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EXTENSION
and other factors that influence adoption of agricultural and home economics practices
By MEREDITH C. WILSON and GLADYS GALLUP
Extension Service Circular 495, May 1954 FEDERAL EXTENSION SERVICE • U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
EXTENSION
and other factors that influence adoption of agricultural and home economics practices
By MEREDITH C. WILSON and GLADYS GALLUP
Extension Service Circular 495, May 1954
Reprinted for special use December 1964
FEDERAL EXTENSION SERVICE • U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
FOREWORD
This bulletin is concerned with improvement in the use of ex- tension teaching methods. It is intended primarily as a reference manual for inservice extension workers, prospective extension workers and graduate students in extension education.
The extension worker's job is presented as an educational un- dertaking. The essential steps in the adult learning and teaching process are outlined. Important factors which affect the adop- tion of improved farm and home practices are discussed. The various teaching methods are compared on the basis of relative effectiveness and extent of use. Each individual method is ex- amined critically. Essential elements, principal advantages, and limitations are identified. "How-to-do-it" instructions are left to other publications listed in literature cited or in the selected bibliography.
The authors have drawn upon pertinent research relating to formal education, psychology, and salesmanship. Greatest em- phasis is placed on the findings of studies in extension education conducted over a 30-year period by the Cooperative Extension Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the State Agricultural Colleges.
This publication replaces The Effectiveness of Extension in Reaching Rural People (Dept. Bull. 1384), Extension Methods and Their Relative Effectiveness (Tech. Bull. 106), and Relative Costs of Extension Methods Which Influence Changes in Farm and Home Practices (Tech. Bull. 125). now out of print.
n
Contents
Page
The Extension job 1
Distinguishing Characteristics of Extension 2
Methods of extension teaching 3
Extension methods classified 3
According to use 4
According to form 5
The process of education 4
What is education? 4
Motivation is basic both to learning and teaching . 5
Essentials in adult learning 6
Steps in teaching 6
The learning and teaching processes are inter- related 9
How can the effectiveness of extension teaching be
measured ? 10
Effectiveness of methods compared 12
Practices influenced by methods 13
Methods by groups 14
Agricultural practices 14
Home economics practices 14
Effectiveness of methods in relation to cost 16
Types of methods compared 16
Repetition with variety 18
Influence of education upon coverage and
ratio of takes to exposures 20
Interrelationship of methods 20
Factors influencing adoption of practices 22
Age and previous educational training of the
learner * 22
Size of farm, tenure, and location of farm and
home 23
Socioeconomic status of the farmer and home- maker 24
Contact with extension workers 24
Other factors 25
Subject matter in relation to methods 26
Unlike subject matter 26
Like subject matter 26
Page
The different methods analyzed 33
Individual contact methods 33
Farm and home visits 33
Office calls 36
Telephone calls 38
Correspondence 39
The result demonstration 40
Group methods 43
The method demonstration 43
General meetings 47
Lecture meetings 48
Use of visual aids in meetings 49
Group discussion 50
Program planning meetings 52
Field or barn meetings 52
Tours 53
Achievement days 53
Mass media methods 55
Publications (bulletins, pamphlets, circulars,
and leaflets) 55
Readability 57
News stories 58
Circular letters 61
Radio 63
Television 64
Exhibits 66
Indirect influence 68
Teaching by local leaders 69
Summary 73
Selecting teaching methods to increase the ex- tension worker's effectiveness 74
Literature cited 77
Selected bibliography 78
Figures 79
Tables 80 •
Ill
IV
EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS
and other factors that influence adoption of agricultural and home
economics practices
By MEREDITH C. WILSON, Director, and GLADYS GALLUP, Assistant Director, D
Extension Research and Training
ivision or
THE EXTENSION JOB
Cooperative extension work in agriculture and home economics assists people engaged in farming and homemaking to utilize more fully their own re- sources, and those available to them, in solving cur- rent problems and in meeting changing economic and social conditions. Through the educational and service approach rural people are stimulated to make changes that result in more efficient production and marketing of farm products, conservation of natural resources, more comfortable homes, improved health, and more satisfying family and community life.
The conduct of Extension may be thought of as involving four reasonably distinct yet closely inte- grated stages. A brief description of each will help to clarify the place of methods in the extension teaching cycle.
Stage 1. A sound program meets the needs of rural people. — From the many things that might be done to advance the general aim of Extension, it is necessary to select for Extension's attention currently, and over a period of years, those
problems which represent the significant needs and interests of rural men, women, and youth. The Extension program must be both practical of accomplishment and within the scope of the legislation applicable to the Cooperative Ex- tension Service.
Stage 2. An intelligent plan of action is basic. — Once the problems have been identified and so- lutions agreed upon, the next stage in logical sequence is the development of the step-by-step procedure to be followed in putting the program into operation. This involves the setting of specific objectives, the selection of teaching methods, the scheduling of activities, the seeking of cooperation from nonextension agencies, and the dividing of responsibility among extension staff members.
Stage 3. Persistent, painstaking execution of the plan of action as outlined is necessary. — A good plan of work presents the most effective way, considering all the circumstances, to ac- complish the teaching objectives in line with the overall aim of Extension. The carrying out of the teaching methods and related activities in- corporated in the plan of work requires sys-
Extension links sources of information to farm homes
tematic, patient, and persistent effort on the part of the extension workers involved. Unless things are done at the scheduled time and in proper sequence, much of the advantage of the prepared plan is lost. Emergencies and mis- cellaneous duties must not be permitted to interfere with the aggressive prosecution of the core program and plan developed to meet the needs of rural people.
Stage 4. Evaluation of progress and accom- plishments guides the way. — Measurement from time to time to determine the progress made in carrying out the plan, and the extent to which program objectives are being reached, makes possible the adjustment of methods and activi- ties to developing situations. Evaluation helps in the revision of the program at stated intervals to keep it abreast of the problems solved and the new problems arising. Evaluation is basic to improvement of the conduct of Extension.
The conduct of Extension involves four distinct, yet closely integrated stages
Active participation in all the four stages by rural men, women, and youth promotes learning. Rural people should assist in identifying farm and home problems; have a part in deciding upon attainable goals; help in outlining appropriate action plans, including teaching methods and activities; and assist in evaluating the progress made.
It is obvious that in all stages of the conduct of Extension, the choice of teaching methods and acti- vities employed will have a direct bearing upon the success attained in advancing each stage of the ex- tension process. Progress in each succeeding stage is, to a substantial degree, dependent upon the ap- propriateness of the methods and procedures used in carrying out the stage of development immediately preceding. All become a part of a comprehensive, integrated approach to the educational growth of people to the end that the broad purpose of Exten- sion may be furthered.
DISTINGUISHING
CHARACTERISTICS
OF EXTENSION
Extension is concerned with two basic assignments:
1. The dissemination of useful and practical information relating to agriculture and home economics.
2. The practical application of such knowledge to farm and home situations.
Though the educational or teaching approach is emphasized in promoting these assignments, there are striking contrasts between extension teaching and classroom teaching. The classroom teacher is concerned with the educational growth of children and youth preparing for life. Extension works with adults and youth in actual life situations. Participa- tion in extension activities is wholly voluntary, while school attendance is largely compulsory. Classroom teaching is formalized into sequence grades and subject-matter courses. The content of extension teaching may encompass the entire range of agri- cultural and home economics subject matter, center- ing for the moment on the interest or need of the individual in connection with an immediate problem. Extension teaching is often so informal that it is difficult at times to distinguish educational activities from service activities.
Extension teaching is sometimes compared to com- mercial salesmanship; it is pointed out that the extension worker is primarily engaged in the "selling" of ideas. Certainly, many of the techniques employed bv good salesmen in selling physical goods and serv- ices have direct application in Extension. But the one is a commercial transaction conducted for private profit, and the other is an educational process con- ducted by a public agency to bring about changes in the attitude, skill, or knowledge of the individual.
The extension worker sells ideas
METHODS OF EXTENSION TEACHING
The teaching methods employed by the extension worker directly influence the effectiveness of his efforts. This is true whether the extension teacher is a county extension agent or a State subject-matter specialist or whether the learner is a farmer, farm woman, farm youth, or nonfarm person. An under- standing of the capabilities and limitations of the available teaching tools is essential to their intelligent selection and efficient use.
The extension worker must recurringly exercise judgment in choosing the working tools which he considers appropriate to accomplish the task at hand. The method or combination of methods is sought which is likely to be more effective than other methods in attaining the desired goal. That goal may be the development of an awareness of a problem, the stimulation of a group to organize for cooperative action, the training of individuals in the skills of farming and homemaking, or obtaining the acceptance of the findings of scientific research in the production, marketing, and consumption of agricul- tural products. Optimum accomplishment from the entire year's teaching effort as well as the returns from a single teaching activity must always be the concern of the extension worker.
The problem faced by the extension worker in choosing appropriate tools for the various teaching jobs to be done is not an easy one at best. The exten- sion teacher is attempting to influence the behavior of large numbers of people in life situations which are subject to continual change as the result of economic and social developments. The farmers and home- makers of the county have diverse interests. They vary greatly in educational training, age levels, and other characteristics that influence their response to educational stimuli. The on-going extension pro- gram represents all stages of development from new lines of work just starting to projects which will need little further attention.
The number of county extension workers and their special qualifications will also have a direct bearing upon the intensity of the teaching effort and will influence the emphasis placed on certain methods of teaching. In each instance a different set of cir- cumstances surrounds the teaching problem and must be considered in choosing methods which are likely to be productive of the changes in behavior being sought.
EXTENSION METHODS CLASSIFIED
In planning the learning situations and arranging the teaching activities, the extension worker draws upon a variety of teaching approaches. The judg- ment exercised in selecting the most appropriate
method for the particular teaching situation and the skill with which the working tool is used have a direct bearing upon the amount and quality of the learning resulting from the teaching effort.
The methods employed in extension teaching may be classified in several different ways. Regardless of the classification, whether by form or by number and nature of contacts, it is well to keep in mind that in practice the teacher-learner situation frequently involves the associated use of two or more kinds of teaching methods. For example, the office call in which oral communication dominates may also in- volve the use of written or visual materials prepared for general public distribution or for use in meetings.
Under Methods Classified According to Use methods are grouped according to the number and nature of the contacts inherent in their use. (p. 4)
Under the first category are the individual con- tacts. These are often associated with a request for information on a specific farm or home problem.
The second category of methods involves contact with a substantial number of people assembled in an isolated group or in one of a series of related groups. These include all kinds of meetings for all kinds of purposes. .
Both of these categories involve face-to-face con- tacts.
The third category of methods includes the media employed by extension workers to disseminate in- formation to and influence large numbers of people.
In addition to the conscious dissemination of in- formation through the various methods available to the extension teacher, the indirect spread of infor- mation resulting from specific activities and from the total teaching effort is very substantial. The amount of indirect influence and factors affecting it becomes an important consideration in evaluating extension accomplishment.
Methods Classified According to Form are illustrated below. Bulletins, leaflets, news articles, personal and circular letters, all depend largely upon the written word, though illustrations are often used as visual aids to the reading of the printed message, (p. 5)
The use of the spoken word characterizes the vari- ety of special and general meetings held or partici- pated in by extension workers. Motion pictures, lantern slides, charts, and other visual aids are fre- quently employed to build attendance, maintain interest, or increase the teaching effectiveness of meetings. Farm and home visits, office and tele- phone calls also involve oral communication. The radio is, of course, limited to the oral method of presentation.
Objective or visual methods of teaching that de- pend almost entirely upon the eye appeal include result demonstrations, exhibits, posters, motion pictures, slides, charts, and similar visual aids. Visual aids are frequently used to supplement the spoken and written word. Method demonstrations, meetings at result demonstrations, and television programs are usually combinations of visual mate- rial and oral presentation.
Methods classified according to USE
INDIVIDUAL CONTACTS
GROUP CONTACTS
MASS CONTACTS
V.
Farm and home visits. Office calls. Telephone calls. Personal letters. Result demonstrations.
Method demonstration meetings.
Leader training meetings.
Lecture meetings.
Conferences and discussion meet- ings.
Meetings at result demonstrations.
Tours.
Schools.
Miscellaneous meetings.
V"
Bulletins. Leaflets. News stories. Circular letters. Radio. Television. Exhibits. Posters.
J
Indirect influence
THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION
Before moving on to a detailed consideration of the various methods used in extension, a brief review of the basic elements in the processes of learning and teaching may contribute to a better understanding of the data and other material presented and their implications for the extension teacher.
WHAT IS EDUCATION?
Education may be defined as the production of changes in human behavior. The aim of extension education, therefore, is to influence people to make those desirable changes in their behavior that con- tribute to better farming and homemaking. The changes in behavior of those taught by extension workers may take three forms:
1. An increased amount of useful information or understanding, such as more knowledge about
the basic seven foods, grass-legume pasture, or the marketing of agricultural products.
2. New or improved skills, abilities, and habits, such as how to cook vegetables to prevent undue loss of vitamins, how to harvest and store legume hay to retain its feeding quali- ties, and how to select and package produce for market.
3. More desirable attitudes and ideals, such as developing a conviction that balanced diets help maintain good health, that it is impor- tant to control soil erosion, and that co- operative action may be necessary to solve a marketing problem.
Effective education contributes to the individual's understanding, helps him to improve his abilities, and develops in him more desirable attitudes.
The production of changes in behavior, through education, implies on the part of the extension teacher a clear understanding of:
1. The specific changes in knowledge, under- standing, skill, or attitude which are de- sirable.
2. How people learn — how people can be in- fluenced to change.
3. How to teach — knowledge of extension teaching methods and skill in using methods best adapted to bring about the desired change in behavior.
MOTIVATION IS BASIC BOTH TO LEARNING AND TO TEACHING
People are motivated to learn if they can satisfy a basic need through learning. Basic needs, wants, desires, motives, incentives, or urges have been classi- fied in a variety of ways. The following categories are reasonably adequate for extension teaching pur- poses:
1. The desire for security — economic, social, psychological, and spiritual security.
2. The desire for new experience — adventure, new interests, new ideas, new friends, and new ways of doing things.
3. The desire for affection or response — com- panionship, gregariousness, and social-mind- edness; the need for a feeling of belonging.
4. The desire for recognition — status, prestige, achievement, and being looked up to.
These are all powerful motivating forces stated in a general way.
A more specific classification of the incentives for adult learning has been given by Dr. Irving Lorge: (8, p. 77).'
1. People Want To Gain
a. Health
b. Time
1 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited,
p. 77.
Methods classified according to FORM
WRITTEN
SPOKEN
OBJECTIVE or VISUAL
Bulletins. Leaflets. News articles. Personal letters. Circular letters.
V.
General and special meetings of all kinds.
Farm and home visits.
Office calls. Telephone calls. Radio.
Result demonstrations.
Exhibits.
Posters.
Motion pictures, charts, slides, and other visual aids.
Method demonstration meetings.
Meetings at result demonstrations.
Meetings involving motion pictures, charts, and other visual aids.
Television.
V
^
Indirect influence
c. Money
d. Popularity
e. Improved appearance
f. Security in old age
g. Praise from others h. Comfort
i. Leisure
j. Pride of accomplishment
k. Advancement: business, social
1. Increased enjoyment
m. Self-confidence
n. Personal prestige
2. They Want To Be
a. Good parents
b. Sociable and hospitable
c. Up to date
d. Creative
e. Proud of their possessions
f. Influential over others
g. Gregarious h. Efficient
i. "First" in things
j. Recognized as authorities
3. They Want To Do
a. Express their personalities
b. Resist domination by others
c. Satisfy their curiosity
d. Emulate the admirable
e. Appreciate beauty
f. Acquire or collect things
g. Win others' affection
h. Improve themselves generally
4. They Want To Save
a. Time
b. Money
c. Work
d. Discomfort
e. Worry
f. Doubts
g. Risks
h. Personal embarrassment
It becomes the job of the extension worker to
understand the basic wants or incentives of the people
with whom he is working. He should show the
learner how to satisfy these basic wants by learning
s<&
People are motivated to learn if they can satisfy a basic need
new things. The extension worker should find the personal goals of the learner and tie in his teaching with these goals. Interest in better health for herself and family may stimulate the homemaker to learn better food selection and preparation. The need for a larger income may be the incentive to the farmer to learn how milk can be produced more profitably by feeding dairy cows according to milk production.
When people are shown how learning a subject will enable them to gratify a desire or realize a need, they are being motivated to learn.
A great impetus is given to learning when the learner can see that what he learns will be of im- mediate value to him in making his own life more satisfying.
A desire or a want, therefore, is the most definite and dynamic of motives, from the educational point of view.
ESSENTIALS IN ADULT LEARNING
Of the many requirements in adult learning, four have important application to Extension:
1. Adults learn best (most rapidly) when they have a strong desire to learn. — Many people come to Extension wanting information and assistance on definite problems. They al- readv have a desire to learn, and the stronger their desire the more intensive will be the mental and physical effort which they will put forth. These are the people easiest to teach. Manv others (and these include a group which Extension has not been reaching effectively because of limited staff) have but a faint and confused desire to learn. With them this desire must be aroused. They are the people most difficult to teach.
2. Adults learn best when they have clear goals. No one, either as an individual or as a member of a group, can act to the best purpose until he has definitelv decided what he wants to do. When the iearner realizes what he needs to learn in order to accomplish what he wants, he is well on the wav in the learning process. When the learner decides to act, energy is released which can be put into action.
Only a limited number of attainable goals should be undertaken at one time. It is much better for the learner to decide on a few easv goals that can each be mastered in turn, than to fail because he set up too many or too difficult goals. Where the learner does not have worthy goals the extension worker may well gradually direct the teaching toward better goals. Success or failure is significant onlv with reference to one's goal. In the absence of a goal or objective one response is no more significant than another and no evaluation of progress can be made.
3. Adults learn best when they put forth an effort to learn. — A third requirement in the learning process is to put forth effort. Each person must do his own learning because no one else can learn for him. Learning is an indi- vidual matter. People develop skills, habits, and the ability to solve problems through practice, a step-by -step process. What is practiced is learned.
Continued practice is necessary for the retention of learning and for the development of habits. A farmer has not necessarily learned to follow a recommended practice because he tried it. He has learned it if he continues the practice.
The extension worker needs to get the learner to do whatever is to be learned with increas- ing expertness and with a better and better quality of action. It is not only the number of times an action is repeated that determines the rate of learning, but the intensity or effort which the learner puts into each repetition. One vivid, intense action may be enough to learn, whereas a score of half-hearted repetitions may be relatively fruitless of learning.
4. Adults learn best when they receive satisfaction from what they have learned. — It is now well established that learners seek success in what they do and that they tend to avoid situations which frustrate them. They learn best when there is some reward for learning, in terms of needs satisfied or a general feeling of accomplishment. Things learned which produce satisfying action tend to be repeated. The farmer who obtains a larger yield of corn by planting hybrid seed is likely to continue this practice. Satisfaction from one learning experience stimulates interest in other improvements. It is frequently necessary for the extension worker to help the learner to see that he is moving toward the desired goal and to help him recognize and appreciate the progress that he is making.
All four factors in the learning process are inter- related and together make a true learning situation. A strong desire to learn leads to the establishment of a learning goal. Knowing what one wants to do encourages purposeful action. Meaningful repetition of that action strengthens learning. The satisfaction derived from the successful attain- ment of a worthwhile objective stimulates desire to continue learning toward other related goals.
STEPS IN TEACHING
In the preceding discussion of the learning process, attention has been focused upon the learner — the
farmer, homemaker, or rural youth. In order to bring about the desired changes in the behavior of people, the extension teacher needs to organize ac- tivities so that there will be repetition of the desired behavior, each successive repetition building on the one before it. This conscious attention to organiza- tion of teaching activities in a sequence greatly increases the efficiency of learning. This is the ad- vantage of an educational program over incidental and occasional exposure to learning. The extension teacher, therefore, plans and arranges situations and activities whereby the thing to be learned is called to the attention of the prospective learner; his interest developed, desire aroused, and action promoted. In addition to supplying information to those desiring to learn, the extension worker creates a desire for information on the part of those who are indifferent to improvements in farming and homemaking. In some instances it may even be necessary to overcome strong resistance to change. The skill with which the extension worker sizes up the learning situation of individuals and employs the techniques appropri- ate to leading each individual through the succeeding stages of the learning process determines the effec- tiveness of extension teaching.
Obviously, the steps in teaching closely parallel the four requirements in the learning process. Only the point of view is different. The repetition in the following six steps in effective teaching will further serve to emphasize the basic elements in the teacher- learner relationship.
*&tirk
Steps in teaching
Step 1. Getting the attention of the learner. — Farmers and homemakers are not always aware of the improvements they can make as the result of scientific research and the successful experi- ence of other farmers and homemakers. In such instances the first task of the extension teacher is to direct the attention of the pros-
pective learner to the new or better idea. Until the individual's attention has been focused upon the change that is considered desirable, there is no recognition of a problem to be solved or a want to be satisfied. Attention is the starting point to the arousing of interest. The famous Navv recruiting poster that says "Join the Navy" and pictures a smartly dressed petty officer surveying an enchanting scene in a far-off land is an example of a most successful attention- getting device.
Step 2. Stimulating the learner's interest. — Once attention has been captured it becomes possible for the teacher to appeal to the basic needs or urges of the individual and arouse his interest in further consideration of the idea. The teacher, in easy stages, reveals to the learner how the new skill or practice will contribute to the learner's welfare. The teacher's message should be presented attractively and in a manner that requires little mental effort on the part of the learner. The short radio message presented in a pleasing voice; the well-illustrated extension leaflet, with short, common, well-known words, and short sentences and paragraphs that make for easy reading; are good interest -building tools. The presenting of but one idea at a time, which is definite and specific, is another important factor in building interest. The Navy recruit- ing poster referred to above does not mention "Joining the Army" or "Joining the Air Force." It does not refer to the Armed Forces as a whole. It says "Join the Navy," and to develop interest in that specific idea the words "and See the World" are added, appealing to the basic urge of travel and adventure likely to be strong in young men of the age desired for the Navy.
Step 3. Arousing the learner's desire for infor- mation.— The teacher is concerned with the continued stimulation of the learner's interest in the new idea or better practice until that interest becomes a desire or motivating- force sufficiently strong to compel action. The teacher convinces the learner that the informa- tion applies directly to the learner's situation; that the doing of the thing will satisfv a sig- nificant want or need of the learner. The news story or circular letter that tells of the successful use of the practice by another farmer or home- maker and the tour that provides opportunitv to observe how others are solving the same problem, are methods frequently used by the extension worker to build the beginner's interest to the point of contemplating action.
Step 4. Convincing the learner that he should act. — Action follows when desire, conviction, and the prospect of satisfaction make it easier for the person to act than not to act. The exten- sion teacher sees to it that the learner knows
what action is necessary and just how to take that action. He also makes sure that the learner visualizes the action in terms of his own peculiar situation, and has acquired confidence in his own ability to do the thing. Visits to result demonstrations to observe the results and weigh the proof of the practice under local conditions; participation in a method demonstration meet- ing where, in addition to hearing the explanation and seeing the act performed by the extension teacher, those in the audience are provided an opportunity to handle the special equipment and try out the better way; are examples of methods that may be used to convert interest and desire into conviction.
Step 5. Getting action by the learner. — Unless conviction is converted into action the teaching effort is fruitless. It is the job of the extension teacher to make it easy for the learner to act. If the farm or home improvement to be made requires unusual material or equipment, it is the responsibility of the extension worker to arrange for a convenient source, at a fair price, and in the recommended form. In other words, blocks and annoyances that might prevent ac- tion should be anticipated by the extension teacher and appropriate steps taken to remove or bypass them. Teaching farmers how to check an outbreak of a serious insect pest by using a new chemical preparation in a definite way will not be followed by action by farmers unless the new chemical can be readily obtained. If special equipment is needed to apply the chemical that, too, must be arranged for.
Step 6. Making certain that the learner obtains satisfaction from his action. — The end product of the extension teaching effort is the satis- faction that comes to the farmer, homemaker, or youth as the result of solving a problem, meeting a need, acquiring a new skill, or some other change in behavior. Followup by the extension teacher helps the learner to evaluate the progress made, strengthens the satisfactions, minimizes the annoyances, and builds the learn- er's confidence in his ability to continue the action with increasing satisfaction. Because of the importance of satisfaction as a motivating force to further learning, the goals of learning should be kept simple and within the ability of the learner. The extension teacher should consider the possibility of breaking down diffi- cult jobs into smaller ones that are easier to accomplish. The satisfaction and confidence resulting from the successful completion of each small job will then lead logically to the accom- plishment of the difficult jobs. "A satisfied customer is the best advertisement" applies to the extension worker as well as to the retail merchant.
