 250 , 251 ]. This section explores potential directions for using borophene across diverse fields, including spintronics, twistronics, photonics, energy storage, thermal management, and biomedical applications. 6.3.1. Electronics (FETs) Depending on the structure, borophene exists in both metallic and semiconducting form. However, the suitable band gap engineering and carrier injections of borophene can render fit for field effect transistor (FET) devices. Experimental advances in this direction have not yet been at the level of FET devices; however, advances in advanced surface and interface engineering will help it embark soon. Theoretical advances have, however, already been in place in this context [ 141 , 252 , 253 , 254 ]. 6.3.2. Spintronics (Quantum Memory Devices) Spintronics is an emerging field that exploits the spin of electrons and their charge for information processing and storage. It could potentially lead to highly efficient quantum memory devices. It was predicted that borophene exhibits high spin‐polarization and tunable magnetic properties which make it an ideal candidate for spintronic applications [ 255 , 256 , 257 ]. Ultrafast switching of spin‐FET of borophene‐based devices has been explored [ 258 ]. Defects and dopants could be introduced to manipulate the magnetic ordering of borophene, enabling its integration into spintronic devices [ 259 ]. Moreover, the low‐dimensional nature of borophene may allow for the creation of ultra‐thin spin filters or spin valves [ 260 ], critical components in memory [ 82 ], and sensing [ 261 , 262 ] Although borophene has a lot of possibilities, much needs to be accomplished to optimize parameters and experimental conditions for its synthesis, purification, phase filtering, transfer, and device integration towards borophene‐based spintronic devices. 6.3.3. Twistronics Twistronics involves manipulating electronic properties in 2D materials by rotating two layers relative to each other, creating moiré patterns that lead to unique superconducting or insulating phases. The flexibility and polymorphic nature provide opportunities to explore Moiré superconductivity when stacked with other 2D materials such as graphene or TMDCs. Borophene bilayers have earlier been foretold to have superconductivity [ 263 , 264 ]. This potential positions borophene as a critical player in developing future quantum computing devices that rely on robust superconducting states. Even thermoelectric devices are being shaped based on borophene twistronics [ 265 ]. Moiré Superconductivity in borophene‐based heterolayers is yet to be experimentally explored. 6.3.4. Photonics The anisotropic optical properties of borophene, which include strong absorption and high refractive indices, make it highly suitable for photonic applications such as waveguides, optical modulators, and photodetectors. Broadband non‐linear photonics [ 266 ] and Giant photonic spin Hall effect [ 267 ] have been predicted. Borophene‐based photonic devices could benefit from their tunable electronic structure, allowing for wavelength‐specific optical responses. Integrating borophene with other optoelectronic materials such as MoS 2 and phosphorenes may make it possible to design multi‐functional photonic circuits for use in communications, imaging, and quantum optics. 6.3.5. Electrodes in LEDs and Solar Cells The high electrical conductivity and transparency in the thin layers position of borophene make it as a promising candidate for electrodes in light‐emitting diodes (LEDs) and solar cells. Its mechanical flexibility could enable the fabrication of flexible, foldable, and wearable photovoltaic devices, expanding the applicability of solar energy harvesting technologies. The potential of borophene for carrier mobility enhancement may also lead to improved power conversion efficiencies in solar cells. Varieties of phases are photoluminescent themselves in their pristine form [ 103 ]. However, heteroatom/transition metal doping, surface functionalization, and hybridization can adequately tailor other metallic and semiconducting phases to render it suitable for p‐/n‐type semiconducting nature and hence useful for excitonic devices (LEDs and solar cells). 6.3.6. Next‐Generation Light, Flexible, and Foldable Batteries The combination of borophene's large surface area and exceptional conductivity is highly beneficial for energy storage devices, including next‐generation batteries that are light, flexible, and foldable. Borophene could be an advanced electrode material in lithium‐ion, sodium‐ion, or other metal‐ion batteries, providing high capacity, fast charging capabilities, and long cycle life [ 78 , 200 , 207 , 268 , 269 , 270 ]. Furthermore, integrating borophene with polymer‐based electrolytes or current collectors could result in mechanically flexible energy storage devices suitable for wearable electronics. Although several theoretical advances have been published on borophene‐based batteries and supercapacitors, and lab‐scale demonstrations have also been realized, a lot more is needed. Optimization of borophene synthesis, electrode fabrication protocols, moderation (especially adaptability), and implementation are the next steps toward commercialization. 6.3.7. Thermoelectric Applications Thermoelectric materials can convert temperature gradients into electrical energy, making them useful for power generation and thermal management. Borophene's high electrical and anisotropic thermal conductivity may enable efficient thermoelectric devices [ 271 , 272 , 273 ]. By optimizing its structural and electronic properties through doping or creating hybrid materials, borophene‐based thermoelectric could achieve higher power factors and figure‐of‐merit (ZT) values, contributing to efficient waste heat recovery systems. 6.3.8. Thermoplastics (Thermal Packaging) The high thermal conductivity and mechanical strength of borophene make it suitable for use as a filler material in thermoplastic composites for thermal packaging applications [ 75 ]. Metal intercalation can enhance thermal transport in borophene [ 151 ]. Further, doping, functionalization, and hybridization can be used as tools to moderate its prompt local heat removal. Such composites could be used in electronic devices to dissipate heat more effectively, thereby enhancing the performance and lifespan of integrated circuits. Borophene could also be incorporated into thermoplastic films used in flexible electronics, providing mechanical reinforcement and heat management. 6.3.9. Thermal Interfacing (Electronic Cooling) Borophene has garnered attention for its exceptional thermal conductivity, which is crucial for thermal interfacing in electronic cooling applications. Studies have reported that borophene hydride exhibits high thermal conductivities of approximately 335 W/mK and 293 W/mK along the zigzag and armchair directions [ 274 ]. These values are comparable to those of graphene, making borophene a promising candidate for thermal interface materials (TIMs) in microelectronics, LEDs, and high‐performance computing systems. The efficient heat dissipation properties of borophene can enhance the performance and reliability of electronic devices by mitigating heat buildup. Its potential application as a TIM involves bridging heat‐conducting components, thereby facilitating effective cooling. This capability is particularly valuable in microelectronics, where managing thermal loads is critical to device longevity and efficiency. Further research into integrating borophene‐based TIMs in electronic systems is necessary to understand and optimize their performance fully. 6.3.10. As a Substrate for Growth of Heterolayers The unique surface properties of borophene could make it an effective substrate for the growth of heterolayers of other 2D materials. Its ability to induce strain or alter the electronic band structure of overlying materials could be leveraged to engineer new properties in heterostructures. This approach could lead to the development of novel electronic, optical, or magnetic devices by tuning the interactions at the interface between borophene and other layered materials. 6.3.11. Quantum Computers The extensive use of 2D materials for electronics provides immense hope for borophene‐based quantum computers [ 11 , 64 , 275 , 276 ] The potential superconducting properties of borophene and its compatibility with existing 2D quantum materials make it a promising candidate for quantum computing applications. Its tunable electronic structure and ability to host topological phases could be exploited in designing qubits, the basic units of quantum information processing. Moreover, borophene's long spin coherence length makes it apt to be employed for informatics without much loss. It is also expected that hybridizing borophene with other 2D superconductors may enhance coherence times and improve the stability of quantum states in quantum computing devices. 6.3.12. Disease Diagnosis and Biomedical Applications Borophene's large surface area and potential for biofunctionalization open possibilities in biomedical applications, such as disease diagnosis and drug delivery. Its ability to adsorb biomolecules or ions could be used to develop sensitive biosensors for detecting specific disease markers [ 277 , 278 , 279 , 280 , 281 ]. Furthermore, functionalizing borophene with biocompatible molecules could enable its use as a drug delivery platform, where the high surface area allows for a high loading capacity of therapeutic agents. The unique combination of record electronic mobility, high thermal conductivity, and high Young's modulus flexibility makes borophene the best choice for ultrafast biosensing material candidates. As optimization of synthesis parameters, purification protocols, and device fabrication adaptable for borophene are still underway, it is expected that borophene‐based futuristic devices and ultrafast sensors may be developed in the coming years (Figure 16 ). FIGURE 16. Open in a new tab Future applications of borophene. In conclusion, while borophene—a newly synthesized material—has been successfully produced through various methods, including physical and chemical exfoliation, substrate‐supported growth (such as MBE, ALD, and CVD), and a recent bottom‐up approach using boric acid