The means of agencies available to the extension teacher in arranging learning situations are not equally suited for use in all six of the teaching steps outlined above. Certain methods, like the radio, the news article, the poster, and the exhibit, may attract the learner's attention and stimulate his interest. It may take a personal visit to the farm or home to attract the attention of certain individuals. Other methods, such as the bulletin, the circular letter, the result demonstration, the method demonstration, and the discussion meeting may convince the learner that he should and can make the desired change. The teaching activity that sets off the action may be the farm or home visit, the office call, or any one of the various teaching tools utilized by the extension worker.
Even though the various teaching methods are not equally suited to advance each of the different steps in teaching, each method may under certain cir- cumstances make a contribution to each step. The steps themselves may also at times blend in with each other and lose their clear-cut identity-
THE LEARNING AND TEACHING PROCESSES ARE INTERRELATED
The following hypothetical example of how a homemaker-mother learns to serve balanced meals as the result of learning situations provided by Extension may serve to illustrate the close inter- relationship between the requirements of learning and the steps in teaching. With a different problem and a different set of circumstances, quite different teaching methods might need to be employed.
farmer
wants.
a.
b. c.
An illustration of how teaching and learning take place. Learner — Wife of dairy farmer. Teacher — County home demonstration agent.
WANT or need—
1. As a homemaker and mother of three young children, the wife of the dairy
has certain general and definite
Among them are: Better health for herself and family.
Attractive children. Better appearance and a trim figure for herself.
2. To satisfy these wants the homemaker needs to know what kinds of foods con- stitute an adequate diet and how to prepare such foods so that they retain their health-building qualities.
ATTENTION is gained—
1. She sees the home demonstration agent's exhibit of a day's well-balanced diet — breakfast, dinner, and supper — at the county fair.
INTEREST is gradually aroused—
1. She hears a series of talks by extension workers on the radio about:
a. Balanced meals for good health.
b. What is a balanced diet?
c. Importance of a balanced diet in weight control.
2. She reads articles on the value of milk, green leafy and yellow vegetables, and vitamin C foods in the home demonstra- agent's column in the local newspaper.
One homemaker' s achievement
better nutrition for her family, and a trim figure for herself
DESIRE to serve a balanced diet becomes strong —
1. She puts forth effort to learn more about balanced diets by attending a community meeting where an illustrated talk on the subject is given by a local extension leader.
2. She develops an understanding of what constitutes a balanced diet and its relation to good health and a trim figure.
CONVICTION—
1. She becomes convinced that her current meals are not well balanced and that certain foods are not being cooked
properly.
2. She becomes convinced that by serving less bread, pastry, and cake, and by adding more fresh vegetables, milk, and fresh fruits, she and her family will have a better diet.
3. She becomes convinced that well-bal- anced meals take but little more time to plan and are no harder to prepare than her present meals.
ACTION—
1. She decides to serve better meals.
2. She attends a method demonstration meeting on meal preparation, where she has the opportunity to ask questions and to observe short cuts in preparing meals.
3. She tries serving better balanced meals in her home.
4. Habit is established through the con- tinued serving of better meals.
SATISFACTION is derived from—
1. Knowledge that she is providing her family with balanced diets.
2. Favorable reaction of family members to changes in meals.
3. Good growth and development of the children.
4. Compliments from friends and neighbors who notice her improved appearance.
HOW CAN THE
EFFECTIVENESS OF
EXTENSION TEACHING
BE MEASURED?
Improvement in the use of methods in extension teaching implies the necessity of making measure- ments and accountings. It involves the scientific way of collecting and weighing the facts. Things cannot be taken for granted. Valid evidence of a reliable and objective nature must be substituted for unsupported opinion and wishful thinking.
How does one determine whether or not extension teaching produces the desired results? What facts are needed to make a scientific appraisal of the con- tribution of the different methods utilized by the extension worker for teaching?
10
The number of students enrolled in the courses given by a particular instructor and the grades made by students as determined by oral and written examinations and other formal testing procedures provide suitable means of determining the accom- plishment of the classroom teacher. The success of the commercial salesman is usually expressed in volume of product or service sold.
For the extension worker the number of office calls, farm and home visits, bulletins distributed, attend- ance at meetings, 4-H Club members enrolled, 4-H projects completed, and similar record and report data, provide some evidence of the numbers of people benefited by his efforts. Ascertaining the number of people who read extension information articles appearing in newspapers and farm journals or who listen to an extension radio program involves sampling the potential audience. But all such data are primarily indications of coverage of Extension Service clientele by the extension teaching effort.
Unless some change in the behavior attributable to extension teaching has taken place, the farmer, home- maker, youth, or other person reached by extension has not learned and the extension worker has not taught. The broad informal nature of extension education makes it difficult to obtain satisfactory evidence of resulting changes in people. Extension's "students," however, are in actual life situations where the point of view, skill, or knowledge learned can frequently be put to immediate use on the farm, in the home, or in connection with community activities. This makes it possible to ascertain with a high degree of certainty when a real change has resulted from the teacher- learner relationship. There is no question about the kitchen being remodeled, the land being terraced, or the cooperative being in operation. It becomes a matter of discovering the evidence of change and
establishing whether the change is due to extension teaching directly or indirectly, or is the result of nonextension sources of information and learning.
The Census provides useful data on changes in farming and rural living that take place over a period of years. Though valuable, such data do not separate the progress resulting from extension effort from the contributions toward the same ends made by vocational schools, farm organizations, the agricul- tural press, commercial firms, special governmental programs, and similar agencies.
The rural people themselves can best shed light on the extension effort that influenced them to make the reported changes. This is especially true when information on the relative effectiveness of the differ- ent methods and tools utilized by extension agents is desired.
The personal interview survey of the extent to which farmers and homemakers have adopted im- proved practices in response to extension stimuli is a practical scientific device for measuring the success of the teaching effort. It is also useful in evaluating the methods of teaching employed by extension workers. Many such surveys have been made in all parts of the United States as cooperative activities of the Federal Extension Service and the various State extension services.
The combined data from these studies throw light on the effectiveness of methods of extension teaching under the practical conditions faced by county extension workers. Obviously, this composite can reveal the capabilities and limitations of the several teaching means and agencies in general terms only. However, cues are provided as to factors which should be taken into consideration in predicting the effectiveness of individual methods under a particular set of circumstances.
Unless some change attributable to extension teaching has taken place, the farmer, homemaker, youth, or other per- son has not been taught
11
EFFECTIVENESS OF METHODS COMPARED
Two factors must be considered in evaluating the effectiveness of the various methods employed in extension teaching: (1) The success of the method in influencing people to make the desired changes, and (2) the amount of teaching effort expended on it.
The total influence of a particular means of teaching may be large because of the emphasis placed upon it in the extension teaching plan. For example, the large influence of the method demonstration meeting in home demonstration work is accounted for by its extensive use by home demonstration agents. Conversely, the total influence of a method may be relatively small owing to the little use made of it in extension teaching. This explains the relatively small influence of the home visit in chang- ing home economics practices.
A unit of time devoted to a particular method of teaching may yield much larger returns than a corresponding amount of effort expended on some other method of teaching. The news story, the radio, and the circular letter are striking examples of large returns per unit on the time devoted to these means of teaching by agricultural agents. The exhibit and the result demonstration are examples of teaching methods that influence comparatively few people per unit of the extension agent's time.
It is possible that the combined effectiveness of two or more methods used to complement each other may be greater than the sum of the effective- ness of the same methods when emploved independ- ently. The most successful extension teacher is, of course, the one who utilizes the teaching tools available to him in such a manner as to insure the largest possible accomplishment from the entire year's teaching effort.
Determining the influence and cost of the methods used in extension teaching with a satisfactory degree of accuracy is difficult. This difficultv is heightened by the informal nature of extension work and the numerous opportunities for learning available to rural people.
The field studies conducted by the Federal and State extension services over a 30-vear period supply much information of value in measuring the relative influence and effectiveness of the teaching tools em- ployed by Extension. Through personal interviews with farmers and homemakers residing in all sections of the country, records have been obtained on thou- sands of agricultural or homemaking practices which have been adopted wholly or partially as the result of extension influence. In each instance of change in practice the extension teaching methods contributing to the change were identified in so far as the individual farmer or homemaker could recog- nize such influence. It was sometimes difficult for
12
the farmer to recall the specific sources of information which led him to terrace his land, obtain an improved variety of seed, change his dairy ration, or start using some other practice taught by extension work- ers. In a substantial percentage of instances, how- ever, the connection between the change made bv the farmer or homemaker and the extension source of information was definite and clear cut.
Where the farmer or homemaker had obtained the information that led to the adoption of the practice from a neighbor and recognized the Extension Serv- ice as the source, the term "indirect influence" was used to designate the method responsible.
The sources of extension information that stood out in the farmer's or homemaker's mind may not always have included all the different extension teaching methods that contributed to the recognized change in practice. This is not of great significance, since the relative influence of many methods in a free situation was being measured, and not the total influence of a single method under controlled con- ditions. Certainlv the farmer or homemaker knows better than anyone else the extension teaching activi- ties to which he or she has been exposed and from which of these exposures he or she obtained informa- tion actually put into practice on the farm or in the home.
The collection of additional data and the applica- tion of new statistical tests modified onlv slightlv the conclusions drawn from the earlier surveys. The numerous opportunities afforded to check parts of the data against known facts tend to strengthen the conviction that the information obtained from farm- ers and homemakers provides a satisfactory index of the relative influence of the methods employed in extension teaching.
PRACTICES INFLUENCED BY METHODS
Comparable information is available regarding the extension methods that have contributed to the adoption of 44.788 practices by farmers and home- makers of 15.454 farms and homes located in 32 sample areas of 27 States (fig. 1). Only those prac- tices which the farmers and homemakers interviewed could associate with extension teaching are included. In order to bring out more clearly the relative in- fluence of the various methods employed in exten- sion teaching, the data have been corrected to the basis of 100 percent equals the total influence of all methods. Actually, of course, the influence of two or more methods was frequently reported in connec- tion with a single instance of adoption of a practice.
The indirect spread of information from one neigh- bor to another was reported in connection with approximately 1 practice in 5, or 19 percent. This indirect influence, which was recognized by farmers and homemakers as being an outgrowth of extension teaching without their being able to identify the specific methods responsible for directly influencing
FIGURE 1. — Relative frequency with which extension methods were reported as having influenced the adoption of improved practices. (Data corrected to the basis of 100 percent equal total influence of all methods.)
METHOD
Indirect influence .
Method demonstration meet- ings and leader training meetings
General meetings (including extension schools)
Farm or home visits.
News stories .
Bulletins
Office calls
Result demonstrations (adult and junior)
Circular letters.
Radic
Correspondence (including study courses)
Exhibits (including posters).
Telephone calls.
PERCENTAGE OF PRACTICES
44,788 practices — 1 5,454 farms and homes in 32 areas — 27 States 1923-41
19.0
18.2
14.6
10.8
3.0
1.2
1.1
'I
0.3
27,032 practices — 8,738 farms and homes in 12 areas— 1 2 States 1923-28 '
21.3
16.1
14.6
12.3
10.3
0.4
1 Wilson (16, p. 77).
2 Information on radio is for 24 areas and 4 areas respectively, since radio was not included in the methods checked in the first H areas studied.
13
the changes made by a neighbor in the first instance, is larger than the direct credit given any one of the methods commonly employed in extension teaching.
Meetings of all kinds, principally method demon- stration meetings and general meetings, were respon- sible for influencing one-third of the practices adopted, or 32.8 percent. Personal visits of exten- sion workers to farms or homes accounted for the adoption of 1 practice in every 9 or 10. Extension news stories appearing in newspapers and farm maga- zines were mentioned about as frequently as personal visits from extension workers. Bulletins, circulars, and other publications of the State agricultural colleges and experiment stations and of the United States Department of Agriculture contributed to the adoption of 1 practice in every 12. Information obtained by farmers and homemakers incident to calls at the county extension office was mentioned in connection with 6.5 practices out of each 100 adopted. ~ Result demonstrations conducted by adults, or by 4-H Club members incident to their projects, accounted for 6.1 practices in 100.
Circular letters mailed from the extension office, extension radio programs, individual correspond- ence, exhibits, and telephone calls to the extension office accounted in decreasing proportions for the remaining 6.5 practices in each 100 adopted.
The percentage comparisons given in figure 1 refer only to the relative influence of the various teaching methods in terms of change resulting from the extension teaching effort. They do not take into consideration public relations and other values growing out of their use. However, the relative standing of the methods as used by many different extension agents, in widely separated situations and under a variety of circumstances, with nonextension forces operating at will, provides a helpful guide to the use of teaching methods. This applies es- pecially in an ongoing extension program in which rural people participate of their own volition.
In an earlier bulletin (16) like data were pre- sented when the volume of practices involved was much smaller. The percentage figures from the earlier report are presented alongside the later percentage figures in figure 1 for the purpose of comparison. The proportionate rank of the meth- ods was not materially changed by the larger volume of field study data. The comparison suggests a high degree of constancy in the effectiveness of the various methods used in extension teaching.
FIGURE 2. — Relative influence of methods grouped according lo use (44,768 practices — 15,454 farms and homes in 32 areas, 27 States— 1923-41).
Indirect influence
Mass media methods
Group contact methods
Individual
contact
methods
100
80
60
40
20
PERCENIAGE OF PRACTICES ■100
80.9
57.6
24.8
from neighbor to neighbor — accounts for the re- maining 19 practices in each 100 practices adopted as a result of the total extension teaching effort (fig. 2).
AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
Of the total number of practices included in figure 1, there were 33,021 in the field of agriculture. The relative frequencies with which farmers re- ported the various methods as having contributed to the adoption of farm practices are given in fig- ure 3. Indirect influence heads the list, accounting for 23 out of every 100 practices adopted. The general meeting was credited with 15 practices in each 100, followed closely by farm visits and news stories, 13 and 12 practices in 100 respectively. Office calls and method demonstration meetings accounted for 8 practices each, while bulletins were reported as contributing to the adoption of 7, and result demonstrations 6 practices in each 100. Three practices in 100 were associated with circular letters, leaving the remaining 3 practices to the influence of radio, exhibits, and telephone calls.
METHODS BY GROUPS
Of each 100 practices adopted by farmers and homemakers as the result of extension, 25 are due to methods which fall in the "individual contact" group. An additional 33 practices are credited to "group contact" methods. Twenty-three of the practices changed result from "mass media" meth- ods, making a total of 81 practices that are asso- ciated with direct teaching effort. "Indirect influ- ence"— the passing on of extension information
HOME ECONOMICS PRACTICES
It is recognized that home economics extension workers place great emphasis upon the method demonstrations given at meetings of organized home demonstration clubs or similar groups. Whether this is due to the large proportion of home economics subject matter which involves the teaching of skills, or to the pattern of organization followed since the beginning of home demonstra- tion work, is debatable. The importance of method
14
demonstration meetings and training meetings conducted to teach local leaders how to give method demonstrations is clearly brought out in figure 3. Nearly half of the 11,767 home economics practices checked, or 47.4 percent, were associated in the minds of the homemakers interviewed with a
method demonstration meeting. The general meet- ing accounted for an additional 12 practices in each 100. Six home practices out of every 10 practices adopted by homemakers were, therefore, credited to some form of meeting. Bulletins accounted for nearly 1 practice in 8. Indirect influence was re-
FIGURK 3. — Relative frequency with which extension methods were reported as having influenced the adoption of agricultural and home economics practices. (Data corrected to the basis 100 percent equals total influence of all methods.)
METHOD
Indirect influence
General meetings (including extension schools)
Farm or home visits
News stories
Office calls
Method demonstration and leader training meetings
Bulletins
Result demonstrations (adult and junior)
Circular letters
Correspondence (including study courses)
Radio
Exhibits (including posters). .
Telephone calls
Agriculture 33,021 practices — 13,648 farms in 24 areas of 19 States— 1 923-35
22.8
PERCENTAGE OF PRACTICES T
15.2
13.0
11.8
8.4
8.3
7.5
5.9
3.3
1.3
1.3
0.8
0.4
:
i
Home economics 11,767 practices — 1 3,02$ homes in 26 areas of 23 States — 1923-41
7.8
12.5
4.7
3.8
0.7
47.4
11.6
6.7
2.1
0.4
1.1
1.1
0.1
:
15
ported for 8 practices in 100. The adoption of 7 practices in 100 was due to a result demonstration. In each 100 practices 5 were credited to home visits and 4 to news stories. The remaining 5.5 prac- tices in 100 were associated with circular letters, exhibits, radio, office calls, individual correspond- ence, and telephone calls, listed in order of importance.
In home economics, as well as agriculture, the relative standing of the various teaching methods has not been changed materially by the studies made since the 1929 report was issued.
EFFECTIVENESS OF METHODS IN RELATION TO COST
As pointed out above, the influence of a particular means of extension teaching may be affected by the extent of its use in the total teaching effort. In arriving at an understanding of the differences in effectiveness inherent in the teaching methods them- selves it becomes necessary to relate the influence of a method to the cost of that method. A previous study (I) revealed the very close correlation between extension time devoted to methods and the total extension cost of the same methods. It is believed that the relationships found to exist at that time between the practices adopted because the influence of the method and the cost of the method remain valid and sufficiently reliable for use in selecting methods best suited to current extension teaching situations. Figure 1 helps to confirm this point of view.
The relative cost and influence of extension teach- ing methods are arrayed for comparison in figure 4. Since no extension costs can be charged against indirect influence, the practices credited to the in- direct spread of information from neighbor to neigh- bor have been prorated among the direct teaching methods utilized by extension agents. A division of the percentage of practices credited to a method by the percentage of funds expended on the method, determines the ratio of practices adopted to cost for each method. These ratio figures bring out the differences in cost of obtaining the adoption of a practice by use of the different teaching methods.
Method demonstration meetings, including leader training meetings, received 19.6 percent of the teaching effort, expressed in dollars, and were credited with 20.5 percent of the practices changed. The effectiveness ratio of 1.04 for the method demonstration meeting is, therefore, about average or standard for the entire extension teaching effort. Result demonstrations, which are exceedingly heavy consumers of extension time, required 17.2 percent of extension funds and were credited with 8.1 percent of the practices changed. The effectiveness ratio for result demonstrations of 0.47 is less than half the average. Other wide variations in the ratios of practices adopted to costs will be noted. The effectiveness ratio for news stories and radio, 2.96, is almost three times the average and is highest
of all. Much of the actual expense of using news stories and radio in extension teaching is borne by the newspaper publisher or the radio station. But the real explanation of the high effectiveness ratios for these two means of extension teaching lies in the potentially large size of the reading and listening audience. Other methods with high effectiveness ratios are: Circular letters 1.83; the general meeting 1.43; office calls 1.56; bulletins 1.40; and farm or home visits 1.13.
In addition to the result demonstration the below average group includes telephone calls, correspond- ence, and exhibits, in that order. An extension dollar expended on news stories or radio accomplishes approximately 16 times as much teaching as a dollar expended on exhibits. It is, of course, possible that extension expenditures on the less efficient methods can at times be justified on other bases than the teaching of improved practices.
The various teaching means and agencies are arrayed in descending order in figure 5 on an index scale, with 100 representing the average accomplish- ment in terms of practices changed from a unit of extension teaching cost. Corresponding indices are also given to bring out differences in effectiveness of methods when used to teach agricultural and home economics practices. The variations in index values as between agriculture and home economics raises the question of possible influence of subject matter upon the effectiveness of teaching methods. The basic difference in the organization and conduct of these two broad lines of extension teaching, which make the use of certain methods of teaching more feasible or less feasible, offers another explanation.
Taken together, the news service and radio are at the top of the index scale both for agricultural practices and for home economics practices.2 Rela- tively, however, these media seem to be somewhat more effective in agriculture than in home economics. Circular letters, office calls, and farm visits are ap- parently much more effective extension tools for teaching agriculture than for teaching home eco- nomics. The general meeting and the bulletins are about equally efficient teaching methods in both fields. The method demonstration meeting (includ- ing leader training) appears to be much more ef- fective in teaching home economics practices than agricultural practices. In the case of result demon- stration and the other below average methods of teaching, the differences in index points as between agriculture and home economics are not particularly significant.
TYPES OF METHODS COMPARED
Earlier in this circular, methods classified according to use (p. 5), the means and agencies employed in extension teaching were placed in three classifi- cations depending upon use. In figure 6 the three classifications of methods — individual contacts.
2 Sufficient data are not yet available on the relative effectiveness of television in extension teaching.
16
group contacts, and mass contacts — are compared on three bases: (1) relative cost; (2) relative influence; and (3) index of effectiveness. Separate data for agricultural and home economics practices are also given.
About two-fifths of the extension teaching effort taken as a whole is devoted to individual contact teaching; one-third to group contact methods; and one-sixth to mass media. The percentages of prac- tices changed due to the influence of the three types
of teaching methods are, respectively, 34 percent, 40 percent, and 26 percent when the practices cred- ited to indirect influence are prorated among the direct teaching methods. The resulting indices of effectiveness are 82 for individual contacts, 120 for group contacts, and 159 for mass media contacts.
Home demonstration workers spend less time on individual contacts and more time on group contacts than do agricultural extension workers. Individual contact methods have a lower index of effectiveness
FIGURE 4. — Relative cosl and influence of extension teaching methods.1
METHOD
PERCENTAGE OF FUNDS DE- VOTED TO METHOD 2
PERCENTAGE OF IMPROVED PRACTICES CREDITED TO METHODS
RATIO OF PRACTICES ADOPTED TO COSTS
Method demon strations and leader training.
Result demonstra tions
Farm or home visits
General meetings (including exten sion schools). . .
Bulletins
Office calls
News stories and radio
Exhibits (including posters)
Correspondence (including study courses)
Circular letters.
Telephone calls.
19.6
17.2
13.7
13.3
4.9
4.2 j
4.2
1.3
1.1
20.5
15.4
19.0
14.6
2.3
0.5
1.04
0.47
1.13
1.43
1.40
1.56
2.96
0.18
0.42
1.83
0.44
1 Data given in Baker and Wilson. (I)- p. 77.
2 Percentage of extension expenditures not chargeable to teaching methods, 8.9.
3 Indirect influence prorated among direct teaching methods.
17
in home economics, 53, than in agriculture, 86. Group contact methods are much more effective in home economics, 155, than in agriculture, 111. Mass media in home economics extension appears to be less effective than group contact methods. In the case of agricultural extension, mass contact methods as a classification are much higher on the effectiveness scale than are group methods, which in turn are relatively more effective than individual contact methods.
REPETITION WITH VARIETY
In considering the influence of methods upon adoption of practices and the effectiveness of methods in relation to cost, the emphasis has been placed upon the relative influence and effectiveness of particular methods in comparison with other methods. That approach made it desirable to adjust the data on percentages of practices credited to methods to the basis, 100 percent equals the sum of
FIGURE 5. — I.ndex of effectiveness of extension methods in relation to cost. ' (One hundred represents the average returns
from one nnil of extension teaching cost.,)
METHOD
News stories and radio
Circular letters.
Offi,
General meetings (in- cluding extension schools)
PRACTICES ADOPTED PER UNIT OF COST EXPRESSED AS INDEX NUMBERS
296
183
156
143
Bulletins 140
Farm or home visits 113
Method demonstration meetings and leader training meetings
Result demonstrations
Correspondence (includ- ing study courses)
Telephone calls
Exhibits(including posters)
104
47
42
44
I
TOTAL
1 00 200 300
AGRICULTURE 0 100 200 300
328
219
166
145
142
114
78
44 wm
:
41 ■
13
HOME ECONOMICS 0 100 200 300
182
103
153
138
74
136
55
22
15
26
1 Data given in Baker and Wilson (I).
18
FIGURE 6. — Classifications of methods depending on use compared on the hases of relative cost, relative influence, and index
of effectiveness.1
CLASSIFICA- TION OF METHODS
ACCORDING TO USE
Individual contacts
Group contacts
Mass contacts
PERCENT OF FUNDS REQUIRED
D 10 20 30 40
PERCENT OF PRACTICES INFLUENCED
30 40
INDEX OF EFFECTIVENESS
Total 1 Data given in Baker and Wilson (/).
Agricultural
['". : \ Ho
)me economics
the influence of all methods. In practice, of course, two or more methods often contribute to the adop- tion of a single practice.