and CTAB surfactant, several challenges persist. Borophene has shown potential in applications like light sensing, molecular detection, strain and gas sensing, energy storage, and electrocatalysis. However, significant advancements are still needed to address the synthetic challenges and integration issues for device fabrication. Key challenges in synthesis include achieving high chemical phase purity without oxidation or surface functionalization, as well as ensuring scalable and reproducible production. To achieve effective exfoliation while avoiding surface oxidation, it is recommended to use high‐surface‐energy solvents or solvents with high Hansen parameters during sonication or solvothermal treatments. Additionally, intercalating agents such as ionic solvents or Li+/Na+/K+ ions can aid exfoliation. The use of high‐energy plasma (e.g., laser‐based photo‐exfoliation) can create favorable thermodynamic conditions for volume expansion in parent crystals. Cryo exfoliation, utilizing liquid nitrogen to induce compressive thermal stress in boron crystals, can also facilitate exfoliation. These novel techniques show promise for producing high‐quality borophene. Recent advances in topotactic transformations, previously applied to metallenes, may also be leveraged for borophene, such as transforming MgB 2 into borophene. However, such transformations will likely lead to structural changes, which can be stabilized through intermediate structures. The use of transition metal substrates, such as silver, gold, or copper, can help stabilize the borophene lattice. Surface oxidation remains a significant concern, as it significantly impacts device performance, particularly in electronics, spintronics, and straintronics. Effective passivation with materials such as graphene, BN, alumina, or MgO could mitigate this issue. While borophene is more chemically and electrochemically active than pure graphene, enhancing its electrochemical and catalytic properties will require strategies such as controlled surface defect generation, substitutional doping, 2D‐2D hybridization, and surface functionalization. In heterolayer devices, where prompt charge or energy transfer is critical, poor‐quality interfaces are a major obstacle. For applications like electronic cooling or electrocatalytic hydrogen/oxygen production, fast electron transfer is necessary, and layer‐by‐layer self‐assembly could improve interface quality. Additionally, transferring CVD‐coated sheets in a layer‐by‐layer manner, followed by heating and laser shock treatments, could further enhance interfacial quality. The careful selection of substrates and electrode materials optimized for borophene electronics is also essential. To reduce the boron‐electrode metal interfacial contact resistance and improve work function engineering, a thin, soft metal coating could be beneficial. Borophene has attracted extensive review attention due to its unique structural, electronic, mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties and broad potential applications. It exhibits anisotropic metallic behavior, high electrical and thermal conductivities, and structural polymorphism that enables tunability of its properties, along with exceptional mechanical strength, flexibility, and directional stiffness. Reviews consistently highlight its promising roles in energy storage and conversion (e.g., battery electrodes, hydrogen storage), sensing and gas capture, catalysis, and flexible nano‐ and optoelectronic devices, as well as emerging biomedical and environmental applications. Synthesis advancements on metal substrates and via various deposition techniques have been explored, yet challenges remain in achieving large‐area, stable, and scalable borophene. Reviews also emphasize the influence of defects, doping, heterostructures, and strain on tailoring performance, while noting that instability in ambient conditions and difficulties in mass production are key obstacles before practical deployment. The present review showcases the challenges and way forward to tackle those challenges and it outlines borophene‐specific applications, especially futuristic devices and sensors. 7. Summary and Outlook Borophene synthesis and borophene‐based devices face several interconnected challenges, primarily related to stability, scalability, phase control, and integration. Borophene is intrinsically chemically reactive and readily oxidizes in air, making both synthesis and device operation difficult under ambient conditions; this can be addressed through encapsulation, passivation, or chemical functionalization. Current synthesis methods, such as molecular beam epitaxy on metal substrates, are costly, substrate‐limited, and difficult to scale, while also producing multiple polymorphs that complicate phase and property control; advances in scalable growth techniques (e.g., CVD‐based routes), substrate engineering, and precise tuning of growth parameters are needed to achieve uniform, large‐area films with controlled structures. For device applications, challenges include poor environmental stability, high contact resistance, and damage or contamination during transfer from growth substrates to insulating device platforms; these issues can be mitigated by developing clean transfer methods, interface and contact engineering, and integrating borophene into protected heterostructures with other 2D materials. Overall, progress requires simultaneous improvements in synthesis scalability, structural control, stability enhancement, and device‐level integration strategies. Recent advances in borophene research indicate that future work will focus on developing scalable, stable synthesis methods (including large‐area growth, substrate engineering, doping, and functionalization) to overcome current challenges in environmental stability and mass production, enabling integration into real devices; alongside this, tunable properties and heterostructures are being explored to tailor borophene for next‐generation electronics, flexible and high‐performance sensors, energy storage and conversion systems, and biomedical interfaces, with predictive design (e.g., AI‐assisted modeling) and novel fabrication strategies accelerating its transition from lab‐scale synthesis to practical applications in nanoelectronics, optoelectronics, catalysts and biosensing platforms. Borophene has rapidly emerged as a versatile platform for next‐generation devices due to its unique combination of mechanical flexibility, metallic conductivity, and tunable electronic structure. Salient borophene‐based devices include ultrafast transistors, flexible sensors, high‐capacity batteries, supercapacitors, and hydrogen evolution or CO 2 reduction catalysts, exploiting its high surface area and active sites. Beyond devices, borophene enables the exploration of novel physical phenomena such as anisotropic superconductivity, Dirac fermions, topological phases, and strain‐engineered electronic properties, opening new avenues in quantum materials research. Emerging technologies leverage these features in heterostructures, nanoscale energy conversion, spintronics, and nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), while computational design and AI‐guided synthesis are accelerating discovery, positioning borophene as a frontier material bridging fundamental science and transformative technological applications. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. Acknowledgements This research was funded partially by the Australian Government through the Australian Research Council (ARC). Professor Ajayan Vinu is the recipient of an ARC Discovery Project (DP240102528) funded by the Australian Government. Prof. Vinu and Prof. Sankar acknowledge the support of the SPARC award (SPARC/2018‐2019/P984/SL). Open access publishing facilitated by The University of Newcastle, as part of the Wiley ‐ The University of Newcastle agreement via the Council of Australasian University Librarians. Biographies Zhixuan Li is a Ph.D. candidate at Global Innovative Centre for Advanced Nanomaterials, the University of Newcastle. She received her bachelor's degree in chemistry at University of Science and Technology of China, and master's degree in chemical engineering at Monash University. Currently, she is working on the development of 2D materials for energy storage and catalytic applications. Dr. Jeyaraman Sankar is a Professor of Chemistry at the IISER Bhopal, where he has served since 2009. He earned his Ph.D. from IIT Kanpur in 2006 under Prof. T. K. Chandrashekar and was a Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Fellow at Kyoto University in 2008. His research focuses on π‐conjugated functional materials such as perylenebisimides, multi‐corrole and multi‐porphyrin arrays, BODIPy derivatives, and Schiff‐base chemosensors for optoelectronic, catalytic, and molecular recognition applications. He has also served IISER Bhopal in leadership roles including Dean of Faculty Affairs, Dean of Research & Development, and Chief Vigilance Officer. Prashant Kumar is presently a full Professor at University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun since August 2025. Earlier he held position at the University of Newcastle (Australia) and GNS Science, Wellington. PhD (Physics) in 2009, he had postdoctoral stints with renowned scientists: Prof. C.N.R. Rao at JNCASR Bangalore (2009‐2012) and Profs. Tim S. Fisher/Gary J. Cheng at Purdue University (2012‐2015). Being awarded the prestigious Ramanujan Fellowship (Government of India), he served as Assistant Professor at IIT Patna (2015‐2021). His research focuses on crystal growth of undoped/doped/hybrid 2D materials under extreme thermodynamic conditions, exotic quantum states and applications in electronic/excitonic/spintronic gadgets/sensors, high power/rate energy generation/storage, and catalytic green hydrogen production. Ajayan Vinu is the Laureate professor and Director of GICAN at the University of Newcastle. He was previously working as a full professor and ARC Future Fellow at the University of South Australia and the University of Queensland. Before coming to Australia, he had been working as a research group leader at the National Institute for Materials Science in Japan. 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