Studies (17) conducted by the Federal Extension Service in cooperation with State extension services reveal the close relationship between contact with extension teaching or other exposure to extension information and the adoption of recommended farm and home practices. In other words, the degree to which rural people are exposed to extension teaching through meetings, demonstrations, bulletins, news stories, radio talks, personal visits at office or farm, and the other methods of disseminating information, largely determines the extent of adoption of the practices being taught. This close relationship is illustrated by figure 7. As the number of different types of contacts or exposures to extension informa- tion increases from 1 to 9, the percentage of farmers or homemakers reporting changes in practices due to extension influence increases from 38 percent to 98 percent. The rate of increase in percentage adopting practices is greatest when the number of contacts with extension teaching rises from zero to 5 or 6 contacts per individual. If exposed to exten- sion information in 5 different ways, approximately 7 out of every 8 individuals change practices. It is obvious that if widespread response is desired farm people must be "exposed" to extension teaching
FIGURE 7. — Changes in hehavior as affected by number of kinds of exposure to extension information. (2,501 farmers, 869 homemakers.)
PERCENTAGE OF FARMERS
OR HOMEMAKERS CHANGING
PRACTICES
100
80
NUMBER OF CHANGES
IN PRACTICES PER
100 FAMILIES
1000
60
40
20
800
- 600
400
200
12 3 4 5 6 7
9 10 1 1 1 2 or
more
Number of different kinds of exposure to extension information.
19
FIGURE 8. — Ratio of "takes" to exposures for varying intensities of extension teaching. (12,081 exposures, 3,370 individuals).
PERCENTAGE OF EXPOSURES
CONTRIBUTING TO ADOPTION
OF PRACTICES
2 or more
60 40
20 0
-J
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1
1 23456789 10 11 1
Number of different kinds of exposures to extension information.
INFLUENCE OF EDUCATION UPON COVERAGE AND RATIO OF TAKES TO EXPOSURES
The problem of effectively reaching all segments of the extension clientele, the disadvantaged as well as the advantaged, appears to be primarily one of coverage or contact rather than lack of response to educational stimuli. It is. of course, more difficult for extension workers to get the same intensity of coverage of the disadvantaged groups as of the advantaged segments of the population, since the former are not so apt to participate in extension activities or otherwise seek extension assistance of their own volition.
When the 1,202 homemakers interviewed in sample areas of 5 States are grouped according to intensity of extension coverage and each resulting group is subdivided according to years of school attendance, the ratios of those changing behavior to those exposed to information are practically identical for the educational subgroups getting extension information with the same degree of intensity (fig. 9). As information was obtained in an increasing number of ways the percentage adopting practices increased in a like manner for the subgroups with contrasting years of school attendance. Proportionately, more homemakers with more than 8 years of schooling received extension information 5 or more ways than was true of the homemakers who attended school for fewer years. The pattern of behavior change associated with increased intensity of extension information coverage in figure 9 is very similar to that in figure 7.
effort in several different ways. This is but another way of saying that repetition in a variety of ways is exceedingly important to learning — an accepted educational principle.
When extension accomplishment is expressed in terms of practices adopted rather than persons in- fluenced, the number of practices changed per 100 farms or homes increases at a fairly uniform rate as the number of kinds of exposures rises from 1 to 12 or more (fig. 7). The number of possible ways in which farming and homemaking can be improved by use of extension information is, of course, rela- tively large.
The ratio of number of methods contributing to the adoption of practices to the number of exposures to extension information about those practices remains quite uniform as the number of kinds of exposures increases from 1 to 12 or more (fig. 8). For every 5 exposures to extension teaching 2 of the exposures were reported as supplying information actually used on the farm or in the home. These limited data suggest that on the average extension information must reach the individual in two and one-half differ- ent ways before action is taken. It would also appear that within the current range of intensity of the extension teaching effort there is little or no diminution in returns per unit of that effort.
INTERRELATIONSHIP OF METHODS
As has just been pointed out the accumulated influence of several methods is usually necessary to accomplish a desired change in practice. In an on-going extension situation there is a complex intermingling of teaching methods and activities. There are few, if any, situations where a single method has had free play. Other extension teaching methods have also made their contributions at some time or other. This makes it necessary to evaluate the role each method plays when combined with other methods under practical teaching conditions. While the available data do not permit of detailed analysis some general deductions can be made.
Correlation studies indicate that the total number of practices adopted as the result of extension teaching in a given area is more closely associated with certain methods than with others. The degree of relationship between the number of practices credited to a particular method and the number of practices changed as the result of the combined influence of all extension methods may be expressed mathematically.
In the case of indirect influence, the office call, the news story, and meetings (especially the method
20
FIGURE 9. — Intensity of coverage an<l change of practice in relation to educational training of 1,202 hoinemakers in sample
area* of 5 Stales.
NUMBER OF
DIFFERENT MEDIA
THROUGH WHICH
INFORMATION WAS RECEIVED
1 or 2
PERCENTAGE OF HOMEMAKERS
532 homemakers with 8 years or less of schooling
10 20 30 ■ 1 1 1
670 homemakers with more than 8 years of schooling 10 20 30
— 1 r 1
Percentage of homemakers exposed to extension information. - Percentage of homemakers influenced to change practices.
demonstration meeting in home economics exten- sion), the coefficient of correlation between the number of practices per 100 farms or homes credited to each method and the total practices per 100 farms or homes changed as the result of the entire teaching effort is significant.3
The high degree of relationship between the amount of indirect spread and total extension accomplishment is a logical expectation, since the amount of satisfaction derived from the better practices influences the extent to which neighbors pass on information about the practice to each other.
The influence of office calls and method demonstra- tion meetings probably reflects better than other methods the degree of confidence rural people have in the Extension Service and the county extension personnel. Farmers and homemakers visit the local extension office and attend extension meetings of
3 These coefficients of correlation are:
Indirect influence +0. 814±0. 044
Office calls + . 656 ± .075
News stories + . 738 ± .060
Method demonstration meetings ... + . 605 ± . 095
General meetings + . 368 ± . 130
their own volition. The influence of the news storv reflects the extent to which rural people are informed regarding the information being taught through extension.
The influence of bulletins does not seem to be an indication of total extension accomplishment, sug- gesting that the greatest value of the bulletin is as a supplement to other direct teaching, such as the meeting and the office call. The same is apparently true of the farm or home visit.
Surprising as it may seem, the coefficient of correlation between the influence of result demonstra- tions and total extension influence is not very signifi- cant and is negative in character.4 Result demon- strations are heavy consumers of the extension worker's time (see fig. 4) and reach few people other than the farmer or homemaker conducting the demonstration. Unless there is a clear need for the establishment of local proof of the desirability of the practices demonstrated, there is real danger that the time required for the unnecessary repetition of
4 The coefficient of correlation for adult result demonstra- tions is -0.479 ±0.1 15.
21
demonstrations may be at the expense of time that would be more productive if devoted to methods better suited to reaching large numbers of people. This should be interpreted as a caution. There are undoubtedly many situations where local proof is lacking and where a few good result demonstrations would greatly strengthen the teaching carried on through other methods.
FACTORS INFLUENCING ADOPTION OF PRACTICES
In addition to the teaching methods which the extension worker uses to bring about changes in farmers and homemakers, there are other factors that may influence the extent and rate of the adop- tion of extension recommended practices. These factors are frequently completely outside the control of the extension worker. An awareness of their probable influence upon the use of extension infor- mation by farmers and homemakers is helpful to the extension agent in selecting the teaching tools and in fitting them into a plan of work likely to yield the desired end product.
AGE AND PREVIOUS EDUCATIONAL TRAINING OF THE LEARNER
Interest of older people in acquiring information that will help solve problems or contribute to farm and home improvement counterbalances any lessen- ing in ability to learn because of advancing age. Age of the adult farm population of a county is ap- parently not an important factor in extension teaching. The findings are essentially the same in all of the study areas where farmers and homemakers have been interviewed. Table 1 presents the findings when the farmers in 5 sample areas and the home- makers in 7 areas are grouped according to age. In the case of men the percentages reporting the adop- tion of practices as the result of extension teaching and the number of changes made are slightly higher for the 36 to 40 and the 41 to 45 year groups than for the younger and older groups. The difference of 10 percentage points between the youngest and the oldest age groupings does not seem particularly significant. The age groups of women follow essen- tially the same pattern as the men, though the high point in adoption-of-practice curve comes at an earlier age. The women over 50 years adopted about as many practices owing to extension as did the women 30 years and under.
TABLE 1. — Age in relation to adoption of practices
AGE GROUP
PERCENT OF TOTAL
PERCENT
ADOPT-
ING A
PRACTICE
NUMBER OF PRACTICES ADOPTED PER 100 FARMERS OR HOME- MAKERS
Farmers and agricultural practices (1,978 farmers in 5 areas)
30 and under years
31 to 35 years .... 36 to 40 years .... 41 to 45 years .... 46 to 50 years .... 51 to 55 years. . . . 56 to 60 years .... 61 and over years . No age given
10
78
295
11
78
287
15
80
321
14
82
320
13
74
301
11
77
284
10
73
283
15
68
223
2
74
182
Homemakers and home economics practices (2,359 homemakers in 7 areas)
30 and under years
31 to 35 years .... 36 to 40 years .... 41 to 45 years .... 46 to 50 years .... 51 to 55 years .... 56 to 60 years .... 61 and over years . No age given
16
34
83
13
43
131
15
40
114
13
38
101
13
34
101
8
36
86
8
33
88
10
30
7h
4
8
22
22
TABLE 2. — Educational training in relation to adoption of practices
NUMBER OF
PERCENT
PRACTICES
PERCENT
ADOPT-
ADOPTED
CLASSIFICATION GROUP
OF
ING A
PER 100
TOTAL
PRAC-
FARMERS
TICE
OR HOME- MAKERS
Farmers and agricultural practices (2,895 farmers in 7 areas)
Some college
Some high school but no college . Grade school only
515 388
277
Homemakers and home economics practices (3,159 homemakers in 9 areas)
Some college
Some high school bul no college. Grade school only
196
167
83
Quite a different picture is presented when farmers and homemakers are arrayed on the basis of previous educational training (table 2). For both men and women a significantly higher proportion of those with some college training reported the adoption of practices than those with high school but no college training. The high school group was in turn superior to the group with no educational training beyond the eighth grade. The rate of adoption of practices resulting from extension teaching increased even more rapidly as the amount of formal schooling increased. Since two-thirds of farm homemakers and more than three- fourths of farmers stopped school attendance before they reached high school, the importance of aiming the extension teaching plan at the 6 to 7 grade level of education becomes obvious, if the goal is to reach the bulk of the farm population effectively.
Figure 9 suggests that the higher rate of adoption on the part of those adults with more formal educa- tion is largely owing to greater intensity of extension
coverage. In other words, the degree to which adults expose themselves to extension sources of agricultural and home economics information is likely to be proportionate to their educational train- ing when young. This is further evidence of the in- fluence of motivation upon learning.
SIZE OF FARM, TENURE, AND LOCATION OF FARM OR HOME
The percentage of farmers and homemakers adopting new practices and the rate of adoption of such practices tend to increase with the size of the farm as is indicated in table 3. The advantage of large farms is not great, but has a like effect upon the adoption of both home economics and agricultural practices. It is highly probable that the men and women on the
TABLE 3. — Size of farm in relation to adoption of practices (10,733 farms in 17 areas in 16 States)
PERCENT OF TOTAL
AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
HOME ECONOMICS PRACTICES
ANY PRACTICE
CLASSIFICATION GROUP
PERCENT
OF FARMERS ADOPT- ING A PRACTICE
NUMBER OF PRAC- TICES ADOPTED PER 100 FARMS
PERCENT OF HOME- MAKERS ADOPT- ING A PRACTICE
NUMBER OF PRAC- TICES ADOPTED PER 100 HOMES
PERCENT ADOPT- ING A PRACTICE
NUMBER OF PRAC- TICES ADOFLED PER 100 FARMS
AND HOMES
Small farms
33 37 30
68 76 82
185 238 293
26 32 38
51 73 96
70 81 84
236
Medium sized farms
Large farms
312 390
23
TABLE 4. — Condition of land occupancy in relation to adoption of practices (10,733 farms and homes in 17 areas
of 16 States)
PERCENT
OF
TOTAL
AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
HOME ECONOMICS PRACTICES
ANY PRACTICE
CLASSIFICATION GROUP
PERCENT
OF FARMERS ADOPT- ING A PRACTICE
NUMBER OF PRAC- TICES ADOPTED PER 100 FARMS
PERCENT OF HOME- MAKERS ADOPT- ING A PRACTICE
NUMBER OF PRAC- TICES ADOPTED PER 100 HOMES
PERCENT
ADOPr-
ING A
PRACTICE
NUMBER OF PRAC- TICES ADOPTED PER 100 FARMS
AND HOMES
Owners
68 32
77 72
250 209
31 34
73
72
81
77
323
Tenants
282
larger farms exert greater effort than others to obtain the assistance of extension agents and specialists.
Whether the family owns or rents the farm on which it litres seems to have little bearing upon the extent of use of extension information. This is brought out by table 4. The 5 point higher percentage of owner families reporting adoption of agricultural practices is largely balanced by the 3 point lower percentage of such families adopting home economics practices.
The data from field studies consistently show no difference in adoption of extension-taught practices by farm families living within a 10-mile radius of the county extension office and those living beyond the 10-mile limit.
Whether the farm home is situated on an improved highway or on an unimproved road also seems to have no bearing upon the extent or rate of adoption practices by farm men and women, according to the same data.
Refrigerrtor
Radio
Telephone
Automobile
Daily newspaper
Wife's education
Husband's education
Wife attends church or Sunday school
Husband attends church or Sunday school
These studies indicate that the higher a person's socioeconomic level, the more likely he or she is to adopt improved practices (table 5). No doubt the farm people in the higher socioeconomic groups are easier to work with as they have more formal school- ing and communication is easier. These people tend to ask for help while those persons at the other end of the scale have to be sought out, informed about available services and persuaded to use them.
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS OF THE FARMER AND HOMEMAKER
An analysis of a series of studies made in 1951 and 1952 in Louisiana indicates that where farmers and homemakers are high on the socioeconomic scale, greater use is made of extension information.
As a measure of socioeconomic status, the Sewell Scale (72) short form, is used. The households are divided according to score into "low" and "high" groups. Education which has been discussed earlier is one of the items which make up the Sewell Scale, therefore education and socioeconomic status are closely related variables. Other items on the short form of the farm family socioeconomic status scale are:
Construction of house Room -person ratio Lighting facilities Water piped into house Power washer
CONTACT WITH EXTENSION WORKERS
The extent to which farmers and homemakers make contacts with members of the extension staff largely de- termines the adoption of recommended practices. — It is a question of motivation, since participation in ex- tension activities, calls at the office, and requests that the agent visit the farm or home to discuss some problem are entirely voluntary. The extension workers' selection of teaching methods may stimu- late motivation and also make for greater or lesser opportunity for people to make individual or group contacts with representatives of the extension service.
Field studies involving interviews with 10,733 farm families in sample areas of 16 States reveal that in the case of 3 families out of 4 some member of the farm familv — man, woman, or boy or girl 10 years of age or older — had at some time contacted an ex- tension worker (table 6). Of the contact group, 87 percent reported the adoption of agricultural prac-
24
TABLE 5. — Socioeconomic status in relation to adoption of practices (600 farmers and homemakers in 4 parishes
in Louisiana)
SOCIOECONOMIC SCALE
PERCENTAGE ADOPTING PRACTICES
WASHING- TON
LAFOURCHE
RED RIVER
MADISON
Farmers and agricultural practices
Hi«-h
63 48
62 38
70
47
81
Low
66
Homemakers and home economics practices
High
Low
70 51
47 38
62 55
76 66
tices in contrast with 38 percent of the no contact group. Home economics practices were adopted by 39 percent of the families with contacts compared to 8 percent of the families with no contacts. Ex- pressed in terms of numbers of changes in practice made, 4 to 5 times greater adoption of extension taught practices occurred when at least one member of the family had had some contact with an extension worker.
The adoption of practices by the no contact group was the result of extension teaching through mass media and of indirect influence. As brought out in the discussion of influence of subject matter to effec- tiveness of teaching methods (p. 14), the news story seems to be more effective in teaching agricultural practices than in home economics practices. There is also less indirect spread of practices from neighbor to neighbor in home economics than in agriculture.
Field study data consistently show that a higher percentage of families on the larger farms and of the farmers and homemakers with more years of formal schooling make more contacts with extension workers
than do others. These findings were verified by Gibson (5) who found the percentage of farmers re- porting three or more different types of contacts with the Extension Service increased from 4 percent for the lowest quintile to 15 percent for the middle quintile, to 38 percent for the highest quintile, when grouped according to Sewell's socioeconomic scale.
The evidence is overwhelming that the effective- ness of the extension teacher in bringing about changes in farm people, as measured by adoption of better farm and home practices, is largely dependent upon an extension program which meets the felt needs of rural families and the employment of methods well suited to the particular teaching situation.
OTHER FACTORS
It is recognized that in addition to the factors con- sidered above, there are many other factors extension workers need to take into consideration. There are no studies of them which have direct application to
TABLE 6. — Contact with extension workers in relation to adoption of practices (10,733 farms in 17 areas of 16
States)
PERCENT OF TOTAL
AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
HOME ECONOMICS PRACTICES
ANY PRACTICE
CLASSIFICATION GROUP
PERCENT
OF FARMERS ADOPT- ING A PRACTICE
NUMBER OF PRAC- TICES ADOPTED PER 100 FARMS
PERCENT OF HOME- MAKERS ADOPT- ING A PRACTICE
NUMBER OF PRAC- TICES ADOPTED PER 100 HOMES
PERCENT ADOFP- 1NG A PRAC- TICE
NUMBER
OF
PR AC-
TICES
ADOPTED
PER 100
FARMS
AND HOMES
Contact with extension
workers
No contact
76
24
87 38
290
71
39
8
92 11
92 41
382 82
25
extension work. For example, race, nationality, religion, employment of married women, and com- munication and transportation facilities available, should be considered by the agent when determining methods.
SUBJECT MATTER IN RELATION TO METHODS
Differences in the relative effectiveness of methods in influencing the adoption of improved practices in agriculture and in home economics were pointed out earlier in this bulletin (pp. 14 to 16, and fig. 3). When both relative effectiveness and relative cost of the various methods are considered together, the differ- ences between agriculture and home economics are even more,pronounced (pp. 16 to 19, and figs. 5 and 6). Within each of these two large groups of subject matter there is also considerable variation in the percentages of practices influenced bv the different methods.
Analysis of 34.330 instances of adoption of prac- tices in terms of specific lines of subject matter throws further light on the problem of selecting teaching methods to fit the subject matter involved (table 7).
UNLIKE SUBJECT MATTER
in changing food preparation practices than dairy practices. The opposite was true for circular letters. The amount of indirect spread due to extension teaching was nine times as large for dairv as for food preparation practices.
Poultry and suine are both in the livestock subject- matter group. The differences in subject matter between poultry and swine are much less than in the case of dairy and food preparation just con- sidered, but are still significant from the extension teaching standpoint (fig. 12). Personal contact methods, such as the farm visit, office call, and result demonstration influenced the adoption of mam more swine practices than poultry practices. Per- sonal letters in this group were more effective in changing poultry practices than in changing swine practices. Group contacts accounted for the adop- tion of many more poultry practices than swine practices, the method demonstration meeting being responsible for most of the difference. In the mass contact group of methods the bulletin, the circular letter, and the radio influenced substantially higher percentages of poultry practices than of swine practices. Indirect influence was markedly greater in the case of swine subject matter.
Because certain teaching methods have proved effective in a particular subject-matter field, it does not follow that the same methods will be equally effective in another subject-matter field. Con- sideration must be given to the character of the subject matter to be taught.
Where the lines of subject matter being taught in extension are quite dissimilar there is a marked variation in the influence of teaching methods upon adoption of practices. Tree fruits and alfalfa present a striking contrast (fig. 10). More than twice as many tree fruit practices were associated with farm visits than was true of alfalfa practices. Office calls influenced the adoption of many more alfalfa prac- tices than tree fruit practices. The method demon- stration meeting was a dominant influence in teaching tree fruit practices, but did not influence the adoption of many alfalfa practices. The general community meeting accounted for 1 in 4 of the alfalfa practices in contrast to 1 in 12 of the tree fruit practices. Only 1 tree fruit practice in 30 was credited to the news story compared to 1 out of every 6 alfalfa practices. On the other hand, circular letters influenced the adoption of three times as many fruit practices as alfalfa practices. Indirect influence accounted for the adoption of nearly three times as many alfalfa as tree fruit practices.
Dairy and food preparation subject matter present even more striking differences in relative effective- ness of methods upon adoption of recommended practices (fig. 11). More than six times as manv dairy practices as food preparation practices were adopted due to farm or home visits and office calls. The method demonstration meeting accounted for nearly half of the food preparation practices adopted but had little influence upon adoption of dairy prac- tices. Bulletins and news stories were more effective
26
LIKE SUBJECT MATTER
If it is true as appears above that teaching methods influence the adoption of varying percent- ages of practices when wide differences in subject matter exist, there should be a tendency for teaching methods to influence the adoption of like percentages of practices where lines of subject matter are similar or present similar teaching problems.
It is obvious from table 7 that the pattern of influ- ence of the different methods is essentially the same for corn, oats, and wheat which fall in the cereal group. The methods pattern for alfalfa, soybeans, and other legumes is again quite uniform for those crops.
Cotton and potatoes (white) are another illustration of similar influence of methods upon adoption of practices. These crops are grown in widely sepa- rated parts of the country where supposedly certain teaching methods have received different emphasis as Extension has developed, and yet one graph serves equally well to depict the influence of methods upon the practices adopted in either subject-matter field (fig. 13). The extension teaching problems of good seed, commercial fertilizer, disease, and insect control are much the same for both crops. The use of mechanical equipment to reduce hand labor also presents a like problem. Personal contact methods influenced the adoption of 29 percent of the potato practices and 34 percent of the cotton practices.
Group contact methods influenced 20 percent of the potato practices and 14 percent of the cotton prac-
potato and 23 percent of the cotton practices. Mass tices. Indirect spread of influence was high in the
contact methods accounted for 20 percent of the case of both potato practices and cotton practices.
FIGURE 10. — Relative influence of methods upon adoption of 1,378 tree fruit practices and 1,306 alfalfa practices.
1 Includes leader training meetings.
27
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28
FIGURE 11. — Relative influence of methods upon adoption of 2,9Q3 dairy practices and 754 food preparation practices.
'Includes leader training meetings.
29
FIGURE 12. — Relative influence of method upon adoption of 3,285 poultry practices and 1,403 swine practices.
1 Includes leader training meetings.
30
FIGURE 1.3. — Relative influence of methods upon adoption of 1,463 potato practices and 1,269 cotton practices.
1 Includes leader training meetings.
31
Clothingand home management in the home economics group provide another example of like influence of methods when the subject matter presents problems that require practically identical teaching ap-
proaches (fig. 14). Much of the extension teaching in both of these subject-matter fields involves the teaching of skills to a group of people. As might be expected the method demonstration has
FIGURE 14. — Relative influence of methods upon adoption of 2,601 clothing practices and 423 home management practices.
1 Include? leader training meetings.
32
been the predominant teaching method responsible for the practices changed in both clothing and home management. Together the method demonstration meeting and the general meeting account for ap- proximately 3 out of 4 practices changed. Indirect influence is relatively small, slightly less than 5 percent, in both cases. Personal contacts influenced the adoption of 1 clothing or home management practice in 8. Mass contacts were responsible for changing 1 out of 13 clothing practices and 1 out of 9 of the home management practices.
Where experience has shown that methods have influenced the adoption of given percentages of practices in a particular subject-matter line of work it is highly probable that the same methods will follow a like pattern of influence when other closely related subject matter is involved. Since the con- verse appears to be equally true the character of the subject matter to be taught becomes an important consideration in developing the extension teaching plan.
THE DIFFERENT METHODS
ANALYZED
The extension teacher is constantly faced with the practical problem of selecting the teaching method, or combination of methods, best suited to do a specific teaching job with certain people under the special circumstances existing at the time. A critical analysis of each method will be helpful in identifying its chief characteristics, its inherent values and limitations, the key steps involved in its use, and other considerations that may influence the emphasis placed upon it in the teaching plan. The methods will be considered in the order in which listed in methods classified according to use (p. 4).
INDIVIDUAL CONTACT
METHODS
FARM AND HOME VISITS
Personal Practical
The farm or home visit may serve a variety of purposes. It may be in the nature of a service call made upon request to give advice or assistance
on a wide range of farm or home problems. It may be part of the teaching plan outlined at the beginning of the year to forward some phase of the county extension program. It may be for the pur- pose of securing a cooperator or demonstrator, arranging a meeting, or discussing a local 4^-H Club activity. The personal visit to the farm or home may be in the interest of good public relations with officers of local organizations, elected officials, or other key individuals. The farm or home visit may be merely to extend the agent's acquaintance. Or it may be part of a planned effort to interest those in the total extension clientele who do not participate in organized extension teaching activ- ities and who are not "reached" through mass media. Broadly speaking, the farm or home visit is made for the purpose of giving information or obtaining information.
From the point of view of the farmer, homemaker, or 4-H Club member, the agent's visit provides an opportunity to work out practical solutions of specific problems. Starting with the individual's knowledge and understanding of the problem, re- gardless of how meager or advanced that knowl- edge may be, consideration can be given to the succeeding steps to be taken to enable the learner to reach the desired goal. From the standpoint of the extension agent the visit to the farm or home makes possible the modification of general recommendations to fit specific situations, thereby increasing the likelihood of their use. It also provides an opportunity to arouse interest in farm, home, or community improvements not yet recog- nized by the individual as desirable.
If the visit is primarily for the purpose of ob- taining information, that information can be in- terpreted and utilized more effectively because of the agent's firsthand knowledge of the circumstances involved. The intimate knowledge of farm and home conditions and of the points of view of rural people, such as can be obtained only through personal contacts at ihe farm or in the home, is essential to program determination and the selection of effective local leaders. Farm and home visits contribute greatly to the effectiveness of the teaching done through meetings, the press, radio and television, and circular letters. The agent knows at firsthand the problems of his clientele and at least part of the farm people know from experience that the agent has his feet on the ground.
Volume and trend. The present size of the county extension teaching staff is inadequate to visit person- ally each year the 2,000 farms and farm homes, and the even larger number of nonfarm homes that con- stitute the extension clientele. In practice, the aver- age county extension worker makes approximately 400 farm or home visits for all purposes each year. Data for 1952 indicate that agricultural agents made an average of 476 such personal visits during that year and home demonstration agents made an aver- age of 232 visits. The corresponding figures for 1930 were 641 visits for agricultural agents and 316 visits
33
rHrURL 15. — Farm and home visils per county extensioi agent, 1930-52.
800
600
400 -
200
1930
600
400 -
for home demonstration agents. The evidence indi- cates little change in emphasis on the farm and home visit bv the average county extension agent during the past 25 years (fig. 15). The increase in the grand total of personal visits to farms and homes through- out the United States from 2.305,000 in 1930 to 3,614,000 in 1952 is due to the increase in the total number of county extension workers employed rather than to anv change in emphasis by the individual county extension worker.
Teaching effectiveness. Measured in terms of in- fluencing farmers and homemakers to change practices, personal visits from extension agents account for about one-ninth (10.8 percent) of the practices changed as the result of all extension teaching (fig. 1). Figure 3 shows that the proportion of agricultural practices credited to farm visits (13.0 percent) is much higher than the proportion of home economics changes credited to home visits (4.7 percent). Much
of this difference is undoubtedly due to the larger number of personal visits made by agricultural agents than personal visits made by home demon- stration agents. The remaining difference is prob- ably a question of subject matter. Teaching home- makers the knowledge and skills of sewing may not be influenced greatly by the specific home situation, while advice relative to a soil erosion control problem will frequently require inspection of conditions on the individual farm.
Relative to other teaching methods, the cost of influencing the adoption of an improved practice through farm and home visits is about 10 percent less than the average of all methods (fig. 4).
Essential elements. The following selection and arrangement of elements, and the similar analyses of other methods of teaching discussed later, reflect the authors' experiences and observations consistent with the available findings of scientific research. Some of the more important steps and points under each in using the farm and home visit as a teaching method are:
1. Decide upon the place of the farm and home visit in the teaching plan outlined to advance a particular phase of the extension program.
a. Consider alternative methods which might be employed.
b. Decide whether the visits are prima- rily for direct teaching or are needed to increase the effectiveness of group methods and mass media.
2. Clarify the purpose of the visit. Is the visit expected to:
a. Obtain firsthand information on farm and home conditions?
b. Give advice or assistance with a problem?
c. Arouse interest of those not reached by other methods?
d. Aid in the selection of local leaders, demonstrators, or cooperators?
e. Promote good public relations?
f. Otherwise contribute to strengthen- ing the extension organization or ad- vance the program?
3. Plan the visit.
a. Review previous contacts with mem- bers of family.
b. Check subject-matter information likely to be needed.
c. Arrange schedule of visits in commu- nity to save time and expense.
d. Consider best approach in view of individual family situations.
4. Make the visit.
a. Be friendly, sympathetic, and comp- limentary.
b. Gain and deserve interviewee's con- fidence.
c. Arouse interest and create a desire to take action.
34
d. Render interviewee a real service.
e. Leave clear impression as to object of visit.
f. Avoid waste of time on part of in- terviewee and agent.
5. Record the visit.
a. Enter on the family record card in the extension office the date and purpose of visit, what was accom- plished, and followup commitments made.
b. Make sure through appropriate office device that followup at appropriate time is not overlooked.
6. Follow up the visit.
a. Mail applicable literature.
b. Add to mailing list to receive appropriate circular letters.
c. Extend invitation to attend meeting.
d. Make another visit if situation requires it.
Advantages and limitations. In determining the amount of emphasis to place upon the farm or home visit in the total extension teaching plan for a county during a given year, the extension agent must also weigh the strong and weak points in- herent in this method of teaching. They may be briefly summarized as follows: Advantages
1. Provides agent with firsthand knowledge of farm and home conditions and the point of view of farm people.
2. If made on request, the farmer or home- maker is likely to be ready to learn. The ratio of "takes" to "exposures" is high. Builds confidence in agent and may in-
-...■. ■.■.... ■:.:■ :
FIGURE 16. — The county agent helps the farmer work out problems on his farm. (Ext. Serv., Arkansas.)
crease greatly the effectiveness of group methods and mass media.
4. Contributes to selection of better local leaders, demonstrators, and cooperators.
5. Develops good public relations.
FIGURE 17.— The county home demonstration agent consults a homemaker relative to home problems in the county.
S-13130
35
6. Useful in contacting those who do not participate in extension activities and who are not reached by mass media. Limitations
1. Requires a relatively large amount of agent's time.
2. Number of contacts possible definitely limited.
3. Cost per practice adopted rather high though not above average for all methods.
4. Time of visit not always opportune from standpoint of farmer or homemaker.
5. Danger of concentrating visits on the most progressive families and neglecting those where personal contact is most needed. .
OFFICE CALLS
Specific Cordial
Like the farm or home visit the office call involves direct personal contact between the extension worker and the individual desiring information or assistance. There are two important differences, however: (1) With the office call the learner seeks out the extension teacher instead of the extension teacher seeking out the learner; and (2; the personal contact or interview is removed from the farm or home setting. The fact that the farmer or homemaker calls on the agent indicates a recognition of the problem to be solved and a strong desire to solve it. The climate of "readi- ness" is even more favorable to learning and action than in the case of the visit to the farm or home. Confidence in the extension service as a reliable source of information may be taken for granted, otherwise the individual would not devote the time and go to the travel expense of making the call. The cordiality with which office callers are received and the satisfactory manner in which the desired infor- mation or advice is given have an important bearing on repeat calls.
An analysis of the purpose of 657 office calls (10) received by agricultural agents in 14 Minnesota county offices during 2 -week periods scattered throughout the year indicates the 863 requests for information were distributed as follows:
Specific farm practice problems 42 percent
Technical advice or information 31 percent
Principles of organization and management 18 percent Extension organization, including local
leader training . . 9 percent
36
Even though the preceding sample may not be entirely typical of all office calls, it is obvious that the great majority of office calls on agricultural agents are requests for subject-matter information with a minor fraction concerned with problems relating to operational aspects of the extension program in the county.
The Minnesota study throws some light on the interrelationship between office calls and other ex- tension methods. Nearly one-fourth were a follow-up of extension meetings. It was judged that about every sixth call could have been handled by the office secretary had the agent not been present, by making use of bulletins, leaflets, and other duplicated material available in the office.
Volume and trend. During a 12 -months' period the average county extension worker handles between 900 and 1,000 office callers. Considering all county extension agents, the average number of calls per agent has been essentially the same in the 1950 period as it was during the early 1930 period (fig. 18). A tremendous increase in office calls occurred during the 1930's due to the responsibilities for Agricultural Adjustment Administration pro- grams assumed by county agricultural agents during the depression years. The emergency farm labor program continued to bring large numbers of callers to county extension offices during the war period 1942-47. Agricultural agents receive several times as many office callers as do home demonstration agents. The average number of office calls for each agricultural agent in 1952 was 1,102 and for each home demonstration agent 474. The corresponding figures for 1930 were 1,332 for agricultural agents and 436 for home demonstration agents. The volume of office callers received by 4-H Club agents follows closely that of home demonstration agents.
There is a wide variation among county extension offices in the number of office calls handled. The rural population of the county, geographical location of the county seat in relation to the rest of the county, and accessibility of the office to the public, account for much of the variation. Other things being equal, the number of callers at the county extension office appears to reflect the general status of the confidence of the people of the county in the extension office as a reliable source of unbiased infor- mation on agricultural and home economics matters.
Teaching effectiveness. Field studies indicate that approximately 6 percent of all practices changed as the result of extension teaching may be credited to office calls (fig. 1). The proportion of agricul- tural practices credited to office calls is much higher than in the case of home economics practices (fig. 3). Apparently a large proportion of the office calls handled by home demonstration agents relate to extension organization matters rather than to subject-matter problems.
The relatively low extension cost of teaching through office calls places this method fairly high on the list of methods from the standpoint of returns
FIGURE 18. — Average number of office calls per extension ageni, 1930-52.
7000
6000
5000 -
4000
3000
2000
1000 —
1930
4000
3000 —
2000
1000
1 \#x
All agents
-
r
for each hour of extension agent's time (fig. 4). As brought out earlier, the amount of teaching accom- plished through office calls is a fairly reliable index of total influence of extension in a county. A recent survey (14) of county extension offices indicates that the location of extension offices is unsatisfactory in approximately 20 percent of the counties. One county office out of 8 does not have a full-time clerical assistant to receive office callers when the extension agents are in the field. The importance of the office call indicates the desirability of early
correction of this unsatisfactory condition by exten- sion administrators and supervisors.
Essential elements. The basic steps and points to be considered in the use of the office call as an effective medium for extension teaching center around two problems, (1) attracting callers to the extension office, and (2) handling callers in the office in a manner to promote repeat calls.
1. Consider whether location of office will con- tribute to large volume of calls.
a. In important trading center accessible from all parts of county on good roads.
b. In building near business section with adequate parking space available.
c. Direction sign to extension office at entrance of building.
d. Office door identified.
2. Check arrangement and adequacy of office space.
a. Space and furniture arranged to per- mit orderly routing of callers.
b. Caller can confer privately with agent.
c. General appearance neat and orderly.
d. Office open during usual working hours observed in locality.
3. Office secretary or receptionist receives callers.
a. Visitor greeted in friendly, courteous, yet business-like manner.
b. Office secretary knows whereabouts of agent and when expected to return.
c. Office secretary trained to give partial assistance in agent's absence.
4. Agent confers with caller.
a. Cordial, sincere interest shown in visi- tor's problem.
b. Applicable reference material, in- cluding record of previous contacts, readily accessible.
c. Unhurried consideration of entire problem without undue expenditure of time.
d. Caller made to feel welcome to call again.
5. Record and followup call.
a. Secretary and agent cooperate in adding pertinent information to familv record card.
b. See that unfinished business con- nected with call is completed as promised.
Advantages and limitations. Providing the location of the county office is or can be made pro- pitious for a reasonable volume of callers, the positive points in favor of greater emphasis upon office calls in the teaching plan would seem to more than offset the negative considerations. The strong and weak points inherent in this method of teaching
37
FIGURE 19.— The farmer visits the county extension office for infor- mation. (Ext. Serv., Maryland).
may be listed as follows:
Advantages
1. Caller likely to be highly receptive to learning.
2. Economical use of agent's time.
3. Good barometer of total extension accom- plishment in the county.
Limitations
1. Office contacts removed from actuality of farm or home situation may not reflect the real problem or accurately reveal pertinent conditions.
2. Office callers likely to be limited to those participating in other extension activities.
TELEPHONE CALLS
Courteous Brief
The telephone is another important means of person-to-person communication linking the county extension agents and the farmers and homemakers of the county. The total number of telephone calls made to and from all countv extension offices during 1952 exceeded 8,575,000'. In 1951, for the
first time, the number of telephone calls was larger than the number of calls in person made at extension offices. As indicated by figure 20. the average number of telephone calls per extension agent has increased greatly during the 1930-52 period, with peaks occurring in the Second World War and during the midthirties when extension agents were assisting with management of the early Agricultural Adjust- ment Administration programs. During 1952 the average extension agent received or made 893 phone calls compared to 693 in 1930.
Extension studies have consistently revealed that farmers and homemakers do not associate the adoption of many practices with information ob- tained bv telephone from the extension office. In no area studied has the telephone call been reported as influencing as many as 1 percent of the improved practices adopted. This is also true of the different subject-matter fields.
These facts suggest that the extension use of the telephone is not to supply subject matter but rather to facilitate the use of other teaching activities. By means of the telephone, appointments are made, meetings scheduled, programs arranged, bulletins requested, progress checked, and a host of other business transacted incident to the maintenance of a branch office of the Cooperative Extension Service in the county. Many of the calls from farmers and homemakers relate to other matters than information about farm and home practices (fig. 21). The re- quests for agricultural and home economics informa- tion are often answered by mailing out bulletins, circulars, or other duplicated material. The problem phoned about may require a visit by the agent to the farm or home.
While the phone call may have entered into the chain of events which led to acquiring the informa-
18
FIGURE 20. — Telephone calls per connly extension agent, 1930-52.
2000
1500
1000
500
hi**
,^x
Home demonstration agents
0 I i i i i I i i i i I i i i i I i i i i I i 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950
I | I l I I 1 l I I I I I I I I
1500 -
1000
500
#1 All agents !
tion desired, the farmer or homemaker is likely to think of the printed or written material or the farm visit as the medium through which the information used was obtained.
The large volume of telephone calls in and out of extension offices and the public relations implications involved emphasize the importance of utilizing this means of communication in an efficient manner. Both the extension agent and the office secretary should from time to time ask themselves such questions as:
Is the phone answered promptly, courteously, identifying office or agent by name? Is care taken to ascertain accurately the name of the person calling and to supply the informa- tion desired clearly and completely? Is what is to be said thought through in advance of making the call?
Are return calls made promptly? Is followup, such as mailing the circular re quested, handled promptly and without fail? Is the telephone installed properly to insure its full and efficient use in conducting extension work?
Does the listing in the telephone directory per- mit a person to readily locate the county exten- sion office?
CORRESPONDENCE
Prompt Pointed
While apparently somewhat more effective in ex- tension teaching than the telephone call, the indi- vidual letter received from the county extension agent was not considered an important source of extension information by farmers and homemakers in any of the study areas. Only 1.1 percent of all practices changed due to extension was credited to letters individually received from extension agents (fig. 1). The percentage figure was three times as high for agricultural practices as for home economics practices (fig. 3). Even though more letters may be received from farmers than homemakers by the county or State extension office, it is obvious that neither group are accustomed to seek aid in the solution of problems through correspondence.
As in the case of the telephone call, much of the correspondence of the county extension office is with the State extension office and relates to reports, field schedules of subject-matter specialists, and similar routine matters.
A letter asking for information should be answered promptly. The person writing the letter has more than passing interest in the matter and will be likely to use information which provides a satisfactory solution to his problem.
Standards of an effective letter.5 A good letter should be:
1. Complete — give all necessary information to accomplish its purpose.
2. Concise — say what you have to say in the fewest words consistent with clearness, com- pleteness, and courtesy.
5 Adapted from Letters — A Guide for Improving Them, U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Personnel, Administrative Series No. 14, June 1951.
39
FIGURE 21.— The telephone is an important link between the ex- tension office and the farm home (Ext. Serv., Maryland).
3. Clear — every letter should be written so it not only can be understood but cannot be misunderstood.
4. Correct — contain no misstatement of facts; be correct from standpoint of grammar, spelling, punctuation, and typographic style.
5. Courteous — tone appropriate for the desired response. How something is said is as im- portant as what is said.
6. Neat — creates a good first impression, well arranged on page, free from strikeovers, obvious erasures, uneven tvping, and mis- leading punctuation.
7. Readable — short sentences, short words, and human interest make for easy reading. (See discussion of New Flesch Readability For- mula, page 58.)
THE RESULT DEMONSTRATION
Definite Convincing
During the early years of extension work farmers and farm women had to be convinced that extension
workers were practical. The result demonstration was unquestionably one of the most convincing argu- ments employed.
Result demonstrations establish proof that the improved practice advocated is applicable locally. Under the direction of the extension agent, the farmer, farm woman, or boy or girl, carry out the demonstration. Such demonstrations require a sub- stantial period of time, comparisons are usually necessary, and records are essential. The success of the demonstration depends upon evidence which shows that the new practice is definitely superior to the one it replaces. The result demonstration is not a matter of discovering new truths but of pointing out that the research findings of the State experiment stations or of the U. S. Department of Agriculture apply to conditions peculiar to the county or portion of county.
The result demonstration may deal with a single practice, such as the use of commercial fertilizer in the growing of potatoes, or it may be concerned with a series of practices involved in the management of a poultry flock or an apple orchard. In some in- stances the result demonstrations may include the entire farm as a business unit. The more complex the demonstration the greater the difficulty in evalu- ating the results attributable to each of the practices involved. The simple, clear-cut result demonstra- tions are, therefore, much more preferable from a teaching standpoint.
The chief purpose of the result demonstration is the establishment of confidence on the part of both the extension teacher and the farmer. Having suc- cessfully demonstrated that the findings of research apply to a specific farm or home problem, the exten- sion agent can speak and write of the practice with
40
the conviction of experience. The fact that the practice has been successfully carried out by a neigh- bor builds confidence of farmers and homemakers in the soundness of the practice and in the extension agent who directed the demonstration.
Volume and trend. Now that the cooperative ex- tension system has become well established and farm people have acquired confidence in the information supplied by extension workers, it seems logical that the result demonstration should receive less emphasis as a method of teaching. In other words, successful result demonstrations tend to reduce the need for more such demonstrations. The establishment of local proof is, of course, a continuing aspect of the introduction of new farm enterprises and new findings of research. There are also segments of the extension clientele with which extension agents have had too little contact for a high degree of confidence to develop.
The trend in the use of result demonstrations in extension teaching has been consistently downward over the years (fig. 22). In 1952 the average county agricultural agent reported 23 result demonstrations supervised. The corresponding figure for 1942 was 35. Comparable data are not available for earlier years. While not brought out in figure 22, reports indicate a decrease in meetings held to observe result demonstrations about in line with the fewer demon- strations carried out.
Teaching effectiveness. The direct influence of the result demonstration upon the adoption of improved practices is substantial, though much less than that of many of the other methods of extension teaching. Six practices in each 100 adopted were credited to result demonstrations in the areas in which field studies have been made (fig. 1). The proportion is slightly higher for home economics practices, 6.7 percent, than for agricultural practices, 5.9 percent, (fig. 3). The influence of the result demonstration was highest in soils, corn, soybeans, potatoes, cotton, tree fruits, vegetables, and swine in the agricultural group, and in food preparation, food preservation, clothing, and home improvement in the home economics group. Five percent or more of the practices adopted in corn, potatoes, vegetable crops, swine, food preservation, food prep- aration, and clothing, were credited to result demon- strations conducted by 4-H Club members.
The result demonstration is one of the most expen- sive methods of extension teaching due to the large amount of the agent's time and travel required to plan the demonstration, select the demonstrator, start the demonstration, keep in touch with its progress, see that it is properly completed, and that sufficient records have been kept to establish proof of the value of the practice demonstrated. A com- paratively small number of people see result demon- strations at the stage when convincing. Result demonstrations started but not completed, dupli- cated needlessly, or which tend to be experiments rather than demonstrations, increase the cost still further. Expressed in terms of cost the result dem-
FIGURE 22. — Result demonstrations per county extension agent, 1942-52.
60
40
20
A
•
•
•
^ *•••. County
^^-^^^•^^ agricultural agents
• ^^^r^*^. ^£Sl
• ^^^^^^^x
• ■*' ^Ow
• ^^
• ^^Sk.
•- ^^s.
• ^Cv
• V""
•
•
•• ■
"•••••
••!.•••..
Home demon
__i i » i
stration agents
L-J 1 1 1
II —
1940
1945
1950
onstration is only about half as efficient in influencing the adoption of practices as the average of all exten- sion methods (fig. 5). There is little difference be- tween agriculture and home economics subject matter in this respect.
In view of the high cost and relatively low influence, it is not surprising that the relationship between the direct influence of result demonstrations and total extension accomplishment in the areas studied is negative (p. 21). This would indicate that where confidence in the Extension Service is reasonably adequate, the unnecessary repetition of result dem- onstrations tends to curtail the use of other teaching methods better adapted to teach larger numbers of people at lower cost. There are many situations where the county extension agent can use for teaching purposes local illustrations of good practices without going to the trouble and expense of establishing proof through result demonstrations. A few leading farmers and homemakers in the community may already be carrying out the improved practices which are being recommended. These illustrations speak for themselves and can be used effectively by the agent for teaching purposes. Where confidence in extension workers is unsatisfactory and with practices that are totally new to an area, a few good result demonstrations are likely to be highly impor- tant (fig. 23). Other methods, such as news stories, circular letters, and talks at meetings and over the radio are likely to be more effective if data from local result demonstrations are cited.
Essential elements. The substantial teaching investment in the result demonstration, represented
41
FIGURE 23.— Result demonstra- tion shows effect of fertilizer on corn, left not fertilized — right fertilized.
S-12403-C
by agent's time and travel and by the expense in- curred by the demonstrator, emphasizes the im- portance of foresight in planning and care in execu- tion. The more important elements involved in the conduct of a successful result demonstration are outlined below:
1. Analyze situation to determine if establish- ment of further confidence in local applica- ation of research findings is necessarv.
a. What has been the experience of the agent in supervising the carrying out of the practice under similar con- ditions?
b. Is it possible to locate a good illus- tration of practice locally, obviating the necessity of expensive result demonstration?
2. Decide upon specific purpose of result demonstration.
a. To give agent confidence and provide teaching material.
b. To establish confidence of farmer or homemaker in the new practice.
c. To develop confidence in extension on the part of a minoritv group with whom extension agent is not well and favorably known.
3. Plan the result demonstration.
a. Consult subject-matter specialist.
b. Make as simple and clear cut as possible.
42
c. Decide upon evidence needed and how local proof will be established.
d. Determine number of demonstra- tions needed to accomplish purpose.
e. Locate sources of material.
f. Reduce plans to writing.
4. Select the demonstrators.
a. Advise with local leaders.
b. Visit prospective demonstrators to make sure that all conditions for success of demonstration are favor- able.
c. Explain and agree upon procedure with demonstrator and leave written instructions.
5. Start the demonstration.
a. Review written plan with demon- strator.
b. Assist in getting demonstration under way to make certain that the omis- sion of some key point will not make later work fruitless.
c. Arrange for a method demonstration meeting where a skill may be in- volved in beginning stage of dem- onstration.
6. Supervise the demonstration.
a. Visit with sufficient frequency to maintain demonstrator's interest, check on progress, and see that sue-
ceeding steps are performed as out- lined.
b. Place appropriate signs to attract public attention to basic elements in demonstration.
c. Mention in news stories, circular letters, and radio talks at critical stages.
7. Complete the demonstration.
a. See that final steps to complete demonstrations are taken.
b. Take pictures.
c. Hold meeting at demonstration where visual evidence will contribute to confidence.
d. Summarize records. Analyze and interpret data in terms of farm or home practices.
8. Follow up demonstration.
a. Report results of demonstration through press, radio, and circular letters.
b. Have demonstrators report at meet- ings.
c. Use visual aids to present factual proof supplied by the demonstration.
Advantages and limitations. More judgment is involved in the use of result demonstrations than in the case of most other methods of extension teaching. Failure to use the result demonstration, when the situation requires its use may seriously lessen the effectiveness of group methods and mass media. There is also serious danger of wasting time on demonstrations after confidence of people in extension or in the practice has been fully established.
Advantages
1. Gives agent extra assurance that recom- mendation is practical and furnishes specific local evidence of its advantages.
2. Increases confidence of farmers and home- makers in Extension and in agent's recom- mendations.
3. Useful in introducing a new project.
4. Important in working with minority groups with whom extension workers have had little contact.
5. Contributes to discovery of local leaders.
Limitations
1. Requires large amount of agent's time.
2. Cost high per practice changed.
3. Good demonstrators difficult to find.
4. Few people see the demonstration at the stage when it is most convincing.
5. Teaching value frequently destroyed by unfavorable weather and other factors.
GROUP METHODS
THE METHOD DEMONSTRATION
Skillful
Visually clear
In contrast to the result demonstration conducted by the farmer or other person under the supervision of the extension worker to prove that the extension recommended practice will work locally, the method demonstration is given by an extension worker or other trained leader for the purpose of teaching a skill to a group. The method demonstration is not concerned with proving the worth of a practice but with "how-to-do" something. That something may be the pruning of a fruit tree, the adjustment of a tractor plow, the renovation of a piece of furniture (fig. 25), the making of an article of clothing, or some other skill involved in farming and home- making. Where the group is composed of local leaders, meeting for training purposes, the method demonstration may even deal with such matters as how to organize a 4-H Club or how to lead a dis- cussion at a home demonstration club meeting.
In the role of a skilled technician the extension worker or leader shows the step-by-step procedure in the operation, explaining each succeeding step as he proceeds (fig. 26). The learners watch the process, listen to the oral explanation, and ask questions during or at the close of the demonstration to clear up points about which there is uncertainty. Where practicable one or more members of the group repeats the demonstration in the presence of the others. This helps to fix the process in the minds of the audience and increases confidence in their ability to master the technique.
Where the group is small it is frequently possible for all members to participate by performing each step as the demonstration progresses. For example, in a sewing machine clinic or work meeting each person repeats on her own machine the steps in the cleaning and adjusting process demonstrated by the extension agent or local leader (fig. 27). Each member learns and practices the new skill under the supervision of the teacher.
The combining of "seeing" and "hearing" makes a strong impression, further strengthened by practice through participation in the demonstration. The listing of the steps on the blackboard or flannelgraph
43
for rapid review and the distribution of outlines, blueprints, or leaflets at the close of the method demonstration are also useful in fixing the steps in the learner's mind.
Volume and trend. During 1952 county extension workers held 780.000 method demonstration meetings with a total attendance of 16,600,000. This is an average of 21 persons per meeting. The average county extension worker holds 81 method demon- stration meetings per year. The great emphasis placed on this method of teaching by home demon- stration agents is indicated by the average of 139 method demonstration meetings held per year as compared to 45 per agricultural agent and 61 per 4-H Club agent. As will be noted from figure 24 the use of the method demonstration by agricultural agents and 4-H Club agents has changed little during the 1930-52 period. The number of method demon- strations held per home demonstration agent has declined gradually throughout most of the 20-year period. Because of the common practice in home demonstration work to train voluntary local leaders to repeat method demonstrations to their respective groups, the trend in the number of training meetings
FIGURE 24. — Method demonstration meetings held per conntv extension agent, 1930-52.
200
150
100
50
Home demonstration agents
#•••••»•'
nit*
J%
•••••.
4-H Club agents
1/,
1111
County agricultural agents
1 I ' I I I I I I I I I ' I I I '
150
100
1930 1935 1940 1945 1950
I I I | I I I I
50 -
0
44
held for local leaders should also be considered in this connection. During the 1930-52 period the number of local leaders per home demonstration agent increased from 76 to 151. The number of training meetings held for local leaders by the home demon- stration agent increased from 13 to 21 during the same period. The decrease in number of method demonstration meetings per home demonstration agent would appear to be a shift from agent-given demonstrations to demonstrations given by trained leaders rather than lessened emphasis upon the method demonstration in the extension teaching of home economics subject matter.
Teaching effectiveness. Because of the extensive use of local leaders to repeat method demonstrations after appropriate training by the extension agent, an evaluation of the effectiveness of the method demon- stration meetings must include the meetings held for the purpose of training local leaders in the subject matter of the demonstration and the method of presentation.
Field studies indicate that 18 percent of all prac- tices adopted as the result of extension teaching were credited to the method demonstration and leader training meetings (fig. 1). In the case of home economics subject matter the method demonstration accounted for more than 47 percent of the practices adopted, in striking contrast to the 8 percent of agricultural practices associated with this method of teaching. As might be expected method demonstra- tions have had their greatest influence in those sub- ject-matter fields where much depends upon acquir- ing specific operating skills. In no field of home economics does the influence of method demonstra- tion and leader training meetings fall below 30 percent. In the extreme case of clothing nearly 2 out of every 3 practices adopted were credited to this method. Fruit growing and poultry raising are the two fields of agriculture where the method demon- stration was credited with more than 20 percent of the practices adopted. Rural engineering and vegetable growing are the only other agricultural subjects where the influence of the method demon- stration exceeded 10 percent.
It is easy to understand how the giving of a method demonstration to a group is an effective means of teaching farmers how to prune or spray an orchard, cull poultry, grade vegetables, and ventilate a dairv barn, and of teaching farm women how to preserve fruits, vegetables and meats, prepare food, rearrange a kitchen, decorate a room, refinish furniture, and similar skills.
That the influence of the method demonstration is an indication of total extension accomplishment in an area has been pointed out previously (p. 21). The cost of influencing the adoption of extension recommended practices through method demonstra- tions and leader training meetings is about average for all methods when both agricultural and home economics practices are considered together (figs. 3 and 4). There is a wide difference in the cost of
FIGURE 25. — Homemakers learn how to upholster furniture at a method demonstration meeting
(Ext. Serv., Wisconsin).
FIGURE 26. — Tobacco growers are shown how to bale aromatic tobacco for market (Ext. Serv., South Carolina).
influencing the adoption of practices relating to home economics and agriculture through method demonstration and leader training meetings. In the case of home economics the number of practices influenced per unit of cost is 36 percentage points above average, while in agriculture the number of practices changed per unit of cost is 22 percentage points below the average for all methods. Appar- ently the repetition of method demonstrations by trained leaders increases the teaching accomplished without a commensurate increase in extension costs.
The emphasis on the teaching of skills in home economics may also be an important factor in reduc- ing the per unit cost of getting practices adopted through method demonstrations combined with use of local leaders. Possibly an even more important factor in reducing the cost per home economics practice adopted through method demonstrations is the opportunity afforded by the regularly scheduled meetings of local home demonstration clubs to give the demonstration, without having to arrange for special meetings for the purpose.
45
FIGURE 27. — A sewing machine clinic to show homemakers how to clean and adjust their own sewing machines.
S-13523
Essential elements. The principal steps involved in the use of the method demonstration in extension teaching together with some of the more important points to be considered under each are listed below:
1. Determine that the subject-matter practice involves skills which need to be demonstrated to many people.
a. Are new skills developed through research, or old skills not being performed sucessfully, involved?
b. Is it suitable for visual presentation to a group?
c. Can the demonstrations be repeated satisfactorily by local leaders?
2. Plan the demonstration in detail.
a. Outline operations in logical steps.
b. Identifv the key points to be empha- sized under each.
c. Select demonstration materials and equipment most likely to be available or readily obtainable.
d. Arrange for diagrams, directions, and other teaching materials, to be dis- tributed.
e. Prepare kits of special material needed by local leaders if they are to repeat demonstrations.
3. Rehearse the demonstration.
a. Practice demonstration until opera- tion can be performed in a manner to inspire confidence.
b. Make sure steps and points will be clear from audience's point of view.
c. Check time required to make sure there is opportunity for audience questions and other expected par- ticipation.
4. Give the demonstration.
a. Explain purpose and show application to local problem.
b. Show each operation slowly step by step; repeat where necessary.
c. Use simple words to explain each step of the operation.
d. Make sure audience can see and hear clearlv.
e. Emphasize kev points and tell why they are important.
f. Solicit questions at each step before going on to next step.
g. Distribute supplemental material.
h. If demonstration is given before local leaders who will repeat it, em- phasize teaching points to be made. Explain contents of demonstration kit.
i. Summarize steps covered in demon- stration.
5. Follow up.
a. Get names and addresses of persons in attendance and some indication of probable use of skills demonstrated.
b. Arrange for reports on number and attendance at demonstrations given by local leaders.
c. Make a sample check to learn use of skill and satisfaction derived by those attending the method demonstration.
Advantages and limitations. When the subject matter to be taught involves special skills, the method demonstration has many advantages. The limitation can be easily overcome through detailed planning and careful checking to make sure that audience can see as well as hear.
46
Advantages
1. Peculiarly suited to teaching skills to many people.
2. Seeing, hearing, discussing, and participating in a group stimulates action.
3. Builds confidence in extension worker if demonstration is performed skillfully.
4. Simple demonstrations readily lend them- selves to repeated use by local leaders.
5. Influences changes in practice at below average cost.
Limitations
1. Frequently considerable portion of audience cannot see clearly.
2. May require considerable equipment to be transported to meeting place.
3. Requires a certain amount of showmanship not possessed by some agents.
GENERAL MEETINGS
Informing Motivating
The term "general meetings" includes all kinds of meetings held by extension agents other than method demonstrations and leader training meetings. The variety of other meetings is almost infinite. In size, they run from the small committee meeting to the Farm and Home Week attended by thousands. Geographically, the meeting may be held in a neigh- borhood, community, county, or State. The method of presentation may be the lecture or formal talk, informal or formal discussion, or the showing of slides or a motion picture film. The meeting may be held in a hall, home, barn, or field. Local custom often determines whether the meeting is referred to as a school, institute, forum, conference, discussion group, club meeting, project meeting, or just "meet- ing." Special kinds of meetings often take the name of the meeting objective, i. e., program planning meeting, annual meeting, achievement day, rally or roundup, tour, working conference, meeting at result demonstration, or other objective.
Meetings at which method demonstrations are given make it possible for groups of people to learn new or improved skills. General meetings (other than method demonstrations) make it possible for large numbers of people to acquire subject-matter
information. The group approach makes it possible to share knowledge and experience with others, thereby strengthening learning. General meetings may also involve objectives only indirectly connected with the dissemination of information on better farm and home practices. Such objectives include the development of local leaders, understanding of agri- cultural policy and other public problems, and recre- ation and social contacts. Meetings having to do with determination of the extension program for the club, community, or county are, of course, rather definitely associated with teaching and learning. Such meetings serve to attract attention, arouse interest, and strengthen the conviction that some- thing should and can be done about problems of vital concern to individuals.
Volume and trends. In 1952, general meetings accounted for about two-fifths of all agent held meetings and for two-thirds of the total meeting attendance. The average attendance of about 60 persons at a general meeting is nearly three times that at a corresponding method demonstration meet- ing. Except for the period 1938-42 the number of general meetings held per year by the average county extension worker has varied between 70 and 85 (fig. 28). In 1952, the county agricultural agents held an average of 74 general meetings or 2 more than in 1930. Home demonstration agents hold 11 fewer and 4-H Club agents between 40 and 50 more general meetings per year than do agricultural agents. This pattern of difference among county extension workers has been quite uniform over the 22 -year period.
Since the kind of meetings held by agents is in- fluenced by the nature of the subject matter and other considerations, it is interesting to examine the total number of all kinds of meetings held during a 12 -month period by the three kinds of county exten- sion workers. In figure 29, method demonstration meetings, leader training meetings, and general meet- ings have been combined. The average county worker held 167 meetings of all kinds in 1952. The 1930 average was 172 meetings. County home demonstration agents held an average of 223 meet- ings during 1952 in contrast to 247 held in 1930. The corresponding averages for county agricultural agents were 134 each year; for 4-H Club agents 192 and 186.
Teaching effectiveness. In terms of practices adopted, general meetings rank third in importance, indirect influence and method demonstrations being the only methods higher on the list (fig. 1). Data from studies indicate that 14.6 percent of the prac- tices adopted due to extension were credited to this method. The proportion is slightly higher for agriculture than for home economics, 15.2 percent compared to 12.5 percent. In this connection it is interesting to note that all meetings account for 1 practice in every 3 adopted by farmers and home- makers. In the case of agricultural practices this proportion is 1 in 4, while 3 out of every 5 home economics practices changed are the result of some kind of a meeting.
47
FIGURE 28. — General meetings held by county extension agents, 1930-52. (Includes all agent-held meetings except leader training and method demonstration.)
200
150 —
100
50
4-H Club ^. ^ agents j \f ^%^
^\ /^ V %
/ County \4% >*/
^ agncultufal agents ^ "^ '*
y5^ r~^^ ~ ^i"t •
-J_L
,•••* Ho • • demonstral
i i i i 1 i i I i
me • • ion agents
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II
1930 1935 1940
I I I | I I I I
100
50
1945 1950
rrr
From a cost standpoint the general meeting is more efficient than the method demonstration meeting (fig. 4), due, no doubt, to the larger attendance at general meetings. In agriculture, the index of practices adopted per unit of cost is 145 for general meetings compared to 78 for method demonstration and leader training meetings. The corresponding index figures for home economics are 153 and 136. The combination of large numbers of contacts and high returns per unit of cost undoubtedly account for the sustained emphasis extension workers place upon meetings as a means of disseminating subject matter knowledge and skills.
Lecture meetings. The lecture or talk is used extensively by county extension agents and subject- matter specialists to present authoritative or tech- nical information (fig. 30) to develop background and appreciation, and to integrate ideas. At the lecture-type meeting the speaker presents a specific subject to a particular audience. The subject of the meeting should be clearly understood by both the speaker and the audience. The speaker should be advised of the probable character of the audience and why the subject is of local interest. The lecture
method is for the most part one-way communication from speaker to audience. Frequently questions at the end of the lecture establish some interaction between the speaker and members of the audience (fig. 32). The illustrated lecture should not be confused with the metl.od demonstration. The essentials of a good speech are:
1. It is on a subject of interest to the audience.
2. It usually starts with a challenge.
3. It establishes a common ground between the speaker and the audience.
4. Familiar, concrete words are used that exactly express the thought.
5. It is well organized; ideas are presented in logical sequence; each idea is explained before going to the next idea; relationships are shown between ideas, with proper transi- tion; and less important ideas are subordi- nated.
FIGURE 29. — All meetings held per county extension agent, 1930-52.
300
_ 200
100
Home demonstration agents
i\ ArKsr*
w
1930 1935 1940 1945 1950
300 I | I I I | I I I I I I I I I | II I I I I I
200
All agents
100
48
FIGURE 30. — The extension speak- er presents technical information to a group of people (Ext. Serv., Kansas).
6. It integrates ideas.
7. Each of the main points or ideas is given consideration.
8. It has unity, coherence, and emphasis.
9. It ends by giving a summary and drawing conclusions.
10. It is, wherever possible, supplemented by visual aids.
Visual Aids
Appropriate Vivid
Use of visual aids in meetings. Appropriate vis- ual aids may contribute much to the success of any meeting. The very nature of the lecture meeting makes it desirable to supplement hearing with some seeing, wherever possible. Some of the points to consider in the use of visual material to strengthen the lecture are:
1. Kinds of visual aids:
a. Real objects and models.
b. Photographs, slides, and film strips.
c. Movies.
(1)
(2) (3)
d. Blackboard and flannelgraphs.
e. Graphs and charts.
2. Illustrative materials should be used:
a. When difficult, complex facts are to be presented.
b. When abstract or other ideas, difficult to grasp, are to be conveyed.
c. When teaching time can be short- ened— as it usually can — by their use.
3. A good visual aid has certain characteristics:
a. It is physically adapted to use. Is large enough to be clearly seen.
If a model, it is to scale. If a picture, it emphasizes the salient points.
(4) If labeled, large, plain letters are used.
b. It is intellectually adapted to use.
(1) It is arranged logically.
(2) It emphasizes the desired points to be illustrated.
(3) If labeled, it uses language familiar to the group.
4. Tests for good illustrative material:
a. Will it help achieve purpose?
b. Will it give true impression?
c. Will it stimulate imagination?
d. Will it add to knowledge of audience?
e. Will it focus attention on main idea?
5. When using visual material:
a. Have it accessible and in proper order.
b. Keep it out of sight until ready for it.
c. Present it at crucial moment.
49
FIGURE 31.— A visual aid helps 4-H Club
?irls to understand the basic 7 food groups Ext. Serv., Florida).
d. Stand beside aid.
e. Speak to group.
f. Remove all unrelated material.
g. Display one aid at a time.
h. Avoid misunderstanding by discus- sion and application. 6. Value of visual or lecture aids; research has shown that:
a. Audience members learn more.
b. Remember longer.
c. Learn faster.
d. Learn uniformly.
e. Give better attention.
Group discussion. Discussion may be described as the process whereby two or more persons express, clarify, and pool their knowledge, opinions, and
feelings (fig. 33). The combined and cooperative thinking of several persons is likely to be superior to that of the individual. Group discussion stands in contrast to the method demonstration used to teach skills and the lecture meeting used to present new technical information. It is employed to develop desirable attitudes, relate knowledge to experience, deepen understanding, reach agreement, and plan action. The role of the discussion leader is that of traffic manager rather than a source of new informa- tion. He stimulates and facilitates participation by all members of the group, prevents traffic jams, shunts aside the would-be "road-hog," keeps the meeting on the "concrete," and moving in an orderly manner in the direction of the main purpose of the meeting. Some of the common types of discussion meetings together with a brief summary of their differentiating characteristics are:
Discussion following lecture. This is often called a lecture forum or discussion forum. The plan is simple; any member of the audience who desires more information asks a question of the speaker. Anyone who desires to add to the speaker's statements makes his remarks usually disguised as a question.
It is a familiar device. Its difficulty lies chiefly in the reticence of people to rise and ask ques- tions, especially if the audience is large and the speaker is a noted person. As a result, the members of the audience will often hesitate and the speaker, after standing embarrassed for a moment, will sit down.
To avoid this, the chairman at the beginning of the meeting should state clearly whether or not a discussion will follow the lecture, so that mem- bers of the audience may think of questions which they would like to ask. Where the audi-
FIGURE 32.— Opportunity is pro- vided for those in attendance at the meeting to ask questions of the speaker (Ext. Serv., Texas).
50
ence is large, it is often well to ask the members to present their questions in writing at the end of the meeting. The speaker is then given an op- portunity to select those questions which he believes would be most interesting to the audience before beginning his answers.
Sometimes members will ask questions to heckle the speaker, or will ask him about matters of purely local interest. Here, a good leader will distinguish between the questions needing specialized knowledge and those best answered from local experience, and will turn the latter questions back to the audience for answer.
The film forum. A discussion preceding and following the viewing of a film is similar to the lecture forum except that the film takes the place of a speaker. The audience, therefore, is presented with only one point of view and one which can be highly charged emotionally. As the film cannot answer questions, the leader of the meeting must take over the question- answering function of the lecturer in the film forum. He should, for this reason, see the film in advance and should familiarize himself with facts likely to come up in discussion.
The film is an excellent method of getting infor- mation before people, and almost always stimu- lates interest; but it requires skill on the part of the leader to direct the discussion after show- ing the film.
Symposium. This is a short series of lectures, usually by 2 to 5 speakers, each with a different viewpoint. The subject is not necessarily con- troversial, but sometimes each speaker is allowed a second speech in which he comments on the remarks made by the other speakers. Members of the audience are then encouraged to address questions and comments to any of the speakers. The symposium is a modification of the lecture; it differs in that there is more than one speaker and more than one point of view. However, unless speakers of approximately equal ability can be obtained, one speaker may dominate the meeting.
Panel discussion. In this, a group of speak- ers, usually from 2 to 8, participate in a sup- Kosedly informal conversation on a topic for the enefit of the hearers. A leader presides, intro- duces the speakers, and encourages the less talkative by questions.
In actual practice, the discussion is often previ- ously rehearsed. As the discussion may be difficult to get started, the members often begin with brief, set statements previously prepared, or the leader may begin by addressing questions to each member. These expedients, though vio- lating the spirit of the panel, make sure that the audience learns the basic facts and attitudes on which the discussion is based.
FIGURE 33. — Group discussion, in small huddle groups, gives an opportunity to get ideas, solve problems, and exchange opinions (Ext. Serv., New York).
A panel discussion is really a small group dis- cussion, put on in public by selected and usually better informed members of the group. As a teaching means it has most of both the strength and the weaknesses of the group discussion, but, as the panel members are supposed to be well informed, it may be used to present new infor- mation. It is best, however, for showing vary- ing points of view, and is excellent for presenting controversial subjects. It also is effective for starting audience discussions. There is a danger of the panel lapsing into a series of set speeches with no real discussion. A little preliminary explanation to the panel by the leader will often minimize this.
The group interview. In this method, the leader, sometimes called "the inquiring re- porter," interviews persons on the platform. It can be used to obtain information from experts or it can be used to obtain opinions from mem- bers of the audience. Following this procedure, members of the audience are invited to partici- pate. The group interview is really an informal leader-dominated panel discussion. It is ex- cellent for getting from experts the exact information the group desires, and for starting discussion, especially in large groups.
Forum dialogue. In this, also called "public conversation," two persons, usually volunteers selected from the audience, discuss a question on which they may or may not have opposite views. This is followed by discussion by the audience.
This method, again, is similar to a panel dis- cussion but simpler and less formal. It is excellent for stimulating audience participation.
51
Debate discussion. Two teams of usually 2 or 3 persons discuss controversial subjects. Each speaker has time allotted for speech and rebuttal. After the formal debate is over the audience may be invited to join the discussion. Dividing a subject into pro and con arguments tends to clarify the discussion. The debate is often a good means of conveying information. Both sides of a question are presented. Know- ing that a speaker's statements may be attacked, the hearers are apt to give them more careful attention. It is a good method for getting the audience to- participate.
The debate, on the other hand, encourages the speaker to color information and to suppress facts not favorable to his side. Victory in debate, rather than the whole truth, can become the main object. Emotions may become unduly aroused. It is well, as a rule, to have a no-decision debate, but this is not always easy.
Program planning meetings. In the course of a year the extension worker holds or participates in many meetings concerned primarily with the basic question, "What should be included in the extension
S-13467
FIGURE 34. — County representatives of local 4— H Clubs meet to decide what will be included in the county 4— H Club program for the year.
program?" The term "program" or "program planning" as used in extension may refer to the topics to be discussed and the activities to be conducted incident to a series of meetings being scheduled for the local 4-H Club or home demonstration group (fig. 34). It may refer to the list of events incident to the holding of a particular meeting, or it may mean the subject-matter problems selected for extension attention over a given period of time, usually during the current year, but may contemplate a much longer period.
Local planning meetings may involve a committee of voluntary leaders, the entire membership of an organized group, or those in attendance at a publicly advertised neighborhood or community meeting. County planning meetings are likely to be delegate groups selected or appointed to represent organiza- tions, geographical areas, segments of the population, or subject-matter interests. The county planning meeting may deal with a specific subject-matter enterprise like tobacco production, or a line of work such as 4-H Club, young men and women, and home demonstration work. It may consider the entire Extension program for the county for a given year or it may deal with all problems of the county affecting agriculture and rural life, with the extension program becoming an integrated part of a larger whole.
Regardless of the nature, size, and scope of the program planning meeting, there are certain basic characteristics common to all such meetings. This does not mean that each meeting may cover the entire range. Several meetings may be required to complete the program planning objective. One or more of the following elements will be present in every extension planning meeting, even though at times they are partially disguised:
1. The identification of problems needing exten- sion attention. What is the situation and what are the underlying problems? Factual information on the prevalence, seriousness, and causes of the problem becomes all important.
2. The determination of the most practical solution to each problem. What is the local experience? What findings of research sup- ply the answer?
3. The outlining of a plan of action to put the agreed upon solution into effect and solve the problem. What will be done to reach reason- able goals or targets? How will it be done, by whom, when, and where? How can progress be measured or evaluated?
4. The revision of the program or plan in view of progress made and current developments.
From an extension worker's point of view the program planning meeting has a definite teaching objective. Such meetings arouse interest, increase understanding and contribute to educational growth through involvement and participation of learners in helping to decide what should be taught and how the teaching should be conducted. Ordered discussion is, of course, the backbone of the program planning meeting.
Field or barn meetings. Such meetings are likely to be especially effective, since the groups are usually small and plenty of material is at hand for discussion and illustrative purposes. Many such meetings are held to start, inspect progress, or witness the outcome of a result demonstration (fig. 35). The practical
52
FIGURE 35.— Extension agents explain results of demonstration (Ext. Serv., North Carolina).
**«'<£ . < ' * . $' "^ •{ .» "V -"%*«
FIGURE 36. — Dairy problems are discussed at barn meeting (Ext. Serv., Vermont).
setting stimulates informal discussion, the extension agent becomes just one of the group, application of the new practice to the farm of each participant is readily understandable, and acceptance of the practice is likely to follow in a high percentage of cases (fig. 36).
Tours. The tour is in reality a series of field and demonstration meetings arranged in sequence (fig. 37). The scheduling of several such meetings for a single day gets wide publicity and attracts more than usual attention and interest. The tour may be
devoted to a single project or activity. The cumula- tive influence of several remodeled kitchens is more likely to stimulate action than a single illustration. Or the tour may be planned to include a variety of subjects selected to attract wide participation and acquaint the public with important aspects of the extension program.
Achievement days. As the name implies, the achievement day meeting is held for the purpose of giving public recognition to worthwhile accomplish- ment. It may be an all-day affair, frequently held
53
FIGURE 37.— The home demon- stration tour includes a stop to inspect a new home (Ext. Serv., Kansas).
in 4-H Club work, with members exhibiting their project work, teams giving demonstrations, winners of awards announced, delegates chosen for statewide events, and outstanding local leaders honored. Three out of 4 achievement days in extension are incident to 4-H Club work. In home demonstration work the achievement meeting may be an afternoon session devoted to reports of the activities of local clubs and a talk by a representative of the State extension office.
Other achievement day meetings may take the form of a luncheon, dinner, or banquet held to mark the reaching of some specific objective, or to celebrate a milestone in the conduct of extension.
Essential elements. It is obvious that elements which make for a successful meeting will vary greatly with the kind of meeting being held. The procedure for a small group meeting to consider some aspects of next year's extension program for the club, com- munity, or county, will differ from that followed in a large meeting relyiug upon a lecture presentation. And yet there are certain elements which are essential in practically all meetings.
The kind of meeting must be appropriate for the problem involved. The purpose of the particular meeting must be clearly defined. Planning, to in- sure attendance by those the meeting is intended to reach, and to accomplish some worthwhile teaching objective, is necessary. The actual conduct of the meeting must be such as to provide a satisfying experience and lead to the kind of action the majority of the group thinks desirable. Appropriate use of the meeting event for publicity purposes, and appro- priate followup will tie the meeting into the overall teaching plan. Some of the points to be considered
under each of these essential elements are outlined below:
1. Determine the place of the meeting in the teaching plan.
a. Is group action required? Will the group approach contribute to learning?
b. Is it desirable to reach many people quickly?
c. Will it serve to focus attention on the problem, and provide excuse for news stories, radio talks, and circular let- ters, as additional means of teaching?
2. Define the specific purpose of the meeting and the segment of the extension clientele to be reached.
a. To develop interest in a new subject.
b. To disseminate subject-matter infor- mation.
c. To change attitudes toward a problem.
d. To deepen understanding of public problems.
e. To determine program or plan of action.
To develop leadership and local responsibilities.
To provide an opportunity for social contacts.
Advance planning for meeting.
a. Decide number of meetings, places to be held, and tentative dates. Outline tentative meeting program. Discuss arrangements with local leaders and agree upon part each will take.
f.
g-
b. c.
54
d. Obtain speakers or resource persons as needed.
e. Select the visual aids best suited to occasion.
f. Utilize the methods of publicizing the meeting that are necessary to insure satisfactory attendance of those peo- ple the meeting is intended to reach.
4. Conduct the meeting.
a. Chairman, usually a local extension leader, opens meeting promptly.
b. Purpose and plan of meeting is clearly stated.
c. The meeting program is developed in an orderly manner, the procedure of course depending upon kind of meet- ing, i. e., lecture, discussion, motion picture, program planning, or other kind.
d. At appropriate time, meeting takes action on matters calling for decision.
e. Names of those interested in further information or followup are obtained.
f. Meeting closed on time following a brief summary by chairman.
5. Follow up the meeting.
a. What happened at meeting utilized in news stories and radio broadcasts.
b. Additional information sent and farm or home visits made to persons re- questing such followup.
c. Sample check made to determine satisfaction with meeting and use being made of information.
Advantages and limitations. From an exten- sion teaching standpoint general meetings have cer- tain recognizable advantages. There are also cer- tain limitations. These may be summarized briefly as follows:
Advantages
1. Reaches a larger number of people.
2. Adapted to practically all lines of subject matter.
3. Recognizes basic urge of individuals for social contacts.
4. Group psychology stimulates conviction to act.
5. Has great news possibilities.
6. Effective in influencing adoption of many practices at a relatively low cost.
Limitations
1. Wide diversity in character and interests of audience may create a difficult teaching situation.
2. Available meeting place often inadequate.
3. May require an undue amount of night work on the part of extension agents.
4. The holding of a meeting may become the "real" objective, rather than the purpose the meeting was intended to advance.
MASS MEDIA METHODS
In addition to the personal contact methods and the face-to-face group teaching methods, mass media enable extension workers to greatly increase their teaching efficiency. Publications, news stories, cir- cular letters, radio, television, exhibits, and posters, provide helpful repetition for those contacted per- sonally or through groups. They also make possible the dissemination of information to a much larger and different clientele. Even though the intensity of the teaching contact through mass media is less, the large number of people reached and the low cost per unit of coverage more than offset the lack of intensity. The extension teaching plan which neglects the com- munication possible through mass media fails to fully capitalize on what has already been invested in the more intensive contact methods.
PUBLICATIONS (BULLETINS, PAMPHLETS, CIRCULARS, AND LEAFLETS)
Authentic Reinforcing
Prior to the establishment of the Cooperative Ex- tension system under the Smith-Lever Act, the agricultural bulletin was the principal method em- ployed to inform the public of the findings of scien- tific research. Bulletins, pamphlets, circulars, and leaflets dealing with agricultural and home economics subject matter continue to play an important role in the present day highly developed system of mass communication available to extension teachers.
Publications fit in with and reinforce other methods of reaching and influencing people. They are dis- tributed in connection with office calls, farm and home visits, and extension meetings. They are a convenient way to answer requests for information received by letter or phone. They are supplied to local extension leaders and cooperating commercial agencies. They amplify and reinforce the news story, the radio talk, and the telecast; in fact they supply the subject-matter base for many news stories, radio and television programs. Much of the technical information needed by 4-H Club members is supplied through circulars and leaflets.
The procedure of writing, editing, and publishing information in printed or mimeographed form for
55
general distribution tends to promote clarity and accuracy. The fact that the publication carries the name of the State agricultural college or experiment station or that of the U. S. Department of Agriculture makes it authentic. The definite and detailed information set forth on the printed page can be studied at leasure, reread at intervals, and kept for later reference.
Volume and trend. While some States continue to distribute bulletins to general and special mailing lists, and while the majority of the popular publica- tions of the U. S. Department of Agriculture are mailed out by members of the Congress, the trend is toward the county extension office being the dis- tribution center for publications. Many people write directly to the college and USDA for copies of publications mentioned in radio and television programs, referred to at fair exhibits, and an- nounced through newspapers and farm and home magazines.
During 1952 more than 23 million copies of agri- cultural and home economics publications were dis- tributed through county extension offices. It is probable that an equal number was distributed through other channels, including those purchased by commercial agencies for distribution to clientele and customers. The average county extension agent distributes about 2,500 copies of publications per year. Home demonstration agents distribute about 1,000 more publications per year than do agricultural agents and 4-H Club agents (fig. 38). The very large increase in publications distributed by all county extension agents during the 1943-45 period reflected the emphasis on printed material in connection with the food production, food con- servation, and related programs of the war emer- gency. Overlooking the war period, it will be noted that since 1930 all three kinds of county extension agents have gradually increased the emphasis placed upon bulletins and circulars in the teaching plan.
Emphasis has been gradually shifting from the comprehensive publication to the short circular or leaflet dealing with a specific problem. Economy has undoubtedly been a factor in this shift. Ad- vantage is being taken of progress in the publishing art. Artistic cover pages, appropriate illustrations, color printing, and more easily read type are con- tributing to the attractiveness of extension publica- tions and stimulating interest in their content. An even more important trend relates to the readability of bulletins, circulars, and leaflets. Simple sentences, short paragraphs, and the choice of readily under- stood words increase both the likelihood of the publication being read and the information being utilized. All such refinements undoubtedly en- hance the usefulness of extension publications, but can never take the place of subject-matter content and the basic strength of the printed page.
Teaching effectiveness. According to the farmers and homemakers interviewed in 32 study areas of 27 States, bulletins accounted for 8.5 percent of all practices adopted as the result of Extension influence
FIGURE 38. — Number of bulletins distributed per county extension agent, 1930-52.
6000
5000
4000
3000 -
2000
1000 -
-
= 4-H CLUB = agents
52
H
ft c c c-
~ %
• — -»
-
Home demonstration agents
•
• & \\ a»
4% -
§ \\=**
-LJ.
-'I'll''' 1
County agricultural agents
' ' ' ' 1 ' 1 ' l
1930
1935
1940
1945
1950
6000
5000 -
4000
3000 -
2000 — =
(fig. 1). The relative influence of bulletins compared to other teaching methods was substantially greater in the later study areas than in the earlier study areas. Bulletins influenced the adoption of 11.6 percent of home economics practices compared to 7.5 per- cent of agricultural practices (fig, 3). The extension dollar spent on bulletins changed 40 percent more practices than the average of all expenditures for extension teaching (fig. 4). The influence of bulletins is not, however, a good index of total accomplish- ment, suggesting that bulletins are best used to supplement other teaching methods than for initiat- ing the teaching process.
Studies indicate that 7 out of 8 persons receiving bulletins read them and about 3 out of 5 persons
56
L^f?
FIGURE 39.— Extension publica- tions supplement other methods and cover a wide range of subjects (Ext. Serv., Maine).
Score Card for Extension Bulletins6
1. General appearance 15
a. Cover 7
(1) Compels interest with:
Title, tvpe, illustrations 7
b. Makeup . . ' 8
(1) Practical width of columns with interesting arrangement of mar- gins, illustrations, paragraphs, and effective use of boxes, sub- heads, and type 6
(2) Paper 2
2. Presentation 45
a. Introduction 5
(1) Arrests attention, arouses interest creates desire 3
(2) Purpose clear 2
b. Body 35
(1) Language: Simple, vivid, and direct 5
(2) Subject matter presented con- cisely with sentences and para- graphs short and to the point. Illustrations, graphs, and tables easily understood by reader. Directions simple and complete. . 20
(3) Technical and historical material subordinated 2
(4) Subject matter thoroughly cover- ed but not too long 5
(5) Interest maintained throughout . 3
c. Summary 5
(1) Concise, well written 3
(2) Material easy to locate 2
3. Subject ma tter 40
a. Content 35
(1) Meets definite need for informa- tion by presenting only facts sig- nificant to reader 12
(2) Contributes to better standards by emphasizing tested and ap- proved procedure 10
(3) Information up-to-date 10
(4) Free from bias 3
b. Conclusions justified by text 5
Total 100
'Prepared by Sophia K. Ormond (11)
make some use of the information in them. Where bulletins are supplied upon request, farmers are more likely to use the information than when re- ceived in some other way. Distribution by the county extension agent is the next most efficient, followed in order by distribution at meetings, by mailing lists, and by members of Congress. Where either the farmer or the homemaker have attended high school the likelihood of bulletins having been received is 40 percent greater. The likelihood of the bulletins received being utilized is also 40 percent greater where farm family members attended school beyond the 8th grade. (25)
Essential elements. The responsibility for pro- viding the publications needed for teaching pur- poses by county extension workers rests largely with State subject-matter specialists. They are in best position to interpret the findings of State and Fed- eral research agencies and prepare the kinds and varieties of publications that will arrest the attention of farm men, women, boys, and girls, and arouse their interest and create a desire to act. The preced- ing score card for extension bulletins sets forth in an objective way the many elements which are con- sidered important in an extension publication. (11)
Readability. One test for a good extension publi- cation is ease of reading. Unless written material is read and understood it is not an effective teaching device. Short sentences, short words, and human interest are the guideposts for writing easy reading emphasized in the Flesch readability formula. (4)
The average sentence length in words, the syllables per 100 words, and the personal references per 100 words are first determined by counting. By fitting these three measurements into the following table (table 8), also prepared by Dr. Rudolf Flesch, you can express the reading levels of any written material
57
Table 8. — Reading levels
READING LEVEL
VERY
EASY— 5TH
GRADE AND
UNDER
EASY—
6TH GRADE
FAIRLY EASY—
7TH GRADE
STAND- ARD—8TH AND 9TH
GRADES
FAIRLY HARD—
H. S. (3 YRS.)
HARD- COLLEGE
VERY HARD- COLLEGE GRADUATE
Average sentence length in
Syllables per 100 words
Personal references per 100
8 127
19
11 134
14
14 142
10
17 150
6
21 158
4
25 166
3
29 175
2
Comics
True Story
Colliers, Ladies' Home Journal
Reader's Digest, Time Magazine
Atlantic Monthly, Harper's
Scholarly — Yale Review
Scientific and pro- fessional
1 Prepared by Dr. Rudolf Flesch. Used with his permission.
in terms of school grades completed and typical magazines. Most extension publications should be aimed at standard reading level: Sentences should average about 17 words. Each 100 words should average about 150 syllables and contain 6 personal references.
Advantages and limitations. There are many ad- vantages in the use of bulletins, pamphlets, circulars, and leaflets in extension teaching. There are also certain limitations associated with the use of publi- cations. These may be briefly summarized as follows:
Advantages
1. In general, people have confidence in the printed page.
2. Publications of State colleges and USD A are accepted as unbiased and reliable.
3. Written material can be read and studied at leisure and kept for future reference.
4. Necessary supplement to other teaching methods, such as news stories, radio, tele- vision, meetings, and demonstrations.
5. Information usually definite, well-organized, and readily understood.
6. Influences adoption of practices at relatively low cost.
Limitations
1. Not suited for teaching people with limited education.
2. Frequent revision necessary to keep abreast of current research.
3. Information prepared for general distribution may not fit local conditions.
4. Impersonal. Lacks social value of meetings and personal contacts.
58
NEWS STORIES
Frequent Interesting
The function of the news story in extension teaching is primarily one of stretching or expanding coverage. It is the chief means of getting informa- tion about extension activities and better farm and home practices to the many rural and urban people of the average county who are not contacted indi- vidually, do not attend meetings, or participate in other extension activities. The county extension worker who neglects to make full use of the available newspaper resources is definitely curtailing the influ- ence of his total teaching effort. The well-planned meeting to discuss the problem of control of army worms may be attended by 50 farmers. The news story account of the meeting giving specific directions for controlling this pest will be read by many times that number of people.
The very large potential coverage of the extension
news story is, of course, made possible by the nearly universal practice of reading newspapers. About 85 percent of the total adult population read 1 or more newspapers and 65 percent read 1 or more magazines more or less regularly. (2) The 1945 farm census indicated that approximately 80 percent of the rural farm families take either a daily or a weekly paper and that 70 percent of them receive at least one magazine. These percentage figures are somewhat higher for the northern States and somewhat lower for the States in the South.
The very conduct of extension teaching generates news. Good news material is available at all times. It is largely a question of planned attention to this means of teaching and the development through practice of the skill required to recognize and present the essential news elements in a manner likely to be read.
The extension news story may give the results of a field demonstration, tell what took place at a meeting, review the findings of scientific research contained in a bulletin, or recite the accomplishments of local farmers, farm women, boys, and girls, who are following an extension recommended practice. In addition to the local news stories supplied news- papers by the county extension worker, much news material is distributed to daily and weekly news- papers and to farm and home magazines by the central information office of the State extension service. Suggested news stories for teaching pur- poses are frequently prepared by the State subject- matter specialists and furnished county workers for local adaptation before the material is supplied to the newspapers of the county.
An analysis (13) made several years ago of exten- sion news, then currently appearing in newspapers and farm magazines, provides a general clue as to the proportion of news articles mentioning sources of information which the readers might recognize as reliable and trustworthy. Of the 2,800 articles included in the national sample, 15 percent men- tioned the State experiment station, 31 percent cited the experience of named farmers and farm women, and 49 percent made reference to the county extension agent or State specialist as the source of the news story. Only 5 percent of the news stories tied in with result demonstrations, meetings, or other activities conducted by extension workers.
Volume and trend. During the year 1952 slightly more than 900,000 news stories supplied by county extension workers were published. This was an average of 95 articles per agent or assistant agent — about 2 per week. The corresponding figure for the year 1930 was 103 (fig. 40). Since 1943 county extension agents have averaged writing about 10 percent fewer news stories than- for the 13- year period prior to that date. Home demonstra- tion agents on the average write fewer news stories than do agricultural agents. Since 1944, 4-H Club agents have written slightly more news stories on the average than have agricultural agents.
FIGURE 40. — News stories per county extension agent, 1930-52.
150
100
50
County. agricultural agents
A>™
"^«fr*""'4-H Club agents
0 ■■'■»''■'
1930 1935 1940
Home demonstration agents
1 I ' ' I ' I '
-La
1945
1950
100
50
I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1
i r i i | i i i i
TT
All agents
Aj.
— £
Teaching effectiveness. The relative influence of the news story upon changed farm and home practices is substantial — one practice in 10 (9.7 percent) being credited to this method of teaching according to field studies (fig. 1). The proportion of agricultural practices adopted through the influ- ence of the news story is about three times as large as for home economics practices, the percentages being 11.8 and 3.8 respectively. The news story seems to exert its greatest influence on adoption of practices in the subject-matter areas of soils, field crops, livestock, and marketing in the agricultural group, and food preparation in the home economics group.
The importance of the news story in extension teaching is, further emphasized when cost is con- sidered. The news story is outstandingly at the top of the list of teaching methods in cheapness of influ- encing change in people, sharing the honor of that
59
position with radio (fig. 4). The return from a unit of extension teaching costs expended on the news story is 3 times as large as the return from the aver- age of all methods and 16 times that derived from the most expensive teaching method. The news story is also the cheapest method of changing prac- tices in home economics, but the difference is not so great between it and other methods of teaching as in the case of agriculture. One explanation of the low cost of the practices changed through news stories is the fact that Extension bears only the cost of the preparation of the news story. The printing and distribution costs are borne by the newspaper and magazine publishers.
Confidence of the reader in the reliability of the source of the news story and in the accuracy with which the information is reported are the two most important factors entering into the effectiveness of the news story. When confidence is combined by wide coverage of clientele it is not surprising that the influence of the news story in a given area is a highly reliable indication of total extension accom- plishment in that area as brought out on page 21. Essential elements. Inadequacy of the news- paper resources of the area and inability of small segments of the people to read are about the only handicaps to the general use of the news story in the extension teaching program for a county. The extension editor at the college can materially assist
(S-16634-C) FIGURE 41. — The local newspaper brings extension news to the home each week.
county workers in planning news stories and in getting entree to the news columns of local papers. The necessary skill in preparation of the news story can be readily acquired through inservice training and practice. Suggested stories outlined by the State subject-matter specialist can be localized by the county worker. The news material distributed directly to papers and magazines supplies much news-story support to county extension programs. The principal step in the use of the news story in extension teaching and some of the points to be con- sidered under each are given below:
1. Determine the place of the news story in the teaching plan.
a. News possibilities of project.
b. The relationship of the news story to other means and agencies included in teaching plan.
c. Assistance specialists can give.
2. Determine specific purpose of the news story, a. Develop interest.
Inform general public. Disseminate subject-matter informa- tion.
Create favorable attitude. Reinforce meetings and demonstra- tions.
3. Inventory the news agencies serving the county.
Number of papers.
Circulation of each.
Day of issue and day copy must be in.
Local correspondents of outside
dailies.
Discuss problems with editors and
reporters and what they hope to
accomplish.
Learn individual editor's preference
for copy and other preferences.
4. Determine types of news stories.
a. Weekly column when applicable.
b. Special news items when needed (front page news).
« c. Announcements that are interesting
and timely.
d. Feature stories.
5. Outline news calendar for year.
a. Plan stories to cover project.
b. Time stories to fit in with news- creating activities.
6. Follow logical steps in preparation of news story copy.
a. Take advantage of suggested stories outlined by specialist. Localize State stories backing up project.
Prepare news stories called for in calendar. Use accepted principles of good reporting:
(1) Tell who, what, when, and why.
(2) Begin with summary and follow with details.
b.
c.
d. e.
a. b. c. d.
f.
b.
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(3) Write in simple language.
(4) Refrain from using personal opinion.
(5) Be accurate, fair, and brief. Use knowledge of local sit- uation.
(6) Include motivating appeals — advantages of adopting rec- ommended practices.
d. Prepare different copy for different papers.
e. Make practice of keeping field notes on observations to be used in news stories.
f. Arrange for editors and reporters to attend special meetings and other activities.
7. Use local pictures or other appropriate illustrations.
a. Take pictures of local interest and value.
b. Select pictures that tell the story.
8. Maintain file of clippings and articles pre- pared by agents and specialists.
a. Clip articles from papers regularly and file according to projects.
9. Evaluate effectiveness of news stories.
a. Record amount of news material published.
b. Make notation of comments of editors and public.
c. Keep record of attendance at meet- ings and requests for publications that are mentioned in news articles.
Advantages and limitations. The teaching effectiveness and relative low cost of the news story as a method of extension teaching indicate that the advantages far outweigh the limitations to the general use of this means of disseminating informa- tion. Some of the more obvious advantages and a few of the more significant limitations to the use of extension news stories may be summarized as follows:
Advantages
1. Gets information to large numbers of people.
2. Reaches those who might not otherwise seek information of extension agents.
3. Carries the prestige and confidence of the printed word.
4. Least expensive method of influencing adop- tion of practices.
5. Frequency and regularity with which news- papers enter home makes information timely.
6. Repetition of stories on same subject in succeeding issues of newspaper convinces reader of soundness and popularity of prac- tice recommended.
7. Informing urban people about farmers' problems an important byproduct.
8. News stories from State college support teaching of county staff.
Limitations
1. Of no value where people cannot read or do not take newspapers.
2. Writing a good news story requires special training.
3. Newspaper editing may occasionally destroy teaching value of extension news story.
4. Difficult to check results.
CIRCULAR LETTERS
Specialized Selective
The form letter, which may be either printed or mimeographed, is another means of communication used by extension workers to reach people in sub- stantial numbers. Circular letters serve two general purposes: (1) To publicize an extension activity like a meeting, exhibit, or television program; and (2) to give timely information on farm and home problems. The form letter may provide an additional contact which helps to maintain the interest of 4-H Club members, local leaders, and other extension co- operators. It may provide additional information to supplement the meeting or radio talk. Or it may be the carrier of helpful information to many who seldom, if ever, attend meetings or participate in other extension activities.
Statistics on the number of circular letters mailed from county extension workers have been not col- lected since 1941. That year the average county extension worker wrote 74 circular letters — agricul- tural agents, 77; home demonstration agents, 75; and 4-H Club agents, 71 such letters.
While no evidence is available to indicate that county extension agents are mailing out more or less circular letters than formerly, a marked improve- ment in the quality of letters is noticeable. Current circular letters are more attractive than formerly due to more illustrations and better reproduction. They are also easier to read because of easier words and shorter sentences. Subject-matter and infor- mation specialists have contributed much to the changed character of extension circular letters. The preparation of a single circular letter or a series of letters relating to a particular subject-matter field, which can be readily adopted to the local situa- tion by county workers throughout the State, justi-
61
fies adequate attention by a State project leader. It is probable, however, that the improvement in extension circular letters has little more than kept abreast of the general improvement that character- izes the use of most other teaching methods.
Effectiveness. The total influence of circular letters is not great — 3 practices per 100 adopted due to extension influence (fig. 1). Considering the low cost of the circular letters utilized for extension teaching, the effectiveness ratio for circular letters is high — 83 points above the average (fig. 4). For each dollar expended, the returns on the invest- ment in circular letters seems to be much higher for agricultural practices than for home economics.
The potentialities of circular letters as a means of influencing changes in practices under optimum conditions is brought out by a recent study in Louisiana (9), where 16 practices out of each 100 credited to extension influence were associated with circular letters.
Circular letters are a quick, effective, and rela- tively inexpensive means of influencing the adoption of extension recommended practices.
Essential elements. As in the case of other methods of extension teaching there are certain elements which are essential to the use of circular letters as a part of the overall teaching plan. Some of the more important steps and the points to be con- sidered under each are listed below:
1. Determine the place of the circular letter in the teaching plan.
a. Is it desirable to reach many people quickly?
b. Will it convey timely information to special groups of people?
c. Will it encourage or persuade people to do things that will further their best interests?
d. Will it supplement and reinforce other teaching methods?
2. Determine specific purpose of circular letter and the segment of the extension clientele to be reached.
a. To stimulate interest in a subject.
b. To give subject-matter information.
c. To announce meetings.
d. To obtain information about farm and home problems with a simple questionnaire.
e. To maintain interest and cooperation of 4— H Club members, local leaders, and other cooperators.
3. Plan the use of the circular letter.
a. Plan letter to serve a definite purpose.
b. Should be important, timely, and show definite relationship to needs and interests.
c. Indicate for each subject-matter prob- lem involved the number of letters, nature of contents, and approximate date of distribution.
d. Consider the advisability of organiz- ing letters on a series basis.
e. Develop specialized, up-to-date classi- fied mailing lists, according to prob- lems and interests of people. Revise frequently.
f. Check duplicating and mailing equip- ment to see if satisfactory for con- templated use.
4. Write circular letters and have them dupli- cated.
a. Write circular letters called for in plan.
b. Take advantage of circular letters prepared by specialists.
c. Cultivate a forceful, popular style of writing, incorporating clarity and conciseness.
d. Make letter attractive by using wide margins, clear-cut typing or duplicat- ing, orderly arrangement, and illus- trations that have appeal and force.
e. Use good grade of paper.
f. Provide easy and convenient means for reply — if a reply is needed.
g. Use a courteous conclusion.
Advantages and limitations. As indicated by the summary which follows, the weight of the evi- dence is on the side of increased emphasis on the circular letter in extension teaching, both as a supple- ment to other teaching methods and as a means of influencing people who do not participate in other extension activities. The limitations listed are large- ly cautions against the unwise or overuse of this medium of communication.
Advantages
1. Reach large numbers of people, including those who do not participate in extension activities.
2. Reach people quickly.
3. Convey timely information effectively to special interest groups.
4. Are adapted to wide range of subject matter.
5. Serve as effective supplement and reinforce- ment to other teaching agencies.
6. May be read at leisure and filed for reference.
7. Influence changes of practices at relatively low cost.
Limitations
1. Special equipment and clerical help necessary.
2. Too frequent use may minimize the effective- ness.
3. Impression that funds are being wasted may be given by poor composition, improper mechanical preparation, or improper use.
4. Influence limited to people who can read intelligently.
62
RADIO
Quicker
Interest- arousing
Although a comparatively new means of com- munication, radio is the most widely accessible of all mass media. More than any other medium it has the ability to disseminate information to the largest number of people in the shortest time. It is un- rivaled as a means of getting emergency or timely information to rural people, due to the presence of a radio in 93 percent of all farm homes and in 98 per- cent of other homes. Extension workers use the radio to disseminate timely information on market conditions of interest to both producers and con- sumers of agricultural products; to inform the public regarding the functions and activities of the Exten- sion Service; to advertise meetings, tours, field dem- onstrations, and other scheduled activities; and to teach improved farm and home practices. In con- nection with the presenting of subject-matter infor- mation over the radio, listeners are frequently invited to write for extension literature which sup- plies greater detail and may be kept for reference use. Like the extension news story, the extension radio talk extends and intensifies coverage, thereby augmenting the total teaching accomplished.
Trends in use. As indicated by figure 42, the num- ber of radio talks given each year by the average county extension worker has trebled in the 5-year period 1947-52. The pattern of use of the radio has been essentially the same for agricultural agents, home demonstration agents, and 4-H Club agents throughout the 1930-52 period. A recent study (3) of the extent of use of radio by extension workers in 9 North Central States indicates that 60 percent of all 3 kinds of county extension workers and 87 per- cent of State subject-matter specialists are utilizing the radio. County extension agents in 1952 reported a national total of 168,000 talks broadcast over 2,000 radio stations. Statistical information is not avail- able on the large number of radio talks made by sub- ject-matter specialists and other State extension per- sonnel over college-owned and commercial radio stations.
Teaching effectiveness. In terms of practices changed by farmers and homemakers, the effec- tiveness of radio is small relative to other extension teaching methods. The comparison presented in
figure 1 was made prior to the large percentage upswing in the use of radio by county extension workers beginning with 1947 (fig. 42). The total volume of extension radio talks is still small compared to numbers of news stories and meetings. It must be recognized also that a substantial proportion of the radio talks by extension agents do not contain ade- quate subject-matter information to enable the listener to adopt the practice. Full information must be obtained from the bulletin, office call, meeting, or other medium.
In terms of cost of influencing changes in practices the radio shares the lowest cost position on the scale with the news story and for essentially the same
FIGURE 42. — Radio talks per county extension agent, 1930-52.
20
15
10
0 20
15 10
63
FIGURE 43. — Through radio the extension agent can quickly convey timely information to all people of the county (Ext. Serv., South Carolina).
reasons (fig. 4). The possibilities of the radio in doing an effective job of extension teaching under highly favorable conditions is brought out by a study (7) of the influence of radio station KSAC, owned and operated by the Kansas State College. A sam- ple survey of farm homes in the six counties adjacent to the station made in 1948 indicated that some member of 80 percent of the families listened to the college educational broadcasts at some time during the year. Of the families who listen 26 percent were able to recall improved practices adopted which they attributed to station KSAC.
Essential elements. The use of radio in the extension teaching plan closely parallels the use of the news story, with a single important exception. The radio talk involves oral presentation heard by the listening audience. The news story is seen and read by those who are subscribers of newspapers and magazines. It is believed that the steps and points to consider under each, which appear on page 60, apply with equal force to the use of radio as a means of extension teaching.
Advantages and limitations. The strong and weak points of radio to be weighed in the balance are also quite similar to those listed for the news story. They may be summarized as follows: Advantages
1. Can reach more people more quickly than any other means of communication.
2. Peculiarly fitted to handling of emergency and timely information.
3. Relatively cheap.
4. Reaches many who read little, or not at all.
5. Reaches young mothers and others unable to attend extension meetings.
6. A means of informing many urban people about agricultural matters.
7. Builds interest in other extension media.
8. Possible to build a substantial audience of sustained listeners.
9. Broadcasts from central stations by State staff back up teaching in counties.
Limitations
1. Broadcasting facilities not available in all counties.
2. Time assigned to Extension by commercial stations frequently poor from standpoint of farm listeners.
3. Frequently loses out in competition with entertainment.
4. Difficult to check on results.
TELEVISION
Jells-how Shows- how
Television is the newest extension teaching tool. It is rapidly becoming available to extension agents, particularly in urbanized sections of the country. It is more personal than the radio. The viewer meets the speaker in a simulated face-to-face situa- tion even though this relationship is not shared by the speaker. Opportunity is afforded the members of the audience to both see and hear, which greatly strengthens the likelihood of learning.
Over television the extension agent can give a "how-to-do-it" method demonstration and reach an audience many times larger than the attendance at a meeting. Closeup pictures may even make it possible for the viewer to see key operations more clearly than many of those present where the method demonstration is being given. The short talk can be made more effective with visual aids.
Through use of films and other visual aids, relation- ships can be clarified and comparisons made between the old and hew, the before and after, the good and bad, and the right and wrong. Developmental processes involving passage of time can be telescoped
64
or shown in slow motion, depending upon the teach- ing point to be emphasized.
While superior to the radio because of the added eye-appeal (fig. 44), television still does not provide an opportunity for the viewer to ask questions of the speaker. Neither is opportunity afforded mem- bers of the audience to practice the new skill or method being taught as is frequently the case at method demonstration meetings. An abundance of inexpensive published material to supplement the television presentation is fully as important as in the case of radio.
The fact that the Federal Communications Com- mission has reserved a substantial number of tele- vision channels for educational use is assurance that educational programs can be broadcast at times convenient to farmers and homemakers. Too fre- quently the time allotted to extension agents by commercial radio and television stations is that which has little commercial advertising value and for the same reason is of small value in extension teaching.
Iowa State College owns and operates its own television station. Extension workers in 18 other States put on television programs at least weekly and 12 additional States report use of television for extension teaching.
Teaching effectiveness. The novelty of tele- vision in many areas and lack of extended general experience with this new teaching medium prevent an adequate appraisal of television in relation to other methods included in the teaching plan. Mention will be made of two studies which shed light upon the potentialities of television in teaching home economics subject matter.
In 1950 the USDA presented a series of eleven 12 -minute programs, "Let's Make A Dress," over a Washington, D. C, television station under circumstances similar to extension teaching. A sampling of the 974 women who requested the bulle- tins distributed in connection with the programs revealed that 90 percent of the women viewed one or more of the programs; that 7 out of 8 of those who viewed the programs reported new ideas learned, and that 46 percent of viewers had actually used the information learned within 5 weeks of the completion of the series. (18)
The Iowa Extension Service also conducted a series of nine 30-minute television presentations, "Make a Dress TV," during 1951. Three thousand and four women enrolled for the course and received a publication. A stratified sample of approximately 420 homes was drawn in such a manner as to provide a cross section of station coverage, including place of residence and degree of sewing experience. Thirty- six percent of the women actually made a dress during the series. Fifty -eight percent of the women reported the series "very helpful" and an additional 37 percent said it was "helpful." (6)
Advantages and limitations. Several more years will need to pass before the novelty of television in new areas wears off and it becomes possible to form judgment as to the continuing value of television as an extension teaching medium. The advantages and limitations of television in extension would appear to be about as follows:
Advantages
1. Comes closest to a face-to-face approach of all mass media.
FIGURE 44.— Television is the newest extension medium . It combines visual with oral (Ext. Serv., Wisconsin).
65
2. Visual undoubtedly increases the effective- ness of audio which is the sole reliance of radio.
3. Reaches urban as well as rural people.
4. Reaches many, including mothers of small children unable to attend meetings regularly.
5. Clear view of key operations shown in slow motion possible.
6. Processes requiring much time can be telescoped into a few minutes.
Limitations
1. Intense competition with entertainment pro- grams in which individual family members may be interested.
2. Sets and programs largely centered in urban areas at present.
3. Viewer cannot watch television and do other things at the same time as can be done in the case of radio.
4. A certain amount of showmanship is required to put on program.
5. Present cost of receivers and their upkeep relatively high.
EXHIBITS
Simple Informative
In discussing the exhibit as a distinct method of extension teaching it is necessary to exclude those exhibits which are merely visual aids employed to strengthen the oral presentation at the extension meeting or make the demonstration, the office call, or the farm visit more convincing. The influence of such visual aid exhibits was included in the meeting or other method they supported. We shall consider here only those types of exhibits which are primary methods of disseminating information. The most common such extension exhibit is the one made at the local, county, or State fair. The central core of many 4-H achievement days is the exhibit of the articles made, crops produced, or livestock reared by the individual 4-H members in connection with their project work. The home demonstration achievement day often features exhibits by the organized extension units of the county. The window display is another illustration of the exhibit being used as a distinct means of disseminating information.
Teaching effectiveness. Extension exhibits may be a helpful means of acquainting the general public with extension work and what it accomplishes. But from the standpoint of influencing farmers and home- makers to adopt improved practices, the exhibit is apparently the least effective of all extension teach- ing methods. In none of the survey areas studied was the exhibit credited with as many as 2 percent of the farm and home practices adopted. In only one subject matter area, health and sanitation, did the influence of the exhibit rise above the 2 percent level. In one study area 70 percent of the dairy farmers interviewed had seen dairy extension exhibits, yet less than 3 percent of those seeing such exhibits reported any practice changed due to their influence. The making of an extension exhibit requires con- siderable expenditure of extension agent's time — to plan and prepare the exhibit, set it up, provide per- sonnel to explain it during the duration of the fair, and finally to dismantle and remove it. As brought out in figure 4, the effectiveness -cost ratio for exhibits is the lowest of all the methods employed in exten- sion teaching. The conclusion must be drawn that public relations and considerations other than teaching should be given heaviest weighting in deter- mining the emphasis to be placed upon extension exhibits.
Essential elements. Some of the more important steps involved in extension exhibits and the points to be considered under each are:
1. Consider how exhibits might contribute to the effectiveness of the teaching plan or other- wise promote extension.
a. Determine fairs and other events at which an exhibit might be made.
b. Decide upon the phases of work best promoted by exhibits.
2. Determine the specific purposes of the exhibit.
a. To acquaint the public with better standards.
b. To promote understanding and create good will toward extension on the part of nonfarm people.
c. To influence people to adopt better practices.
3. Plan and prepare exhibit.
a. Select type of exhibit appropriate to problem and situation.
b. Develop a written plan or diagram.
c. Locate and arrange for necessary materials.
4. Stage the exhibit.
a. Assemble materials and set up exhibit as planned.
b. Make necessary modifications to fit in with adjoining exhibits.
c. Properly label exhibit.
d. Provide a suitable attention-getting device.
e. Have informed representatives pres-
66
FIGURE 45.— A panel exhibit con- tributes to the orderly presenta- tion of subject matter and has a wide variety of uses (Ext. Serv., Massachusetts).
Do You
FIGURE 46.— The fair exhibit calls attention to the recommendations of the Extension Service (Ext. Serv., Indiana).
ent to explain exhibit and answer questions.
f. Arrange for copies of literature to be distributed or get names of those desiring publications.
g. Publicize exhibit through press, radio, circular letters, and other media.
Estimate effectiveness of exhibit.
a. Analyze attendance, inquiries, and requests for literature.
b. Watch public reactions, press com- ments, and other reactions.
c. Make inquiries at meetings held in areas where exhibits were made.
Advantages and limitations. In weighing the advantages and limitations of the exhibit the scale tips heavily on the side of limitations if one is think- ing primarily of influencing the adoption of better farm and home practices (fig. 46). Advantages
1. Many people may see the exhibit.
2. Promotes understanding and good will of village and city people toward extension.
67
3. Stimulates interest in higher standards and new varieties.
4. County fair exhibit provides a logical event to climax local 4-H Club competitions.
Limitations
1. Relatively expensive in terms of agent's time and other costs.
2. Few people are influenced to adopt better practices.
3. Vast majority of those in attendance are seeking recreation.
4. Many Extension exhibits not really aimed at teachingbetter practices.
Either exhibits are not well adapted to teaching improved practices or people do not go for informa- tion to places where exhibits are displayed, or both. Even though they are much less effective than other extension means of directly influencing the adoption of improved farm and home practices, exhibits still may have a place as a means of creating good will for extension on the part of county officials, fair boards, business men, city dwellers, and others.
INDIRECT INFLUENCE
The discussion of relative effectiveness of methods (pp. 12 to 14, figs. 1 and 2) brought out the fact that for every 81 practices adopted by farmers and homemakers as the result of direct teaching activi- ties, 19 additional practices are adopted due to the indirect influence of these same activities. This extra dividend from the teaching investment is larger than the direct returns from any one of the methods employed by extension workers. That the amount of this indirect spread of information about improved practices is indicative of total extension accomplishment in a given area was also pointed out under interrelationship of methods (p. 20).
This passing on of extension information from neighbor to neighbor is an important consideration in extension teaching. The statement of a neighbor in good standing in the community, the reported yield of a new variety of wheat or cotton, the size
FIGURE 47. — Farmer Brown tells neighbor Smith about an extension practice he has found profitable (Ext. Serv., Indiana).
of the neighbor's milk check, success in canning vegetables, or satisfaction with a convenient kitchen, all are powerful forces at work in bringing about the wider acceptance of improved practices.
In the first instance the information regarding the better practice is introduced into the county by a result demonstration, meeting, farm visit, radio talk, bulletin, or other direct teaching activity. A limited number of individuals try it out. The practice meets a need and they are pleased. The economic gain or other satisfaction coming to the individual clearly offsets any expense or incon- venience the use of the practice entails. The prac- tice is accepted. The information is passed on to friends and neighbors (fig. 47). They try it and are satisfied. They, in turn, pass it on to others in a widening circle. Succeeding adoptions are not identifiable with the direct teaching activities which started the chain reaction. And yet there is a general realization that the information came from Extension.
The exact manner in which the first farmers or homemakers were convinced of the value of the new practice becomes less clear and relatively unimportant. It is of the utmost importance, however, that the extension program be economically sound and the practices advocated of such a nature
68
that those adopting the practice are stimulated to tell others about it. In other words, it becomes easier for the individual to adopt the better practice than not to accept it. When the acceptance of a seemingly desirable practice having general appli- cation to the farms and homes of an area lags unduly, it is important to check the teaching plan for cover- age and reexamine the practice itself. Only a slight advantage of the new practice over the old may cast doubt upon its value and may not provide sufficient incentive to offset the inertia involved.
In the areas where field studies have been made, indirect spread was much larger in agriculture than in home economics. In the agricultural field indirect spread was highest in the case of wheat, oats, and dairy practices; fairly high for soils, corn, legumes, potatoes, cotton, and marketing; and lowest for tree fruits, vegetables, poultry, and rural engineering practices. Food preservation (canning) led all other home economics subjects in the indirect spread of better practices from one home to another.
TEACHING BY LOCAL LEADERS
The widespread utilization of the volunteer lay leader to enlarge extension coverage and increase the volume of extension teaching justifies a discussion of this extension procedure even though it does not represent a distinct method of teaching. Functioning to all intents and purposes as assistant extension teachers, the local leaders, trained by the extension agent to do a specific job, may employ any or all of the teaching methods available to the extension worker himself. Mention was made of the leader training meeting in connection with the method dem- onstration meeting (p. 44).
During 1952 county extension workers reported a total of 1,200,000 local leaders actively engaged in forwarding some aspect of the extension program; 46 percent of these leaders were women doing adult work, 29 percent were men working on adult projects, and 25 percent were men, women, and older youth
leaders of 4-H Club work. As indicated by figure 48, the number of extension local leaders per county extension worker increased at a fairly constant rate during the 1930-52 period, except for the upsurge during the Second World War.
The potentiality of the local leader procedure in enlarging extension's coverage and increasing the amount of extension teaching can be expressed mathematically. One million two hundred thousand local leaders devoting 11 days annually to their leadership activities equal more than 50,000 persons employed for a full year of 260 work days. This number is four times that of the total paid extension personnel.
In the average county there are approximately 400 volunteer workers aiding the various members of the paid county staff with the conduct of extension. Following training meetings they repeat method demonstrations, give talks at meetings and make calls on their neighbors. They may conduct result demonstrations; secure cooperators; arrange for and advertise meetings; assist with tours, achievement days, and exhibits; and promote and lead 4-H Clubs. Their experience enables them to participate con- structively in revising the extension program to serve better the needs of communities.
In general these local leaders contribute to the advancement of extension in three ways:
1. Add local strength to the extension program.
2. Increase the volume of teaching done.
3. Increase the ability of rural people to cope with new problems as they arise.
Consideration here will be limited to the question of increased volume of teaching made possible through local leaders.
The use of local leaders as additional teachers varies greatly among the States, among the lines of
FIGURE 48. — Voluntary local leaders per county extension worker, 1930-52.
150
100
50
£. A
-LX
1930
1935
1940
1945
1950
69
TABLE 9. — Extent to which local leaders pass on information to others
ITEM
KANSAS
NEBRASKA
NEW JER- SEY
SOUTH DAKOTA
171 86.6 11.7 29.1
155
83. 9 12.8 42.8
247 87.4 13.0 18.3
169
Percent passing on information
Number of farms or homes influenced to change practices per leader. . Number of practices changed per leader due to leader activities
87.0 11.7 18.6
work within a given State, and among the members of the extension staff in a given county. While adequate research is not available on the effective- ness of teaching through local leaders, extension studies have revealed that approximately 7 out of every 8 extension local leaders pass on information to others. The average local leader devotes approxi- mately 11 days per year to leadership work and influences an average of 12 people to make 25 changes in farm or home practices.
That the above represents a fairly stable pattern of the assistance rendered by local leaders in increasing the volume of extension teaching is suggested by the surprising uniformity of data obtained from area sample interviews with local leaders in four States (table 9).
The combined data from these four leadership studies shed some light upon factors which may influence the effectiveness of local leaders in getting others to adopt improved practices. As indicated by table 10, the method of selecting the local leader, whether by election by neighbors at a meeting, by appointment by a local committee, by request of the extension worker, or through the volunteering of service, does not seem to have an important bearing upon the functioning of the local leader.
Success of local leaders in teaching others seems to be largely independent also of such factors as educational background, home ownership, and sex. The importance of agent-held training meetings for local leaders is clearly indicated by table 11. The local leaders who attended training meetings influ- enced 50 percent more people to make two and one- half times as many changes in practices than was true of the leaders who did not participate in such training activities.
The findings of the 4 leadership studies referred to above also indicate that 500 days of voluntary assistance contributed to extension by 100 voluntary local leaders will be substantially more productive in terms of numbers influenced to adopt improved practices than the same amount of time contributed by only 50 such local leaders. The establishment of more circles of local leader influence will likely reach more people than attempting to accom- plish the same objective by enlarging the circles of influence of local leaders already operating. This suggests the inadvisability of involving the same leader in too many teaching activities at a given time even though the farmer or homemaker might be willing to accept the additional leadership responsibility.
Essential elements. Some general principles or guides to the successful use of voluntary local leaders in extension teaching are outlined below. Much more extension research is needed in this area.
1. Consider how use of local leaders might in- crease the effectiveness of teaching plan.
a. Analyze present functioning of volun- tary local leaders.
b. Examine subject-matter solutions to problems from standpoint of teaching through local leaders.
c. Inventory potential leadership among rural people of the county in terms of specific subject-matter practices to be taught.
2. Decide upon specific duties to be performed by local leaders.
a. List jobs which might be performed by local leaders in connection with:
TABLE 10. — Methods of selecting leaders compared (four States)
METHOD OF SELECTION
Elected by meeting
Appointed by a committee . . . Appointed by extension agent Volunteered
NUMBER OF LEADERS IN GROUP
272 105 255 107
DAYS PER YEAR DE- VOTED TO WORK
14.2
12.5
8.0
14.2
FARMS OR HOMES IN- FLUENCED PER LEADER
11.9 10.5 12.2 14.7
PRACTICES
CHANGED
PER
LEADER
36.7 19.7 16.8
24.4
70
TABLE 11. — Importance of training meetings for local leaders (four States)
ITEM
Training meetings attended. . . . Training meetings not attended .
NUMBER OF LEADERS IN GROUP
515
227
DAYS PER YEAR DE- VOTED TO WORK
14.0 6.7
FARMS OR HOMES IN- FLUENCED PER LEADER
13.7 9.3
PRACTICES
CHANGED
PER
LEADER
31.9 12.2
(1) Determining extension pro- gram.
(2) Arranging for teaching activ- ities.
(3) Teaching subject matter.
(4) Checking progress and ac- complishment.
b. Select specific jobs to be performed that:
(1) Local leaders can do about as well or better than ex- tension agents.
(2) Will increase the number of people influenced.
(3) Will strengthen leadership locally.
3. Guide selection of local leaders.
a. Be constantly on the lookout for future leaders.
b. Provide opportunities for potential leaders to perform some leadership function.
c. Assist local groups to make intelligent selection of local leaders by:
(1) Explaining function of leader in relation to problem.
(2) Outlining qualifications of a good leader.
(3) Emphasizing the desirability of spreading leadership re- sponsibility.
Train leaders.
a. Make personal calls on leaders to outline plans and discuss progress.
b. Conduct formal training meetings for leaders to enable them to function more effectively (fig. 49).
c. Follow up training meetings with circular letters, literature, and other pertinent materials.
Give public recognition to local leaders.
a. Announce selection through press, meetings, and other media.
b. Arrange for leaders to preside or otherwise have prominent part in
FIGURE 49. — Local leaders receive instruction from extension work- ers before presenting information to their respective groups (Ext. Serv., Colorado).
71
meetings, demonstrations, and other teaching methods.
c. Give certificates of achievement or other suitable award.
d. Give publicity to leaders' activities.
6. Check contribution of leaders.
a. Ascertain percentage of leaders who function and the extent of their activities.
b. Watch for evidence of additional people being influenced by local leaders.
c. Observe how leaders conduct meetings and other activities.
d. Make comparisons of extension ac- complishment in situations where all factors are similar except the teach- ing done by local leaders.
Advantages and limitations. Some of the more important advantages and shortcomings of the local leader procedure in extension teaching may be briefly summarized as follows:
Advantages
1. Local leaders themselves are better taught because of the experience of teaching others.
2. People accept a new idea best from a local person who has given it a practical test.
3. Local leader is available for frequent personal consultation.
4. More teachers make possible a larger volume of teaching.
5. Prestige and personal following of the local leader increases likelihood of new practices being adopted.
Limitations
1. Person selected as leader may not have the expected following among neighbors, may not be willing to devote required time to work, or is a poor teacher.
2. Considerable time is required to locate and train local leaders.
3. Local leader may try to use prestige con- nected with position for personal advantage.
4. The more difficult task of arousing interest on the part of those not interested in extension is too often left to the inexperienced local leader.
72
SUMMARY
Extension education stimulates people to make changes that result in better farming and home- making. The extension cycle includes:
1. Developing a sound program related to the needs of people.
2. Preparing an intelligent teaching plan.
3. Carrying out the plan systematically.
4. Appraising progress and making indicated revisions in the program and plan.
Wise selection and use of teaching methods directly influence the extension worker's accomplish- ment. The methods used in extension teaching fall into three use classifications:
1. Individual contacts (farm visits, office calls, result demonstrations, and other individual contact methods.
2. Group contacts (meetings of all kinds).
3. Mass media (publications, radio, news stories, and other media).
The indirect spread of information from person to person which develops from the various teaching methods must also be recognized.
Understanding of the educational process is, of course, basic to the intelligent selection and use of the teaching methods.
Motivation largely determines the rate and amount of learning.
One learns best when there is a strong desire to learn, when the learning is purposeful, and when the effort put forth to learn yields the desired satisfac- tions.
The extension teacher arranges situations and provides opportunities for learning to take place. By means of appropriate teaching methods the learner is made aware of the farm or home problem to be solved, interest is stimulated, and the desire to do something is aroused.
The teacher gradually convinces the learner that he can and should act.
Opportunity for action is provided and the satis- factions flowing from the action are pointed out.
Field studies indicate wide differences in the in- fluence of the various extension teaching methods upon the adoption of farm and home practices (evidence of the change in behavior of individuals).
Approximately 74 out of 100 practices reported adopted were credited to meetings (method demon- stration and general), farm and home visits, news stories, publications, office calls, and result demon- strations. Nearly 7 percent of the practices adopted were associated with letters (individual and circular), radio, exhibits, and telephone calls.
Of the 81 practices in 100 adopted as the result of the various teaching methods, 25 were credited to individual contacts, 33 to group contacts, and 23 to mass media methods (fig. 2). The indirect influence resulting from the direct teaching effort accounted for 19 percent of the new practices.
The proportion of practices adopted due to in- direct influence, farm and home visits, news stories, and office calls, was much higher in agricultural extension than in home economics extension. On the other hand the influence of method demonstra- tion meetings and bulletins was far greater in home economics extension than in agricultural extension.
The relative influence of general meetings, result demonstrations, circular letters, radio, and exhibits was very similar in both lines of work.
Where dissimilar subject matter is involved there is a tendency for the percentages of practices credited to the various teaching methods to vary widely. (Examples: Tree fruits and alfalfa; dairy and food preparation.)
Where subject-matter lines of work are similar or present similar teaching problems the pattern of influence of teaching method is quite constant. (Examples: Cotton and potatoes; clothing and home management.)
When relative cost of teaching methods as well as relative effectiveness are both considered, news stories and radio are the cheapest methods of in- fluencing changes in behavior (practices adopted). Next come circular letters, office calls, general meet- ings, and bulletins.
The farm and home visit and the method demon- stration meeting represent about average returns per unit of cost.
Result demonstrations are about half as effective from a cost standpoint in influencing adoption of practices as the average of all methods.
The cost of influencing the adoption of practices through extension exhibits is 17 times greater than when news stories and radio are employed.
There are striking differences in the cost-influence ratios of methods as between agriculture and home economics.
In the case of agricultural practices mass contact methods as a group influence adoption of practices at lowest cost, followed by group contact methods and individual contact methods. In the case of home economics practices group methods are the least expensive, followed by the mass contact and individual contact groups of methods.
73
The use of several (about five) different methods to tell essentially the same story is of the utmost importance in extension teaching if coverage of clientele is important. However, the number of practices changed per 100 farms or homes increases at a fairly uniform rate as the number of ways people are exposed to extension teaching increases from 1 to 12.
The amount of indirect spread and the influence of office calls, news stories, and the method demon- stration meeting are all good indicators of total ex- tension influence in an area. The influence of these methods reflects, soundness of the program, confi- dence in the extension staff, and the extent to which people are informed regarding extension teaching.
Such factors as age of the adult farm population, size of farm, tenure status, and location of the farm or home have little bearing upon the adoption of extension recommended practices by farm people.
The percentage of people adopting improved farm and home practices increases significantly as the amount of formal educational training of farm people increases.
The higher a person's socioeconomic level the more likely he or she is to adopt the practices advocated by Extension.
The extent to which farmers and homemakers are contacted by members of the Extension staff through the teaching methods utilized is a most important factor in obtaining the adoption of improved farm and home practices. This fact bears directly upon the selection of teaching methods which, over a period of time, bring many people into individual or group contact relationship with extension workers.
SELECTING TEACHING METHODS TO INCREASE THE EXTENSION WORKER'S EFFECTIVENESS
The extension worker who is interested in larger accomplishment will ask himself just how do the research data and other information relating to teaching methods apply to practical day-to-day extension teaching. There is no easy "patent- medicine" answer to the question, "How can I select and use the various methods available to me with greater confidence?" Extension teaching is far too complex for that. No single "rule -of -thumb" will insure successful results in each of the 3,000 counties with more than 12,000 county extension agents. Some general guides will be suggestive of how each individual extension teacher may arrive at a personal answer to the universal question.
Let us start with these basic assumptions:
1. That the extension worker has a keen appreci- ation of how a learner learns and a teacher teaches.
2. That the county extension program truly reflects the needs of the rural people and that the solutions to problems are practical and will bring satisfaction to learners.
3. That. education is a growth process requiring
time, with each individual moving from where
he now is toward a limited number of learning
goals to be achieved at some future time.
It must also be recognized that the selection and
use of teaching methods will be conditioned by
certain overriding considerations, some of which
involve policy decisions at State level:
1. The number of people who make up Exten- sion's clientele in the county — farm, rural nonfarm, and urban — must be considered.
2. The emphasis to be placed upon the alterna- tives of (a) influencing a large number of people slightly and (b) influencing a relatively small number of people to make maximum progress in improving their farm operations and family living, will influence choice of teaching methods.
3. The size of the county extension staff, the amount of supporting specialist assistance available from the State Extension office are other factors entering into the picture.
4. The availability of certain communication media, such as newspapers, telephones, radio, and television will also have a direct bearing upon the extent to which these means can be useful in extension teaching.
Against this background the following suggestions may be helpful to the individual extension worker in sizing up a particular teaching situation and in selecting teaching methods appropriate to the occasion:
The audience. The people of the county vary greatly in matters of educational training, age, income level, social status, nationality background, and religious beliefs. Some are progressively seeking change, others are slow to change. Some are "eye- minded" while others are "ear-minded." These individual and collective differences influence the teaching approach.
Young mothers unable to attend meetings or to otherwise participate in group activity may be effectively reached by circular letters, publica- tions, radio, and television.
Isolated nationality and religious groups may require special meetings and the use of local leaders selected from their own number. Disadvantaged segments of the population with little schooling and low incomes may respond to personal visits and result demonstrations, pro- vided the latter are definitely geared to their needs and situations. Written or published materials must be couched in very simple terms. Radio, television, newspapers, and exhibits are likely to be useful in working with part-time farmers and people living in fringe areas and urban centers.
The better educated and the more progressive elements of the population usually respond well to group meetings and discussions, method demonstrations, and written materials.
74
Subject matter. What is being taught may be relatively simple or extremely complex. It may be familiar or strange. The change sought may involve a new skill or a new concept.
Where the new practice is simple or similar to those already being followed, the news story, radio, or circular letter will be effective, whereas complex or unfamiliar practices will require face-to-face contacts and written materials. In the early stages of a project or in the early development of Extension in an area, attention must be given to the establishment of local proof of the practice and the building of confi- dence in the extension worker through result demonstrations, farm and home visits, and method demonstrations.
Manual skills can best be taught through method demonstrations and television, while critical thinking and public acceptance may require discussion meetings and the use of local leaders. Teaching methods which have proven successful in one subject-matter project are likely to be equally successful where the second subject- matter line of work is similar. The opposite is true when the two lines of subject matter are unlike.
The satisfaction likely to follow the adoption of the recommended practice largely determines the extent to which that practice is passed on from one neighbor to another. Teaching methods. Understanding of the primary function and the strengths and weaknesses of each individual method is important. The methods selected should supplement and complement each other. Repetition in a variety of ways is highly advantageous in bringing about change. The charac- teristics inherent in the individual methods may be briefly summarized as follows:
Farm or home visit. Individualized teaching.
Provides agent with intimate knowledge of farm
and home problems. Essential to reaching
those having little interest in extension.
Office call. Absence of local setting offset by
readiness of caller to act; otherwise like farm
and home visit but less expensive.
Telephone call. Very much like farm visit and
office call. Greatest usefulness is in arranging
for other teaching activities.
Personal letter. Shows strong interest on part
of writer, but total volume of letters requesting
information small.
Result demonstration. Provides local proof. Important in building confidence of both agent and farmer or homemaker. Relatively expen- sive. Danger of needless duplication.
Method demonstration meeting. Exceedingly useful in teaching skills. More important in home economics than in agriculture.
General meetings. Presents authoritative in- formation through lectures. Through discussion
knowledge is shared and learning strengthened. Reduces cost of face-to-face contacts. Visual aids. Add to effectiveness of meetings by supplementing hearing with seeing. Build meeting attendance and contribute to orderly presentation.
Bulletins, leaflets, and other publications. Au- thenticity of the printed word. Useful for reference, and relatively cheap. Necessary supplement to other methods, especially radio and television.
News story. Reaches large audience with periodic frequency. Inexpensive. Adds greatly to teaching effectiveness of other methods. Circular letter. Carries a special message to a selected audience at a relatively low cost. Radio. Quickest means of imparting timely and emergency information. Reaches many not otherwise in touch with Extension. Television. Affords audience opportunity to see as well as hear. Shows large numbers of people "how -to -do -it. "
Exhibit at fair or other event. More valuable in creating good will toward Extension than as a means of teaching improved practices. In general the methods which deal with people as individuals, such as farm and home visits, office calls, the telephone, correspondence, and the result demon- stration are useful and important in contacting those who do not participate in extension activities; where the changes being taught are complex; where there is need to increase the confidence of farmers and homemakers in extension and the extension worker needs firsthand knowledge of farm and home condi- tions. Individual contact methods are important in the selection of local leaders, demonstrators, and cooperators, and contribute greatly to the effective- ness of group methods and mass media. They are relatively expensive.
Group methods make possible face-to-face con- tacts with large numbers of people and facilitate the sharing of knowledge and experience, thereby strengthening learning. Meetings are adaptable to practically all lines of subject matter and recognize the basic urge of individuals for social contacts. The wide diversity in character and interests of the audience may create a difficult learning situation. The holding of the meeting may also become the "real" objective rather than the purpose the meeting was intended to advance. Group methods are less expensive than individual contact methods and are likely to be more effective in stimulating action than mass media.
Mass contact methods, including publications, news stories, circular letters, radio, television, and exhibits, repeat what is being taught through face- to-face methods and reach a much larger and different clientele. Even though less effective than face-to- face methods in bringing about changes in practices, the large number of people reached more than offsets the lack of intensity and low effectiveness. Mass
75
media complement and reinforce individual and group contacts and add greatly to total extension accomplishment at relatively little additional cost.
The use of local volunteer leaders for whom the necessary special training is provided can greatly increase the total teaching accomplishment. It is more productive to encourage more leaders to devote a small amount of time to extension, than try to extend the influence of a limited number of leaders. Local leaders may use any or all of the teaching
methods available to the professional extension teacher.
In the final analysis the extension worker is faced essentially with a series of compromises, as the' se- lection of methods involves judgment of many factors. Attention must always be focused upon the sum total of teaching done as the result of the entire year's teaching effort rather than upon the return from a particular unit of time.
76
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Baker, H. .!., and Wilson, M. C. (10)
1929. RELATIVE COSTS OF EXTENSION METHODS WHICH INFLUENCE CHANGES IN FARM AND HOME
practices. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 125,
31 pp., illus. (11)
(2) Bcrelson, Bernard.
1949. the library's public. 174 pp., illus. Colum- bia University Press, New York.
(3) Crile, Lucinda and The Central Region Radio Study (12)
Committee.
1952. use of radio by extension workers in the
NORTH CENTRAL STATES. Univ. of Mo., Col.
of Agr., Ext. Serv. 64 pp., illus. (13)
(4) Flesch, Rudolf.
1951. how to test readability. 56 pp. Harper & Brothers, New York.
(5) Gibson, D. L. (14)
1944. THE CLIENTELE OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
service. Mich. Agr. Expt. Sta. Quart. Bull, v. 26, No. 4: 237-246.
(6) Iowa State College of Agriculture. (15)
1953. make a dress — tv! Iowa State Col. of Agr.,
Agr. Ext. Serv. 27 pp.
(7) Jaccard, C. R. and Sabrosky, Laurel K.
1949. listening habits — station ksac. Kans. Stale (16)
Col. Ext. Serv. 20 pp., illus.
(8) Lorge, Irving.
1947. effective methods in adult education. Re- port of Southern Regional Workshop for (17) Agricultural Extension Specialists, pp. 23-28. N. C. State Col.
(9) Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechan-
ical College. (18)
1950. EXTENSION AT WORK IN LAFOURCHE. La. Slate
Univ. and Agr. and Mech. Col. Pub. 1054, 38 pp., illus.
McNelly, C. L.
1950. INDIVIDUAL TEACHING BY AGRfCULTURAL
agents. A study. Univ. of Minn. Ext. Serv. 10 pp., illus. (processed) Ormond, Sophia K.
1936. SCORE CARD FOR EXTENSION BULLETINS (part
of master's thesis, University of Wisconsin). U.S. Dept. Agr., Ext. Serv. 1 p. (processed). Sewell, William H.
1943. A SHORT FORM OF THE FARM FAMILY SOCIO- ECONOMIC status scale. Rural Sociology, v. 8, No. 2: 161-170. Stedman, J. M.
1926. SOURCES OF INFORMATION USED FOR NEWS
articles. U. S. Dept. Agr., Ext. Serv. 4 pp. (processed) Welch, C. Herman, Jr., and Wilson, Meredith C.
1951. PUBLIC RELATIONS INVENTORY OF THE COOPERA-
TIVE EXTENSION SERVICE. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Ext. Serv. 54 pp., illus. (processed) Wilson, M. C.
1928. DISTRIBUTION OF BULLETINS AND THEIR USE BY
farmers. U. S. Dept. Agr. Ext. Serv. Cir 78. 14 pp. (processed) Wilson, M. C.
1929. EXTENSION METHODS AND THEIR RELATIVE
effectiveness. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 106. 48 pp. Wilson, M. C.
1926. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTENSION IN REACHING
rural people. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 1384. 20 pp. Wilson, Meredith C, and Moe, Edward O.
1951. EFFECTIVENESS OF TELEVISION IN TEACHING SEWING PRACTICES. U. S. Dept. Agr. Ext.
Serv. Cir. 466. 35 pp., illus.
77
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
GENERAL
Bailey, Joseph Cannon.
1945. seaman a. knapp schoolmaster of american
agriculture. 307 pp. Columbia University Press, New York. (Reprinted 1948)
Brunner, Edmund deS., and Yang, E. Hsin Pao.
1949. RURAL AMERICA AND THE EXTENSION SERVICE.
210 pp., illus. Bur. of Pub., Teachers Col., Columbia Univ., New York. Kelsey, Lincoln David, and Hearne, Cannon Chiles.
1955. cooperative extension work. Ed. 2, 424 pp., illus. Comstock Publishing Assoc, Ithaca, N. Y.
THE PROCESS OF EXTENSION EDUCATION Gates, Arthur I., Jersild, Arthur T., et al.
1948. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. Ed. 3, 818 pp. Mac- millan Co., New York. Knowles, Malcolm S.
1950. informal adult education. 272 pp. Associa- tion Press, New York.
Mueller, A. D.
1940. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS IN ADULT EDUCATION.
428 pp. Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York. Skinner, Charles E.
1951. educational psychology. Ed. 3, 791 pp., illus.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York.
INDIVIDUAL CONTACT METHODS
Knaus, Karl.
1951. system in the county extension office. U. S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Inf. Bull. 28, 24 pp., illus. United States Department of Agriculture.
1951. LETTERS A GUIDE FOR IMPROVING THEM. Office
of Personnel, Admin. Series 14, 29 pp., illus.
1951. telephone manners. Office of Personnel, Admin.
Series 15, 12 pp., illus.
GROUP CONTACT METHODS
Gallup, Gladys.
1950. what research shows about group discussion leading to group decision. U. S. Dept. Agr., Ext. Serv., 14 pp., illus. multilith.
Strauss, Bert and Frances.
1952. new ways to better meetings. 177 pp., illus.
Viking Press, New York. United States Department of Agriculture.
1947. conducting usda meetings — that lead to ac- tion GUIDE AND SOURCE BOOK. Office of
Personnel. 30 pp., illus. multilith.
1950. TALKS A GUIDE TO MORE EFFECTIVE SPEAKING.
Office of Personnel, Admin. Series No. 8, 11 pp., illus.
Efc
7 Many of these materials listed are available for reference from your agricultural or experiment station library. The Federal Extension Service will supply copies of materials issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, that are avail- able. Names of issuing agencies or publishers are given for other materials.
VISUAL AIDS
Cornell University.
1949. report of the national visual aids workshop.
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 202 pp., illus. Dale, Edgar.
1954. audio-visual methods in teaching. Rev. Ed., » 534 pp., illus. The Drydcn Press, New York.
Haas, Kenneth B. and Packer, Harry Q.
1946. the preparation and use of visual aids. 236 illus. Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York, leprinted 1947, 1948) Power, Gertrude Lenore.
1950. how to make and use a flannelgraph. U. S.
Dept. Agr., Ext. Serv., 44 pp., illus. multi- lith.
1951. lettering for extension visual aids. U. S.
Dept. Agr., Ext. Serv. Agr. Handbook 22, 12 pp., illus.
MASS MEDIA
Arbour, Marjorie B.
1951. snappy styles for your bulletin. La. State
Univ. and Agr. and Mech. Col. Ext. Pub. 1090.
15 pp., illus. Cowing, Amy.
1950. pack your writing with appeal. U. S. Dept.
Agr., Ext. Serv., 5 pp. mimeo. GlLBERTSON, H. W.
1951. educational exhibits — HOW to prepare and
use them. U. S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Handbook 32, 41 pp., illus.
GlLBERTSON, H. W.
1941. effective extension circular letters. U. S. Dept. Agr., Misc. Pub. 403, 42 pp., illus. Maschi, Margaret M.
1951. HOW TO MAKE CIRCULAR LETTERS ATTRACTIVE.
U. S. Dept. Agr., Ext. Serv., Agr. Handbook 26, 15 pp., illus. Tonkin, Joseph D. and Skelsey, Alice F.
1953. TELEVISION FOR YOU A HANDBOOK FOR EXTENSION
agents. U. S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Handbook 55, 24 pp., illus. United States Department of Agriculture.
1952. making radio work for you a handbook for
extension agents. U. S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Handbook 42, 24 pp., illus.
LOCAL LEADERS Haiman, Franklyn S.
1951. GROUP LEADERSHIP AND DEMOCRATIC ACTION.
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston 309 pp. (Copyright 1950, 1951) Sanders, Irwin T.
1950. making good communities better. University of Kentucky Press. Lexington, Ky. 174 pp., illus. (Revised 1953, 197 pp.) Sanderson, Dwight.
1940. leadership for rural life. The New York Association Press, New York. 127 pp.
78
FIGURES
1. Relative frequency with which extension method's
were reported as having influenced the adoption of improved practices
2. Relative influence of methods grouped according
to use
3. Relative frequency with which extension methods
were reported as having influenced the adoption of agricultural and home economics practices. .
4. Relative cost and influence of extension teaching
methods
5. Index of effectiveness of extension methods in
relation to cost
6. Classifications of methods depending on use com-
pared on the bases of relative cost, relative influence, and index of effectiveness
7. Changes in behavior as affected by number of kinds
of exposure to extension information
8. Ratio of "takes" to exposures for varying inten-
sities of extension teaching
9. Intensity of coverage and change of practice in
relation to educational training of 1,202 home- makers in sample areas of 5 States
10 Relative influence of methods upon adoption of 1,378 tree fruit practices and 1,306 alfalfa practices
11. Relative influence of methods upon adoption of
2,993 practices and 754 food preparation practices
12. Relative influence of methods upon adoption of
3,285 poultry practices and 1,403 swine practices .
13. Relative influence of methods upon adoption of
1,463 potato practices and 1,268 cotton prac- tices
14. Relative influence of methods upon adoption of
2,601 clothing practices and 423 home manage- ment practices
15. Farm and home visits per county extension
agent, 1930-52
16. The county agent helps the farmer work out
problems on his farm. (Ext. Serv., Arkansas) .
17. The county home demonstartion agent consults a
homemaker relative to home problems in the county. S-13130
18. Average number of office calls per extension
agent, 1930-52
19. The farmer visits the county extension office for
information. (Ext. Serv., Maryland)
20. Telephone calls, per county extension agent,
1930-52
21. The telephone is an important link between the
extension office and the farm home (Ext. Serv., Maryland)
22. Result demonstrations per county extension
agent, 1942-52
23. Result demonstration shows effect of fertilizer on
corn, left not fertilized — right fertilized. S- 12403-C
24. Method demonstration meetings held per countv
extension agent, 1930-52
Page
13 14
15 17 18
19 19 20
21
27
25.
26.
27.
28. 29. 30. 31. 32.
33.
34.
35.
29
36.
30
37.
38.
39.
32
40.
34
41.
35
42.
43.
35
44.
37
38
45
39
46.
40
47.
41
48.
42
49,
44
Page
Homemakers learn how to upholster furniture at a method demonstration meeting. (Ext. Serv., Wisconsin) 45
Tobacco growers are shown how to bale aromatic
tobacco for market. (Ext. Serv., South Carolina). 45
A sewing machine clinic to show homemakers how to clean and adjust their own sewing machines. S-13523 46
General meetings held by county extension agents,
1930-52 48
All meetings held per county extension agent,
1930-52 48
The extension speaker presents technical informa- tion to a group of people. (Ext. Serv., Kansas) . 49
A visual aid helps 4-H Club girls to understand
the basic 7 food groups. (Ext. Serv., Florida) . . 50
Opportunity is provided for those in attendance at the meeting to ask questions of the speaker (Ext. Serv., Texas) 50
Group discussion, in sntall huddle groups, gives an opportunity to get ideas, solve problems, and exchange opinions. (Ext. Serv., New York). . . 51
County representatives of local 4-H Clubs meet to decide what will be included in the county 4-H Club Program for the year. S-13467 52
Extension agents explain results of demonstration.
(Ext. Serv., North Carolina) 53
Dairy problems are discussed at barn meeting.
(Ext. Serv., Vermont) 53
The home demonstration tour includes a stop to
inspect a new home. (Ext. Serv., Kansas). ... 54
Number of bulletins distributed per county exten- sion agent, 1930-52 56
Extension publications supplement other methods and cover a wide range of subjects. (Ext. Serv., Maine) 57
News stories per county extension agent, 1930-52 . 59
The local newspaper brings extension news to the
home each week. S-16634-C 60
Radio talks per county extension agent, 1930-52 . . 63
Through radio the extension agent can quickly convey timely information to all people of the county. (Ext. Serv., South Carolina) 64
Television is the newest extension medium. It combines visual with oral. (Ext. Serv., Wis- consin) 65
A. panel exhibit contributes to the orderly presen- tation of subject matter and has a wide variety of uses. (Ext. Serv., Massachusetts) 67
The fair exhibit calls attention to the recommenda- tions of the Extension Service. (Ext. Serv., Indiana) 67
Farmer Brown tells Neighbor Smith about an extension practice he has found profitable. (Ext. Serv., Indiana) 68
Voluntary local leaders per county extension
worker, 1930-52 69
Local leaders receive instruction from extension workers before presenting information to their respective groups. (Ext. Serv., Colorado) 71
79
TABLES
Page
1. Age in relation to adoption of practices 22
2. Educational training in relation to adoption of
practices . . . _ 23
3. Size of farm in relation to adoption of practices. . . 23
4. Condition of land occupancy in relation to adoption
of practices 24
5. Socioeconomic status in relation to adoption of
practices 25
6. Contact ,with extension workers in relation to
adoption of practices 25
7. Variation in percentages of subject-matter practices
adopted due to influence of the different teaching methods
8. Reading levels
9. Extent to which local leaders pass on information
to others
10. Methods of selecting leaders compared (four
States)
11. Importance of training meetings for local leaders
(four States)
Page
28 58
70
70
71
o
80
* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1964 0 — 755-775